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Countries such as Chile and Japan, which face regular earthquakes, have many regulations to ensure buildings can withstand these events as well as possible.

Building damage is the primary cause of death, injury and property loss suffered from earthquakes, says the US Resiliency Council.

Designers can help buildings withstand quake shocks by adding a flexible steel skeleton, or fitting a 'base isolation' system to separate the building from its foundations.

Making buildings that can withstand earthquakes not only saves lives, but reduces the economic and environmental consequences of these disasters.

Every country has hundreds of rules and regulations surrounding the construction of buildings. In countries such as Chile and Japan, which face regular earthquakes, many extra rules have been put in place to ensure buildings can withstand these disasters as well as possible.

Chile sits on the Pacific Ocean's Ring of Fire, one of the world's most earthquake-prone regions, and has faced more than a dozen quakes of at least magnitude 7 in the past 50 years. But loss of life has been kept low - a fact that the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction says is partly down to Chile's strict building codes.

The rules were updated after the country faced the world's biggest earthquake in 1960. They ensure buildings are constructed in a way that allows them to sway with seismic waves, rather than remain rigid.

How to make a building earthquake-proof

When an earthquake strikes, it creates horizontal forces that shake buildings from side to side.

Because buildings are made of concrete, which is strong but has little flexibility, these forces can stretch the concrete and cause it to crack.

Designers can remedy this by adding a flexible steel skeleton made of something called rebar, which is also known as reinforcement steel. Casting rebar inside concrete boosts the overall strength of the concrete and enhances its ability to withstand force.

This is because rebar has elastic qualities and can help the building return to its original shape.

Shock absorbers for buildings

Buildings can also be fitted with "base isolation" systems to separate the building from its foundations through the use of springs or runners. This means that when an earthquake starts, the resulting movement will not impose stress on the structure of the building.

This system is used in Japan, where buildings are erected on shock absorbers - such as thick blocks of rubber - to help them stay stable during tremors.

After the Kobe earthquake in 1995, which killed more than 6,000 people, Japan carried out extensive research into making buildings earthquake-resistant, including retrofitting older structures, the New York Times reported. Like Chile, it put in place strict rules around making sure buildings are able to withstand earthquakes.

The benefits of quake-resistant buildings

" Building damage is the primary cause of death, injury and property loss suffered from earthquakes," says the US Resiliency Council, which runs rating systems for building performance.

It says making sure buildings can withstand earthquakes not only saves lives and prevents injuries, but reduces the economic consequences of these disasters. There are also environmental benefits, as there is less need for debris to go to landfill, and no consumption and emissions spent on reconstruction efforts.

Turkey is facing costs of up to $85 billion following the earthquake of early 2023, with over $70 billion of this needed to repair homes.

Natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and wildfires are the second-most severe risk facing the world over the next two years, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Risks Report 2023.

Research is being undertaken into any potential links between climate change and earthquakes, but NASA geophysicist Paul Lundgren told website Green Matters that: "We're simply not in a position at this point to say that climate processes could trigger a large quake."

The US Geological Survey says that the only correlation noted between earthquakes and weather is that large changes in atmospheric pressure - such as those caused by large storms - can trigger "slow earthquakes", which release energy over a long period and don't result in ground tremors.

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This is how we can make buildings earthquake-proof

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Every country has hundreds of rules and regulations surrounding the construction of buildings. In countries such as Chile and Japan, which face regular earthquakes, many extra rules have been put in place to ensure buildings can withstand these disasters.

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Did you know that flooding is the number one natural disaster in the United States? That's right, in fact, all 50 states are subject to flash floods. In addition, floods are responsible for the highest cost of residential water damage. This is How Foundations Can Be Damaged By Flooding

If flood damage ever occurs, once the water has receded, determining the amount of damage to your home as well as its foundation is the next logical step to getting things back on track. Home's with concrete slab foundations, pier foundations, or beam foundations will leave certain homeowners with their hands full of work and repairs after a flood takes it toll. However, the foundation of the home should be addressed first, looking for any signs of foundation damage.

Signs of Flooding Foundation Damage

Flood damage can be a very serious, and costly issue. Once a flood has take place, it is important to inspect the foundation to ensure that it was not damaged or in need of urgent repairs. Here are a few signs of foundational damage due to flooding that homeowners should be on the lookout for:

The exterior bricks or sheetrock have cracks or fractures.

The windows no longer open or shut properly and/or have cracks in the frames.

New cracks have developed in the wall, floors, or ceiling.

There has been an upheaval in the foundation.

The garage door no longer closes to the pavement.

The floors inside are sloping.

There are visible gaps or separation between walls, ceiling, and the floor.

The crown molding has separated or cracked.

Foundation outside has moved from the level of your lawn.

There is condensation forming on ceilings/walls.

Opening and closing doors is not as easy.

When looking for foundation damage after flooding, it is important that homeowners check they different areas for damage to their home, including outside the main structure and crawl spaces.

How Flooding Causes Foundation Damage

Depending on the severity of a flood, it can either result in an event with standing water for a long period of time, or it could be rapid, strong, moving waters over a short period of time. Regardless of the severity, any type of flooding can cause water damage to a property's foundation. Flood water can cause a foundation to shift and upheave, compromising its structural strength. The continual presence of water or constant high-pressure blast of water pushing against or underneath your house can cause the foundation to shift.

In addition, another factor that can cause damage to a foundation during flooding is the type of soil the property is on. Some soil types, like clay for example, expands when it comes into contact with water. As a result, the soil a foundation is on can shift, potentially causing thousands of dollars in damages and repairs. Homeowners with property on certain expansive soil types can experience damage due to heavy rain, let alone a flood.

What To Do When Flooding Causes Foundation Damage

Whenever flooding and foundation damage occurs, it is first important to identify whether or not the building is safe to stay in. If there are existing signs of structural damage, the safety of the environment is comprised and it should be evacuated quickly. If there is damage done to the foundation, you will need to contact a foundation repair contractor to fix the issues at hand. Additionally, flooding can cause a host of other damages, including electrical and gas risks. For extra safety, property owners should turn off their electricity and HVAC systems. If there is minimal flooding, property owners can likely clean up the damages themselves. Most importantly, if there is any foundation or flood damage it is essential to take care of it as quick as possible as delaying the process can lead to further damage and destruction.

How To Prevent Foundation Flood Damage

While there is no way to prevent a flooding disaster from happening, there are certain precautions that property owners can take to secure their property and its foundation against flooding. In order to mitigate the property and foundation damage caused by flooding, the following measures can be taken.

Waterproof all entrance ways to your home and garage to help limit the amount of water that can get in through the cracks and crevices.

Place high-value items, including appliances and HVAC systems, off the ground.

Ensure that the placement of downspouts and other piping to drive out water rather than directing it towards a home. If you don't have downspouts for your property, consider investing in them to avoid future water damage.

Store valuables away from your garage and transfer them to higher, safer conditions.

Routinely check pipes and other plumbing structures for leaks.

The aftermath of a flood can be devastating. Flood damage can not only destroy the structure and the contents of a property, it can also have a significant, negative impact on it's foundation. From cracks and fractures to settling and sinking, there are many ways that flood conditions can damage a foundation.

Luckily, there are foundation repair services available if your property has suffered any degree of foundation damage. However, a foundation build or repair is only as good as the products and materials used by a foundation contractor. Quality materials, like the steel piling products from Magnum Piering, are essential to building or repairing a durable foundation. As the industry leader in manufacturing high-quality steel piling products, MAGNUM® Piering has the products you need for property foundations. Our products are installed by hundreds of qualified foundation contractors. To learn more about foundation repairs and piers, contact the experts at MAGNUM® Piering today

Related Posts:

Tips To Prevent Severe Foundation Damage

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How Foundations Can Be Damaged By Flooding

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How Foundations Can Be Damaged By Flooding, A property's foundation can also be damaged significantly during a flood.

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Data from the Occupational Health & Safety Administration (OSHA) indicate that there are on average 36 fire and explosion deaths per year in the construction industry. From underground gas lines to temporary heating devices to electrical systems, construction sites in South Carolina are full of hazards that can turn a day's work from routine to explosive in an instant.

Injuries from fires and explosions are often severe, with ear, eye, brain, burn, and abdominal hemorrhage and perforation injuries common.

Workers injured in this way may be permanently disabled and disfigured, unable to return to their old jobs - or any job. Some lose their lives.

Joye Law Firm has represented injured construction workers for more than 40 years. If you need help putting together a workers' compensation claim, fighting a denied claim or seeking additional compensation through a third-party lawsuit, call Joye Law Firm now or send us a message to schedule a free case review.

Construction Site Fire and Explosion Hazards

A single spark - or mere dust, in the case of an arc flash - can set off a construction site fire or explosion that injures numerous workers. Some of the leading causes of these incidents include:

Compressed gas cylinders

Flammable and combustible liquids

Chemical tanks or drums

Temporary heating devices

Explosives and blasting agents

Liquefied petroleum gas

Vehicles and heavy equipment

Electrical malfunctions and shorts

Fires and explosions kill 200 and injure more than 5,000 workers across all industries each year, according to OSHA. Over an 11-year period, OSHA recorded 361 fire or explosion deaths in the construction industry. Nearly a quarter of these fatalities occurred in multiple-death incidents.

The incidents responsible for the most deaths were:

Chemical explosions

Fires

Pressurized container explosions

Arc flashes and blasts

OSHA and Fire Protection

OSHA requires employers to implement workplace fire protection and prevention programs. The regulations include:

Fire protection (standard number 1926.150): "The employer shall be responsible for the development of a fire protection program to be followed throughout all phases of the construction and demolition work."

Flammable liquids (1926.152): "Only approved containers and portable tanks shall be used for storage and handling of flammable liquids."

Temporary heating devices (1926.154): "Heaters used in the vicinity of combustible tarpaulins, canvas, or similar coverings shall be located at least 10 feet from the coverings."

Blasting and the use of explosives (1926.900): "The employer shall permit only authorized and qualified persons to handle and use explosives."

Compensation for Fire and Explosion Accidents

Most construction workers understand that they are entitled to workers' compensation through their employer for virtually all on-the-job injuries, regardless of how it occurred or who was at fault. What they may not know is that workers' comp is not always the exclusive remedy for job site injuries.

Although you can't sue your employer, you may be able to sue a negligent, non-employer third party. This could be a property owner, a general contractor, a subcontractor or others. Whoever it is, you must show that they were somehow negligent, and that their negligence caused your injury.

Violation of an OSHA regulation, such as those described above, may be evidence of negligence. Other forms of evidence are also admissible in these third-party lawsuits. Any money that you recover through a third-party lawsuit should not affect your ability to collect workers' compensation benefits.

Contact a South Carolina Lawyer About Your Injury in a Workplace Fire or Explosion

If a fire or explosion at your place of work has left you seriously injured and disabled - or claimed the life of a loved one - you need a full investigation and assessment of the accident. You may be eligible for compensation that will aid your recovery far beyond what workers' compensation benefits provide.

Don't delay and let evidence about responsibility for your fire or explosion accident get lost. Call Joye Law Firm now or complete our online form to set up a free initial consultation.
Sources:

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Fires and Explosions at Construction Accidents | Joye Law Firm

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If a fire or explosion at your place of work has left you seriously injured and disabled, call the Joye Law Firm to help you get the compensation you need.

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Fires in Structures Under Construction | NFPA

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This report examines fires in structures, which were under construction or undergoing major renovation from 2013 to 2017.

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Earthquakes can strike suddenly and without warning. An earthquake is a sudden, rapid shaking of the earth caused by the breaking and shifting of rock beneath the earth's surface. Ground-shaking from earthquakes can cause buildings or bridges to collapse, disrupt utility services and trigger events such as avalanches, fires,  floods, landslides and tsunamis. Most injuries result when buildings or walls collapse or when debris or glass flies through the air. Identifying potential hazards ahead of time and advance planning can greatly reduce the injuries and loss of life that typically occur when earthquakes happen.

Coping With Earthquakes

Children are especially vulnerable to hazards that may be present during and after natural disasters such as earthquakes. In the event of an earthquake, the AAP encourages pediatricians, families and communities to work together to ensure that children's basic needs are met. Providing extra support, patience and reassurance to children after a crisis event can help them understand and cope with what has happened.

The AAP provides various resources to help families prepare for and respond to an earthquake:

The  Earthquake Country Alliance  designed a step-by-step approach that shares easy-to-understand pictures and details on what to do before, during, and after an earthquake.

Infectious Disease Outbreaks after Natural Disasters

In addition to the damaging of physical infrastructure, natural disasters can lead to outbreaks of infectious diseases. The risk of these outbreaks can increase when a natural disaster leads to a large number of people moving to shelters with limited access to food and safe water. Infectious disease outbreaks may also result from flooding or the destruction of water and sanitation systems. The following resources may assist pediatricians in responding to infectious disease threats after natural disasters:

Additional Information

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The AAP offers information about earthquakes and resources to help prepare for and respond to an earthquake.

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Earthquakes can cause damage and destruction on a massive scale. Visit CEA to find out just how dangerous earthquakes can be and how to prepare.

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Having a plan in place to cope with floods can help reduce the impact on your business and help you to recover quickly.

Depending on your business's location, you can be impacted by different types of floods such as river or creek flooding, overland flow (when water travels over land during heavy rainfall events) and storm tide flooding when sea levels rise above normal levels flooding coastal areas, or a combination.

It's important to understand the different types of flooding, how your property may be impacted and what types of flooding your insurance policy covers. Even if your business premises are not directly flooded, access and supply routes may be cut off during a flood having a significant impact on your business.

To get back to business sooner, use these 4 stages to help your business manage a flood:

Top 10 tips to manage a natural disaster

Use these top 10 tips to prepare your business. For detailed steps, continue reading below.

Top 10 tips to manage a natural disaster

Prevent and prepare before a flood

Consider what actions you can take to prevent or reduce the likely effects of an incident and prepare steps to plan for, respond to and recover from unavoidable events.

Make a plan

Develop a business continuity plan to help you prepare and resume operations sooner after a severe weather event.

Prepare a business continuity plan

Complete a business continuity plan to help you prevent, prepare, respond and recover before an incident or crisis occurs.

Steps to include in your plan:

identify key events and risks most likely to impact your business

plan how to respond to key risks and incidents (e.g. changes to goods or services delivery)

identify staff roles and responsibilities in an emergency and share team contact details

identify and record customer, supplier, insurer and emergency contacts

identify and record local emergency alerts, warnings and contacts, and update channels

identify information available on your local council's disaster dashboard

write an emergency evacuation plan and procedures (e.g. identify assembly points, assign roles, shutting down operations procedure)

conduct regular emergency drills with staff/visitors/customers/guests and document in your emergency plan

create an event log to record information, decisions, actions, and 'before and after' damage photos for insurance purposes

create a recovery plan to document steps after an incident.

Prepare your business

When planning for an extreme weather event consider alternative ways to operate if power, supplies, buildings, properties, roads and communications are cut off or unavailable.

Expand all

Review licences, insurances and finances

Licences, permits and regulations Insurances and finance

Before storm season:

check you have adequate insurance for your equipment and to cover you to work on disaster rebuilds and repairs

check insurances are up to date and coverage of building sites and values are accurate.

Read insurance information for building recovery.

Photograph equipment or assets to show pre-disaster condition.

Review how you will manage orders, refunds and cancellations.

Consider keeping financial reserves and emergency cash.

Backup data and secure documents

Backup your data and store off-site or use cloud storage.

Save digital copies of key business documents, for example:

insurance

business registration

property deeds

key contracts

licences

certificates

awards.

Pack an emergency kit

Having an emergency kit handy can ensure survival, and help you return to business sooner.

Expand all

First aid kit - check contents are current and complete

Personal protective equipment (PPE) - for example, masks, gloves, safety glasses, hand antiseptic, disinfectant

Radio - portable battery powered

Torches and batteries

Spare batteries, power boards and power banks

USB memory sticks or flash drives

Computer storage (portable hard drives/data storage, backup tapes, discs)

Spare keys and security codes

Mobile phone with credit available, plus chargers (portable and car)

Marker pens (for temporary signs) and general stationery

Hazard tape

Utility knife

Plastic sheeting

Waterproof bags and containers for valuables

Tie down straps and rope

Cash

Keys for buildings, vehicles and equipment

Important or valuable equipment that is easily moved

List of visitors or customers (on premises or expected) and contact details

Respond during a flood

Know where to get the most up to date information and where to get help if you need it. Always phone Triple Zero (000) in a life-threatening emergency.

Expand all

Follow emergency services advice to shelter or evacuate.

If you have CCTV leave it running to capture video of potential damage for insurance purposes.

Activate your business continuity plan (includes emergency plan)

secure vehicles, equipment and supplies

unplug electrical equipment, shut down master electrical board and gas supply

collect your emergency kit

secure your premises

evacuate premises if you need to leave.

Communicate regular updates to staff, visitors and customers.

Advise customers and suppliers about your business operations and evacuation plans where relevant, including:

in-person to customers on your premises at the time

online to all other customers.

Use your social media accounts (if available), website or phone to advise customers and stakeholders about your business operations.

Recover after a flood

It can take months or years for some businesses to fully recover from severe weather events. Having a plan to respond and recover from a severe weather event can help speed recovery. Consider deferring big decisions about your business's future until later.

Initial recovery (hours and days following event)

Early recovery (days and weeks following event)

Long-term recovery (months or years following event)

Communicate

Communication can be crucial before and after a severe weather event. Your staff and customers need to know if the event has impacted your business, if you will close, and when you will reopen.

Consider who your business might need to communicate with before, during and after a severe weather event. Think about how you will communicate if there are power outages.

Key stakeholders may include:

staff

customers or guests

clients

suppliers and distributors

banks and insurers

industry body or association

regulatory body or agency.

Before a severe weather event

Once you've received a disaster alert, use social media channels, your website and/or doorway signage to advise all stakeholders about your business operations. If possible, you should talk to your staff face to face and phone or email your key customers, clients or suppliers who may be directly impacted.

During a severe weather event

Usually staff will shelter at home during a disaster, but if your business is responsible for looking after guests or customers, make sure you advise them about how to get advice and updates (e.g. advice from authorities, updates from local ABC radio).

After a severe weather event

If available, use your social media accounts, website or phone to advise customers and stakeholders about your business operations.

Last reviewed: 14 Jul 2023

Last updated: 18 Aug 2023

Related information

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disaster hub; crisis hub; natural disaster; natural disaster preparedness; prepare for natural disaster; prepare business for natural disaster; prepare business for disaster; prepare for flood; flood preparedness; flood preparation for construction business; construction business preparedness for flood

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Flood preparation for construction businesses

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Use this checklist to help your construction business prepare for a flood, including how to respond, recover and communicate.

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Firefighters and Construction: Row Frames - Fire Engineering: Firefighter Training and Fire Service News, Rescue

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Sal Ancona looks at major concerns in this type of construction, in particular the potential for horizontal fire spread.

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This how the construction companies have tried to over come flooding. 

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https://www.constructiondefectjournal.com/archives/inside-issue/2023/09/building-resiliency-withstanding-wildfires-and-other-natural-disasters

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According to the National Fire Protection Association, between 2016 and 2020 an estimated average of 4,300 fires per year plagued structures under construction, adding up to about $376 million in annual property damage. More recently, the National Centers for Environmental Information reported that wildfires accounted for more than $3.2 billion in damages across the United States. These figures alone point to the heightened awareness that all companies-particularly construction companies-should maintain surrounding the unique challenges and risks that wildfires can present and how they could potentially impact the integrity of projects and the associated safety of their workers.

As North America grapples with the increasing frequency and severity of wildfires, hurricanes and additional severe weather events, numerous industries have had to adapt and implement proactive measures to minimize their risks and associated exposures. The impact of these natural disasters on the construction industry is indisputable, necessitating proactive measures that construction companies should seriously consider adopting to effectively mitigate those risks, efficiently navigate insurance complexities and seamlessly integrate data-driven solutions alongside modern tools like AI and predictive modeling.

Reprinted courtesy of Bill Creedon, Construction Executive, a publication of Associated Builders and Contractors. All rights reserved.

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Building Resiliency: Withstanding Wildfires and Other Natural Disasters | www.constructiondefectjournal.com

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According to the National Fire Protection Association, between 2016 and 2020 an estimated average of 4,300 fires per year plagued structures under construction, adding up to about $376 million in annual property damage. More recently, the National Centers for Environmental Information reported that wildfires accounted for more than $3.2 billion in damages across the United States.

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Official websites use .gov

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Secure .gov websites use HTTPS

A lock ( ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. .

This page contains an interactive tool to allow you to explore National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) data by state, county, fire type, and cause of residential fires. NFIRS is a reporting standard that fire departments use to uniformly report on the full range of their activities.

Data sets

Available Downloadable NFIRS Public Data Release Files are available on Annual NFIRS Public Data | FEMA.gov.

Feedback

If you have any questions or comments pertaining to this OpenFEMA dataset or visualization, please contact us at OpenFEMA@fema.dhs.gov.

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This page contains an interactive tool to allow you to explore National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) data by state, county, fire type, and cause of residential fires. NFIRS is a reporting standard that fire departments use to uniformly report on the full range of their activities.

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Traditional construction methods were no match for the earthquake that rocked Morocco on Friday night, an engineering expert says, and the area will continue to see such devastation unless updated building techniques are adopted.

"The most important problem here is that in that region, mud-brick construction and unreinforced masonry construction seems to be prevalent, and they fail when earthquakes come," Mehrdad Sasani, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Northeastern University says. Sasani is an expert in building collapse, and community and building resilience.

"We have seen that (failure) in the past, over and over again," Sasani said. "It's unfortunate - it's a societal, economic and technical problem - and we will see repetitive problems where earthquakes will cause such damage."

But Sasani said updated building techniques would be hard to implement in the rural, mountainous and largely undeveloped area of Morocco where the quake struck.

"In that area, I'm sure they have many other needs," Sasani says. "I'm sure they would love to live in buildings that are earthquake resistant, but the resources they have don't lend themselves to that development."

An earthquake struck in the High Atlas Mountains of western Morocco shortly after 11 p.m. on Friday, and had a magnitude of at least 6.8, according to a preliminary report from the U.S. Geological Survey. The quake was the strongest to hit the area in more than a century. Authorities said at least 2,000 people were killed and several hundred were injured in the quake. The deadliest and most destructive earthquake in Morocco's recent history had a magnitude of 5.8 and killed roughly 12,000 people in 1960, the New York Times reported.

Rescuers in Morocco raced to reach remote areas in the mountains outside Marrakesh on Sunday after a 6.8 earthquake, the worst to hit the area in a century, flattened homes across central and southern parts of the country, killing more than 2,000 people. https://t.co/oCuk17Vztq
- The New York Times (@nytimes) September 10, 2023

Sasani says that the region where the quake struck predominantly relies on two types of building.

The first is buildings constructed using sun-dried bricks - square-shaped mixture of clay and mud and other materials. The construction method is thousands of years old.

"It would crumble very rapidly," in the event of a major earthquake, Sasani says.

The second type of buildings are those that use unreinforced masonry. These buildings use bricks that are fired, and thus more resilient than mud-brick construction. But the masonry lacks vertical and horizontal layers of embedded steel rebars that can protect it during an earthquake.

"If you want to make a masonry or brick structure resilient or resistant to earthquakes, you have to have steel reinforcing bars throughout the structure," Sasani says.

Unfortunately, construction methods that use such reinforced masonry are not well utilized in the remote and less developed areas of the world. When such areas are on or near major fault lines, as is the case with Morocco, an earthquake can result in disaster.

Moreover, Sasani says it may be difficult to implement earthquake resistant construction as a common practice in the region due to limited societal, economic and technical resources. After the 1960 earthquake struck the city of Agadir - a quake that has about 30 times more energy than Friday's quake, Sasani noted - Morocco made an effort to rebuild the city using earthquake-resistant methods.

But Sasani says it is easier to implement such methods in a city than it is in a large, predominantly rural and undeveloped mountainous region such as the High Atlas Mountains.

"Having standards is one thing; implementing the standards is another thing," Sasani says.

And implementing standards takes more than will.

"Economic resources are most important - and beyond that you need to have technical (engineering) resources and well-developed and implemented seismic codes and regulations," Sasani says.
Cyrus Moulton is a Northeastern Global News reporter. Email him at c.moulton@northeastern.edu. Follow him on Twitter @MoultonCyrus.

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Morocco earthquake devastation worsened by age-old construction methods, expert says

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The mud-brick construction and unreinforced masonry prevalent in Morocco goes back thousands of years, says a Northeastern expert.

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Earthquake Retrofitting: House Bolting,
Foundation Bolting & Cripple Wall Bracing

The primary purpose of earthquake retrofitting is to keep your home from being displaced from its concrete foundation - making the building safer and less prone to major structural damage during an earthquake. Existing homes need to be retrofitted because our understanding of the effects of earthquakes as well as construction techniques have improved after the homes were built.

Preparing for an Earthquake

KQED Forum  With Michael Krasny and host Dave Iverson
Friday, October. 21, 2011

"I think that insurance is one important component of several things that homeowners should consider. Insurance coverage can help finance rebuilding your house, but it can't make you whole, and it can't replace all of the contents that are inside, and it can't replace your house - which your family needs a place to live after an earthquake and to be safe. So I think that residents should consider retrofitting their house first. Make sure that the house is safe and that the day after you can go back in or you can make some minor repairs and be ready to live back in that house. Again, insurance does need to be made more affordable so that you can cover any of the losses that you have after you've retrofitted."

Danielle Hutchings
Earthquake & Hazards Program coordinator for the Association of Bay Area Governments

Earthquake damaged house after the 1994 Northridge Earthquake.
Photo courtesy Andrea Bocherer, FEMA

This page provides an overview of earthquake retrofitting, for anyone who is new to its purpose and terminology. As in any overview, the descriptions below are oversimplified. The terms house bolting, foundation bolting and cripple wall bracing are often used synonymously with earthquake retrofitting.

The above diagram shows how earthquake forces can effect your home in three ways.

Foundation Bolting

Foundation bolting typically means that bolts are added to improve the connections between the wooden framing members of a building and its concrete foundation. Usually this means adding bolts through the piece of wood that lies flat on top of the foundation, referred to as the sill or mudsill, into the concrete. There may be no existing bolts, or the existing bolts may be either weakened or too far apart to be strong enough for earthquake resistance.

Careful planning, placement and installation of foundation bolts are critical for good bolting strength. It is important to use the proper type of bolt corresponding to the existing conditions of the home and its foundation. The expected type of bolt load or stress is another important consideration for bolt selection.
Two types of foundation bolts are typically used - expansion bolts and epoxy-set bolts.
Expansion Foundation Bolts

Expansion type foundation bolts, also known as mechanical foundation anchor bolts, are the basic type of bolt used in earthquake retrofitting to anchor the mudsill to the foundation - they cost less to install, but require good concrete strength to work well. They are typically used in houses with newer foundations or when the concrete is in good repair.

The current ABAG Standard Plan A for earthquake retrofitting specifies that expansion bolts may be used as long as their installation does not cause cracking of the concrete. In these cases the mechanical type anchor bolt is very effective when the bolt is properly installed according to the manufacturer's specifications.
Photo: Mechanical type anchor bolt with square plate washer

Epoxy-set Foundation Bolts

Epoxy-set foundation bolts work better than mechanical anchor bolts in older homes where the concrete may be weaker than in a newer home. They also perform better when the earthquake force is expected to cause an uplift - a situation where the movement pulls the bolt upward and out of the concrete. In addition, epoxy anchors can be longer and therefore inserted deeper into the concrete. This is particularly important if there is additional base framing (blocking) added between the cripple wall studs for the structural plywood anchorage of a shear wall (cripple wall bracing).

Plate Washers

The requirement for clamping washers installed with retrofit anchor bolts has been recently upgraded. It is now mandatory to use hot-dipped galvanized 3" x 3" x ¼" square plate washers under the anchor bolt nut. This allows the mudsill to be clamped more securely to the foundation.

The use of this large clamping washer is important because it has been observed in recent earthquakes that the older type of round washer commonly found in houses built prior to the mid 1990s, sometimes pulled through the mudsill because they weren't large enough to provide adequate holding strength.

Foundation Plates

Sometimes there is not adequate vertical clearance under a home to properly anchor the mudsill to the foundation with conventional anchor bolts. Simpson Strong-Tie has several anchors which can be used in situations like these. The most commonly used one is called the Universal Foundation Plate or UFP10. These plates are installed at intervals similar to anchor bolts in retrofit applications.

Cripple Wall Bracing

Most houses have a short wood-framed wall in the sub-area crawl space. This wall my be anywhere from a few inches to several feet in height, running upward from the top of the concrete foundation to the bottom of the main floor. In construction language, this is referred to as a cripple wall. Cripple wall collapse is a main source of earthquake related failure. The collapse of this wall will often result in the main floor dropping to the ground. The house is vaulted off to the side of the foundation as the cripple wall simply rolls out from under it.

Stiffening or bracing of the cripple wall to keep if from collapsing during seismic movement is a very important part of earthquake retrofitting. The bracing is accomplished by attaching structural grade plywood tightly to the wall framing. In engineering language, this strong or stiffened wall is referred to as a shear wall.

The stiffening effect is accomplished in the lengthwise direction of the plywood, which means that plywood runs along the side walls of a house will brace it in the front-to-back direction while plywood run along the front and back walls will brace the house in the side-to-side direction. Accordingly, it is important to brace all sides of a house for the best seismic protection.

It is usually not necessary and may even be undesirable to brace the entire lengths of the cripple walls. Over-bracing means unnecessary work and cost, and many engineers think that it is important to maintain some ductility in the sub-areas of the house.

Finally, following the principle that a chain is only as strong as its weakest length, it is also important to complete the connection from the foundations, through the walls, and into the overhead floor framing. This will provide for good load transfer. Load transfer is an engineering term which in everyday language means that the effects of the earthquake movements are transferred from one of the buildings components into the next - ground to foundation, foundation to sill, sill to wall, wall to floor. Good detailing of all of these connections is an important part of retrofitting technique.

Foundation Holdown Brackets

Some houses also require additional holdown brackets to anchor the shear walls. Holdowns are specially constructed right-angle brackets connecting from the cripple wall framing into the foundation. As the bracket name implies, they are designed to resist a shear wall lifting or rolling effect, which may also occur during seismic activity. Generally, the need for holdowns is a function of the height-to-width dimensions of a shear wall configuration.

Simpson Holdowns are usually installed at the ends of shear walls. They are not needed at all shear wall locations. Installation is done with an extra-long and more deeply set epoxy-anchored bolt, which provides for better resistance to the lifting stresses. If one is in doubt about the need for holdowns, there is no harm in installing them except for the added cost. However, a good understanding of shear wall mechanics is helpful in deciding whether to save the cost and work of holdown installation.

Homes without Cripple Walls

Not all houses have cripple walls. In many newer houses, and some older ones, the floor framing (joist) rests directly on the mudsill. Compared to houses with cripple walls, houses built in this manner are considered to be slightly less vulnerable to displacement from their foundations. There is still significant risk, however. The connection between the floor framing and the foundation consists of a series of "toenails" which are often too weak to withstand strong seismic movement and the house can slide off its foundation. Even slippage of a few inches can do major damage to the house, allowing portions of it to sag and cause structural damage or to sever utility connections such as gas, water, sewer and electricity which extend from the ground into the house.

There are several methods available for improving the connection of the framing to the foundation when a house doesn't have cripple walls. The choice of which connecting system is most practical for a given house comes down to a host of variables and ultimately includes a judgment on cost effectiveness. Older homes vary widely in their access conditions, framing size and configuration of the foundation, etc., and there is usually not a "single" correct way to improve this connection.

Simpson Strong-Tie Retrofit Connectors

One method is to install Simpson UFP10 mudsill anchor plates in conjunction with Simpson L70/L90 clips connecting the mudsill to the rim joist. The spacing depends on the size and weight of the house. A second method is to anchor the floor joist system directly to the foundation using Simpson FJA anchors.

Angle Iron Struts and Foundation Bolting

A custom connection upgrade is to use Angle Iron Struts, which connect the floor joists directly to the foundation in a similar fashion to the Simpson FJA anchors. Earthquake Safety devised the angle iron strut connection in the early 80s with input from several colleagues who were structural engineers. They offer a significant increase in connection strength, and for many projects they provide the most economical upgrade available for the existing conditions. The calculated strength of the angle iron is higher than the Simpson FJA anchors. These are not over-the-counter connectors, but have to be custom made at a steel fabricator.

The angle iron struts are installed in such a way as to provide both a vertical (lift resisting) and lateral (slide resisting) anchor for the house. The struts reinforce any weakness in the original sill bolts and extend the anchor more completely into the house's main floor platform.

Many houses, especially hillside houses, have both cripple walls and areas where the floor sits directly on the foundation. In this case, a combination of retrofitted improvements may be called for, including mudsill bolting, Simpson mudsill plates holdowns, plywood shear bracing and angle iron struts.

Soft Story Situations

Another condition found in many homes, especially those with attached garages, is referred to as a soft story. This is a situation in which a living space of the house, a bedroom for example, has been built over a large opening such as a garage door. Such an opening has little or no stiffness or shear strength. Thus, comes the term "soft story", meaning a story of a home built over a wall area that is "soft"" in its resistance to lateral movement.

Soft story conditions can sometimes be improved by installing plywood bracing on a wall that is next to and inline with the opening. If the configuration of the home doesn't lend itself to this solution an engineered steel moment frame can be an option.

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Earthquake Retrofitting, Foundation Bolting & Cripple Wall Bracing | Earthquake Safety

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The purpose of earthquake retrofitting is to keep your home from being displaced from its foundation during an earthquake. Studies show the retrofitted homes in areas hit hard by earthquakes have performed well, with little or no structural damage.

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Research has spawned numerous innovations

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Are you a structural engineer, architect, or designer looking to understand the effects of earthquakes on residential structures?

At its core, creating a safe and secure home for families requires an understanding of the environmental risks that can potentially impact its structures. This is especially true when it comes to designing a residential structure in earthquake-prone areas.

In this blog post, we will discuss the effects of earthquakes on building design and key structural considerations for you to consider for designing safe and reliable residential homes.

Introduction

An earthquake is a natural event that occurs when the Earth's tectonic plates move, causing the ground to shake and vibrate. Earthquakes are caused by the release of energy stored in the Earth's crust and can range in intensity from slight, barely perceptible tremors to significant, devastating events that can cause widespread damage and destruction.

The intensity of an earthquake is usually measured using the Richter Scale. Based on their location and depth, earthquakes can also be classified into different types, such as shallow, intermediate, and deep-focus earthquakes.

Figure 1: A damaged building in downtown Napa, California, after the 6.0 magnitude earthquake on August 24th, 2014 (Reference)

In general, earthquakes can cause damage to residential buildings (Figure 1) and other types of structures, including collapse, which can result in injury or death to the occupants.

To ensure the safety of residential structures during an earthquake, engineers and architects use seismic load analysis methods that determine the strength and stability of the building and its components.

Effects of Earthquakes on Residential Buildings

The movement of tectonic plates inside the lithosphere typically causes earthquakes when the rock on one side of a fault abruptly shifts relative to the rock on the other side of the fault, releasing a substantial quantity of energy in the form of seismic waves that can cause surface damage.

Earthquakes with significant ground-shaking intensities can devastate residential buildings (Figure 2) by inducing demand, causing minor to major cracks and increasing the buildings' probability of failure.

Figure 2: An illustration of building sway under earthquake-induced shaking intensities.

The earthquake effects on a residential building can vary widely depending on several factors, including the earthquake's magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the type of soil on which a building is constructed.

How Do Earthquake Impact Building Structural Elements

In general, designing buildings to withstand seismic forces requires a comprehensive understanding of the likely points of failure and the load paths that the building will be subjected to during an earthquake.

Connections between Structural Elements

The most critical areas of a building in terms of seismic performance are typically the connections between structural elements, such as beams and columns. These connections must be designed to be strong and flexible, allowing the building to move without breaking.

Overall Structural System of the Building

Other key considerations in seismic design include the overall structural system of the building, including the type of foundation and the type of structural system used, as well as the materials used in construction.

Load Paths of the Building

Additionally, load paths must be carefully considered to ensure that the forces generated by an earthquake are distributed throughout the building in a way that minimizes damage.

Residential buildings that are not adequately designed and constructed to withstand seismic activity are particularly vulnerable to damage. Additionally, old structures may be more susceptible to damage than newer ones due to the lack of newer construction techniques and technologies that improve their seismic resistance.

Key Considerations When Designing Residential Buildings in Earthquake-Prone Areas

Under earthquakes, the building is expected to possess a range of cracks in its structural (i.e., beams, columns, bracings, and slabs) and non-structural (i.e., walls, ceilings, floors, and electrical, plumbing, and heating systems) components. Accordingly, it is important to consider separating structural and non-structural components when designing buildings to withstand seismic forces.

The non-structural components, such as windows and curtain walls, can be particularly vulnerable to damage during an earthquake. To reduce damage, engineers should consider incorporating squishy materials, such as rubber or other flexible materials, into the design of these components. This can help absorb some of the earthquake's energy, reducing the likelihood of damage.

Additionally, in some cases, it is important to consider incorporating movement mechanisms, such as seismic isolation and base isolation systems, into the design of the building. These systems allow the building to move in a controlled manner during an earthquake, reducing the likelihood of damage to both structural and non-structural components.

On the other hand, while cracks in structural sections can be a concern in seismic design, as they can weaken the overall strength and integrity of the building, the point of the design is not necessarily to prevent cracks from occurring but rather to design a path for the cracks to follow that minimizes damage to other parts of the building. This is known as controlled cracking. By designing a specific path for cracks to follow, engineers can ensure that the building remains stable and that the load is distributed to minimize damage to other parts of the building.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is important for structural engineers, architects and designers to understand how earthquake impacts your residential structural design. Guidelines such as ASCE 7-16 outline the steps for determining the forces a building or structure will experience during an earthquake and evaluate the building's ability to withstand those forces.

If you want to understand more how seismic analysis is done according to ASCE 7-16 requirements, check out this article!

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Earthquake and Its Effects on Residential Structural Design | ClearCalcs

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When designing a residential project, it's important to take into account the risk of an earthquake and how it could affect the building. Here we discuss some of the effects earthquakes can have and how you can plan for them.

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Construction has proven again and again to be one of the most dangerous occupational industries. In particular, fires and explosions pose a deadly hazard to the workers and property involved in a construction project.

According to the National Association of State Fire Marshals, every year, U.S. fire departments respond to more than 8,500 fires on structures undergoing construction, under renovation or being demolished. When a fire contributes to or causes an explosion, the damage can be catastrophic for construction workers who have devoted their time to a project and rely on their physical strength to make a living.

The Devastating Effects on Victims

Construction site fires and explosions can result in extensive property damage and serious injuries to construction workers and pedestrians. Because fire spreads so rapidly, workers may not have much time to respond and evacuate. Flames, extreme temperatures and falling debris in a construction site fire can cause burns, disfigurement, broken bones and numerous other injuries. This can lead to permanent impairment as well as loss of earning potential for the rest of a worker's life.

In some terrible cases, fires and explosions claim the lives of innocent people who were only trying to put in an honest day's work. The families of loved ones killed in construction site fires must cope with not only losing a family member but also making funeral arrangements and paying expensive medical bills. No one should have to endure this tragedy. Unfortunately, far too many construction fires come from preventable sources.

What Causes Construction Site Fires and Explosions?

The nature of construction sites is that flammable materials, electrical equipment and heat sources are often present. This means that there's a multitude of sources for fires or explosions. Hazards that can cause fires and explosions in construction projects include:

Defective products: A defect in the design or manufacture of certain products can result in serious burn injuries to workers.

Electrical problems: Faulty wiring, circuit breakers, cables or other electrical equipment can cause a spark and ignite the surrounding materials.

Exploding gas lines: From improper installation to leaks, gas line explosion can be massive and have multiple casualties.

Acetylene tank explosions: Because acetylene gas is very unstable, it can detonate when under pressure.

Pressurized containers: Even small, pressurized containers such as aerosols can react to pressure by exploding.

Chemical tanks: Tanks holding any kind of flammable substance are significant safety hazards on construction sites.

Vehicles and other machinery: Fires and explosions can be caused by or exacerbated by vehicles in many scenarios, especially when a vehicle is carrying unstable chemicals or gases.

When an employer prepares a construction endeavor, they should carefully anticipate any possible sources of a fire. This can go a long way toward saving lives and minimizing property damage.

Preventing Construction Fires

One of the most important things that any construction company must do is to implement strategies for fire and explosion prevention. Practical safety measures can save lives and reduce property damage by millions of dollars. It is the duty of all parties involved in a construction project to invest time and resources into comprehensive safety measures. According to the National Safety Council, some of the most important steps for construction fire and explosion prevention include:

1. Develop a fire prevention plan specific to the construction project.

2. Educate and train all workers on the safety plan before the project even begins. Practice regular evacuation drills.

3. Assign responsibility to the proper authority figures on construction projects, whether they be managers or prime contractors.

4. Coordinate with the appropriate agencies regarding temporary power, the storage of flammable materials, blasting, temporary heating devices and other safety regulations.

5. Inform the local fire department and other appropriate agencies of the construction plans as well as the location of pipes, fuel storage, entrances and exits, and power and fuel shutoffs.

6. Encourage regular site inspections by the person delegated by the authority for fire safety.

7. Equip the construction site with fire alarms, fire extinguishers and automatic sprinklers.

8. Safely dispose of combustible materials - particularly oily rags. Do not burn materials on-site.

Education and careful planning can go a long way toward preventing or minimizing construction fires and explosions. Sadly, some employers neglect the important step of fire prevention, resulting in catastrophic injury to their workers.

Safety on Construction Sites

Those in charge of worker safety have an obligation to create a safe environment free from known hazards that could result in injuries or illness. The responsibility falls on them to adhere to local, state and federal regulations regarding fire safety. This includes educating their staff about safety protocols and other rules. To minimize the risk of injury to construction workers, they should develop a fire safety plan and evacuation route and inform all employees of it. Employers should also establish rules and guidelines for employees to follow when handling flammable or combustible materials.

Survivors and Their Families Do Have Options

If a pedestrian or a construction worker is injured in a fire or explosion and that injury could have been prevented by a more appropriate or thorough evacuation plan, or if the fire or explosion itself was caused by another party's negligence, the victim may have legal recourse.

The first, most obvious avenue is to seek workers' compensation from their employer's insurance provider. The next is to consider filing a personal injury lawsuit against the property owner, general contractor, subcontractor or other negligent party that contributed to the accident. Lawsuits are a critical tool for recovering the compensation necessary to cover a victim's damages. Some of the most common damages from fires include:

Hospital bills

Prescription medications

Skin grafts

Physical therapy

Lost wages

Loss of earning potential

Pain and suffering

The primary goal of a claim is to make sure that the victim has the funds for their physical recovery. Plaintiffs can also use lawsuits to send a message to the defendants that the negligence that contributed to a construction site fire or explosion was unacceptable. The fear of litigation can also be a motivating factor for other employers, contractors and other parties to do everything in their power to prevent fires and explosions on construction sites in the future.

How We Can Help

A construction accident lawyer experienced in litigating these issues can help victims pursue compensation for medical bills, lost wages, and pain and suffering due to the disfigurement, disability and discomfort that fires and explosions can cause. You may be eligible to recover compensation for your injuries, so it is important to make sure that you have someone to protect your legal rights.

Our experienced lawyers can investigate your claim and your medical situation to determine the extent of the damages you have suffered and who should be held responsible for them. The law firm of Block O'Toole & Murphy specializes in construction accident litigation, and our lawyers are recognized as some of the best in the country. Since 2012, no other law firm in New York has attained more verdicts and settlements exceeding $1 million than Block O'Toole & Murphy. Select results for clients injured in construction accidents include:

$110 million verdict for a 23-year-old man who was paralyzed by a falling object while he was cycling underneath subway tracks that were being renovated.

$15 million settlement in a tragic case for the surviving family after they lost a 38-year-old husband and father to a serious work-related accident.

$12 million settlement for a union worker who suffered serious nerve injuries, blindness in one eye, multiple fractures and other internal injuries after an accident at a Manhattan construction site.

$11.5 million settlement in a Bronx case for a construction worker who suffered severe wrist and back injuries after a defective saw accident.

$11 million settlementin a Brooklyn case for a masonry foreman who suffered serious spinal and pelvic injuries after he fell through a hole during the construction of a new apartment building.

To speak with a Block O'Toole & Murphy attorney today, please call or fill out our contact form. We represent victims injured as a result of construction accidents in all New York, including Manhattan, Queens, Brooklyn, The Bronx, Staten Island, Long Island, Westchester County and upstate New York.

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Construction Site Fires and Explosions | Block O'Toole & Murphy

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Construction site fires and explosions can result in serious injuries for construction workers and pedestrians. Understand what to do if you've been injured.

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A successful fireground operation begins with a proper size-up that identifies the type of construction involved. Balloon-frame style construction is one of the two most common styles of traditional wood-frame construction, with platform frame construction being the next most common.

Balloon-frame, which was built from the early 19th century until World War II, poses unique firefighting problems because it lacks horizontal fire stops between the studs inside of the exterior walls.

Most balloon-frame homes are two or three stories tall. This allows for unimpeded fire spread from the basement to the attic in a matter of minutes via the interior stud channels of the exterior walls.

Note the interconnected floor joist channels to the exterior wall stud channels. This allows not only rapid vertical fire spread within the wall, but horizontal fire spread underneath the floors and above ceilings. Diagram courtesy of David A. Kropp of DAK Home Inspections.

Platform frame became popular after World War II and shortened the exterior walls to 8 or 10 feet and provided fire stopping between floors.

Fire's pathway
The lack of fire stopping within the exterior walls can pose a major challenge for firefighters. In addition, the joist channels underneath the floors are interconnected with the exterior wall stud channels. A basement or interior fire that enters this void space can result in vertical and lateral fire spread throughout the structure.

If conditions permit, check the attic void soon after arrival. Once fire gains control of the wall and floor voids, it often dooms the structure. It is common to find a large finished room within the attic of these homes. This further complicates accessing a fire that has extended into the attic void.

I responded to a fire in a balloon-frame residence one evening in which the fire originated in the basement. Several minutes after crews gained entry into the basement, fire began to vent from the attic windows.

We discovered the attic room had a finished hardwood skating rink installed over the floor, covering the entire top floor of the residence.

Another common avenue of fire spread within a balloon-frame structure is the transoms. The transom is an operable window above interior room doors to allow air circulation while the door is closed. Fire can quickly breach the transom and spread unimpeded from the room of origin into hallways and adjoining rooms.

Additionally, balloon-frame homes often have open stairwells that are quickly compromised by the heat, smoke and fire. This may necessitate laddering for the rescue of occupants. They also have large search areas.

Wolf in sheep's clothing
Until recently, it was reasonable to assume most two-story or greater wood-frame homes built before World War II were balloon-frame. However, modern lightweight wood-frame construction methods can achieve the look of older Victorian-style construction.

Do not be deceived. Fire spread characteristics and collapse potential are vastly different in lightweight wood frame structures compared to homes of the balloon-frame era.

Often, the true balloon-frame constructed homes will be located in older neighborhoods built in that era, and may exceed 5,000 square feet. Whereas, the new lightweight-constructed homes will likely be in newly developed locations. Their average size is between 2,500 and 3,000 square feet.

A closer look at a newly built home will reveal building materials not available in the early 20 th century, such as vinyl siding, vinyl window, synthetic porch decking and decorative trim.

Safety precautions
Traditional balloon frame homes were often built and can be identified with native stone or block used in the foundations. Original lot sizes found in many traditional homes tend to be narrow and deep, compared to lots built upon in recent years, which tend to be wider and less deep.

Additionally, these units are also being converted from a single-family dwelling into multiple apartments, frat houses, and bed-and-breakfast type occupancies are common. Multiple occupants should be expected in these conversions often with the only means of egress being a single, narrow interior stairwell.

Fires in balloon-frame homes can rapidly spread throughout the structure in a variety of ways, entrapping unsuspecting occupants. Such was the case of an early morning house fire in Stamford, Conn. on Christmas Day 2011, which claimed the lives of five family members.

Firefighters must be prepared for a variety of challenges, with limited staffing, when arriving on scene of a balloon-frame structure fire. These fires will be labor intensive and will pose a significant challenge for firefighters. Training and pre-incident planning are essential for successful operations.

In addition, public education training is essential for the occupants regarding the importance of smoke alarms and escape planning. The use of residential escape ladders from upper story bedrooms is a good recommendation to discuss with homeowners.

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Fighting the balloon-frame construction fire

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A successful fireground operation begins with a proper size-up that identifies the type of construction involved. Balloon-frame style construction is one of the two most common styles of traditional wood-frame construction, with platform frame construction being the next most common.

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While the use of insulating materials in buildings has resulted in energy conservation, this use has also created fire and health risks. For example, some insulating materials can contribute to the spread of a fire, while others produce smoke and toxic gases. The amount of insulation in the walls and ceiling/roof of a room can affect the rate of growth of a fire. Insulation will reduce heat transfer to other areas (i.e., rooms), thereby raising the temperature in the fire room. Higher temperatures in the fire room will accelerate the burning of materials in the room, resulting in an increase in the heat released into the room. The greater the amount of insulation, the higher the temperature the fire in the room can be expected to reach.

Insulation may also affect the performance of heat-producing devices, such as electrical wires, cables, and electrical fixtures. Insulation installed around the heat-producing device can cause the device to become overheated - if the device becomes hot enough, it can ignite combustible materials in contact with it. Many electrical devices are now Listed* for use with insulation covering them or with specific clearances to the fixture indicated.

Insulating materials may have an adverse health effect when they are handled or exposed to fire. Fires in insulation materials can result in the release of toxic gases and smoke, which can be fatal if present in sufficient quantities. Smoke can create problems for occupants trying to evacuate the fire area. When some materials, such as fibrous glass, are handled, employees and others who contact it may experience skin irritation. Other materials, such as asbestos, can cause numerous disabling or fatal diseases from long-term exposure to airborne fibers. Such exposures are outside the scope of this report.

There are several basic types of material used for thermal insulation. They are organic-based, mineral-based, and plastic-based. This report provides an overview of these insulating materials, the hazards of the materials, and loss control considerations for their use.

Organic-Based Insulation

Typical organic insulations are wood, paper, cork, and cotton. These materials collectively are referred to as "cellulose insulation." Cellulose is one of the oldest insulation materials used in construction and serves three primary functions. First, it is used as a thermal insulation to inhibit heat movement between the building and the outdoors. Second, cellulose insulation is used as an acoustical barrier to reduce sound transmission between rooms in a building. And finally, spray-on cellulose insulation is marketed as a fire-retardant coating material, sometimes referred to as a thermal barrier, intended to delay the ignition and slow the surface burning rate of combustible interior finish materials.

Cellulose insulation is typically manufactured from recovered paper fiber (e.g., magazines, newspapers, etc.) that is treated with one or more fire-retardant chemicals. Cellulose fiber materials are "hygroscopic;" that is, they will readily take up and retain moisture under the proper conditions of temperature and humidity, and, once wet, are slow to dry out. The development of fungi is primarily prevented by controlling the moisture content of cellulose insulation through the proper use of vapor barriers. However, it is possible to eliminate the cellulose food supply for fungi by treating it with certain substances that are toxic to fungi. When treated with inhibitors for moisture-proofing and fire-retardance, the insulation value decreases slightly. As the material is compressed for rigidity and structural strength, its insulation value decreases. Organic insulations should never be used in contact with soil or in moist conditions.

Cellulose insulation made of wood, paper, cork, and cotton sustain combustion when dry. Even when slightly damp, the material may smolder, creating a condition where the insulation can easily burst into flames. When cellulose insulation does catch fire, it is sometimes difficult to completely extinguish the fire. Fires originating in, or spreading to, concealed spaces can lead to large losses because not only can the fire burn for some time undetected, but also firefighting efforts can be severely hampered by the limited accessibility to these spaces. As the fire consumes the oxygen in a concealed space, large amounts of super-heated, flammable gases develop. This oxygen-based fire will continue to smolder until some event, such as opening a door or hatch, introduces fresh air into the space. When oxygen enters this concealed space, the super-heated gases will ignite, resulting in a back draft or smoke explosion.

Since all cellulose-insulating materials are inherently combustible, one of the common steps in the manufacturing process is to treat the cellulose fibers with one or more fire-retardant chemicals. Fire-retardant chemicals are required by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) to be added to these materials to reduce the flammability hazard. Unfortunately, the chemical additives tend to break down with time and lose their effectiveness. One of the chemicals often used in cellulose insulation is ammonium sulfate. When ammonium sulfate thermally decomposes or becomes wet it produces sulfuric acid, a corrosive to metals. For this reason, many installers will only use cellulose chemically-treated with boric acid and borax, not ammonium sulfate, for wet-spray applications. There is anecdotal evidence of pipes and metal fasteners suffering the effects of corrosion when in contact with wet cellulose containing ammonium sulfate. Some manufacturers now add corrosion inhibitors to the chemical mix to help prevent this occurrence. The risk control measures require adherence to installation and recommended drying times to minimize the chance of loss.

Risk Control Considerations

The CPSC safety standard 16 CFR 1209, Interim Safety Standard for Cellulose Insulation, provides the flame resistance and corrosiveness requirements for cellulose insulation. The standards "requirements are intended to reduce or eliminate an unreasonable risk of injury to consumers, from flammable and corrosive cellulose insulation. The standard also provides minimum labeling requirements for cellulose insulation, including that the material be labeled as meeting the "amended CPSC standard for flame resistance and corrosiveness of cellulose insulation." While most building codes require cellulose insulation to meet the amended standards, the codes generally require that minimum clearances be maintained between the insulation and heat sources, such as stovepipes, to prevent heating of the material.

There are documented cases of corrosion from the use of ammonium sulfate cellulose insulation. Another concern is the undesirable impact on indoor air quality, specifically an ammonia odor problem if the insulation is not adequately dried prior to installing drywall. The drying time varies with environmental conditions.

Climatic conditions are a critical factor for achieving dry-out; industry advice suggests that wet-spray applied cellulose be able to dry to the exterior in northern (cold/dry) climates. This entails use of moisture-permeable exterior framing and sheathing, such as 1x dimensional lumber and asphalt-impregnated fiberboard. For southern (warm/wet) climates, the opposite is true. The cellulose must be allowed to dry to the interior. One way to achieve this is to eliminate a vapor barrier and install the gypsum board panels/finishes airtight. Many installers use dehumidifiers and allow for proper dry-out to occur by leaving the wet cellulose insulation exposed for at least 48 hours. Low moisture content (50 percent maximum by dry-weight content) is also employed to minimize dry-out problems. Fiberized cellulose insulation, with a binder, has a moisture content as low as 28 percent (dry-weight), and is therefore favored for wet-spray applications.

See Industrial Hygiene Report IH-20-27, Cellulose Insulation, for additional information.

Mineral Insulations

Mineral-based insulations may be comprised in whole or part of vermiculite, calcium silicate, asbestos, silica, fibrous glass, mineral wool, or other similar materials. Mineral-type insulations do not absorb moisture, but can hold it in suspension, releasing it readily when subjected to heat or ventilation. The insulation value of the material decreases rapidly when compressed. Contact with the soil or moisture is not advisable because of its permeability to moisture. Mineral insulation generally is rot-proof, vermin-proof, and low in combustibility. It is used in boilers, furnaces, heated pressure vessels, some electrical appliances, as well as building insulation. Mineral insulation runs the gamut from products that have little effect on consumers to those with potentially serious toxicological effects.

There are two primary health considerations associated with the use of asbestos and fibrous glass: irritation of the skin from touching the material and irritation of the lungs due to breathing particles of the insulation suspended in air. In contrast, reports on losses associated with the other mineral insulations, such as vermiculite, perlite, and mineral wool, have been limited. These products are either non-fibrous or have relatively thick fibers that do not easily penetrate the skin and are not readily inhaled.

Asbestos. Asbestos is a widely used, mineral-based insulating material that is resistant to heat and corrosive chemicals. Since 1972, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has regulated asbestos exposure in general industry, which has resulted in a significant decline in the use of asbestos-containing materials. In buildings built before 1980, all sprayed-on and troweled-on insulating materials should be considered as asbestos-containing materials, unless properly analyzed and found not to contain more than one percent asbestos. Depending on the chemical composition, fibers may range in texture from coarse to silky. Asbestos fibers enter the body by inhalation of airborne particles or by ingestion and can become imbedded in the tissues of the respiratory and digestive systems.

See Industrial Hygiene Report IH-20-23, Asbestos - OSHA General Industry Standard, for additional information.

Fibrous glass. Fibrous glass, also called fiberglass, is a manufactured fibrous material that is made from raw materials, such as silicon dioxide and oxides of aluminum, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and boron. Studies conducted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) have indicated that fibrous glass has been associated with a substantial number of cases of dermatitis and pulmonary infections. Although inhalation of some types of fibrous materials (i.e., asbestos) can lead to disabling or fatal diseases, this has not been indicated with fibrous glass. As such, OSHA regulates airborne fibrous glass under the nuisance dust standard in "Subpart Z" of the General Industry Standards. Skin irritation can occur to workers exposed to fibrous glass. Many people handling glass fibers for the first time, or after a temporary absence from them, suffer from irritation of the exposed parts of the skin. Fibers of large diameter are more likely to cause irritation by abrasive action, with common locations being the arms, face, and neck.

See Industrial Hygiene Report IH-20-21, Fibrous Glass, for additional information.

Risk Control Considerations

While mineral-based insulation materials are non-combustible, or low in combustibility, the paper or foil backing surrounding the insulating material may be flammable. Insulation backing materials should be fire-retardant and have a maximum flame-spread rating of 25, when tested in accordance with ASTM E-84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials, published by the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and as required by UL 723, Standard for Safety Test for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials, published by Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL).

Plasticized Insulations

Plastic foam insulations, such as polyurethane, polystyrene, and urea formaldehyde, offer the best combination of insulation and vapor tightness. They are not subject to decay or damage from vermin and are suited for tight-fitting, non-vented applications, high-moisture conditions, and direct contact with soil. Sprayed polyurethane expands to 30 times its sprayed depth within three seconds, dries within ten seconds, and adheres to most building materials. However, plastic foam insulations can sustain rapid combustion, and their gases can be toxic.

Polyurethane. Polyurethane foam may be formed at a construction site or installed in the form of board stock (see the "Composite Insulations, Structural Insulated Panels" section). When formed at the site, there is a potential for a completed-operations exposure. If the substance is not cured properly, toxic vapors may be formed that can cause irritation to the eyes and the respiratory tract. This possibility only exists during the early stage of the life of the product. Spontaneous ignition of the polyurethane foam is possible due to heat buildup during the curing stage. Polyurethane foams are combustible and create a smoky fire that is difficult to extinguish.

Drums of the material used in foaming operations may build up pressure because of moisture contamination, volatilization of the blowing agent, and improper loading. Special containers and handling are needed for shipping.

Polystyrene. Polystyrene, like polyurethane, may be formed at the construction site or can be obtained in board stock. Polystyrene is a transparent, water-resistant, and dimensionally stable plastic. When ignited, the substance burns with a very smoky fire that is difficult to extinguish. Polystyrene resins are moderately toxic to humans and are readily absorbed through the skin, as well as by the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems. The principal acute hazards from worker exposure to styrene are central nervous system (CNS) depression and irritation of the eyes, skin, and upper respiratory tract. Storage and handling of the product requires special precautions.

Urea formaldehyde. Urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam insulation, also referred to as formaldehyde-based foam insulation, means any cellular plastic, thermal insulation material that contains, as a component, chemical formaldehyde, formaldehyde polymers, formaldehyde derivatives, or any other chemical from which formaldehyde can be released. One problem with UF use as a home insulation is that when the substance is improperly formulated, an excessive amount of formaldehyde gas may be released. Exposure to small quantities of this gas may cause burning of the eyes and irritation of the upper respiratory passages. It is also a suspected carcinogen. The CPSC declared, in 1982, that UF foam insulation was a banned hazardous product under Sections 8 and 9 of the Consumer Product Safety Act. The ban was overruled by a federal court; however, it sees very limited use in the United States and remains banned in Canada.

UF is an insulation used only in foam-in-place applications because its fragility makes it difficult to handle. It is light in weight, but its open cellular structure permits higher permeability to liquid than other plastic insulations. Therefore, it is not used in direct contact with liquids or soil. It is considered rot-proof, vermin-proof, and is somewhat less combustible than other foam plastic insulators. Its adherence to confining surfaces is weak.

Risk Control Considerations

An examination of the physical and chemical properties of most plastics reveals that they are not intended for high-temperature conditions or exposure to fire. Like most organic compounds, they will burn under certain conditions. The rate of burning is determined by the polymer grouping and the plasticizers, lubricants, fire retardants, and other additives in the particular plastic. Foamed plastics generally burn much more rapidly than solid plastics. This is due to the large amount of surface area exposed to air in these sponge-like materials. For the most part, plasticized insulations have higher heat content per unit weight than most materials, thereby intensifying its fire hazard.

An important "loss" characteristic is the potential "melt-out" or destruction of dimensional stability of foamed plastic cores, which may lead to the replacement of many panels if they are exposed to a relatively small fire in a building. The critical temperature in some of these products can be as low as 300°C (575°F), which is a temperature that can be reached very quickly in an ordinary fire. The loss may occur even where the insulation is shielded by other materials.

Another concern is spontaneous ignition of polyurethane foam due to heat buildup during the curing stage. Plastics produce significantly more smoke than other types of insulation materials. When polyurethane and polystyrene burn, they create a very smoky fire that is difficult to extinguish.

Foamed plastic that is injected into wall cavities can help propagate a fire in the wall cavity. Most building codes require that the material have a specific flame-spread rating as determined by using the method described in NFPA 255, Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials. Research has shown that a fire will spread more rapidly upward if there is an air space between the wall and foamed plastic.

Sprayed-on urethane insulation (i.e., foamed plastic) is still popular in some areas and is used as an insulating material for ironclad metal buildings and in other types of construction, such as wood-frame. NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code, provides information on the use of "Foamed Plastic" in subsection 10.

NFPA 5000, Subsection 10.4.3 prohibits "cellular or foamed plastic materials" from being used as an "interior wall and ceiling finish" unless certain conditions are met, as outlined in Subsections 10.4.3.1 and 10.4.3.2. These conditions include:

Demonstration, by large-scale fire testing, that the material meets the flammability ratings' requirements for the intended occupancy.

When used as part of trim material, it must not total more than ten percent of the wall or ceiling area; and provided that it is not less than 20 lb/ft3 (320 kg/m3) in density, be limited to 0.5 in (13 mm) in thickness and 4 in (100 mm) in width, and comply with the requirements for Class A or Class B interior wall and ceiling finish, as described in 10.3.2; however, the smoke rating is not limited.

The International Building Code (IBC), published by the International Codes Council (ICC), provides similar requirements in Chapter 26, Subsection 2603. Included is the requirement in Subsection 2603.4 for the foam to be separated from the interior of the building by an "approved thermal barrier;" with limited exceptions.

Composite Insulations

Composite-insulating products, such as structural insulated panels, insulating concrete forms, and exterior insulation and finish systems, consist of one or more of the three types of insulation enclosed by other materials that provide mechanical strength or improve its appearance. Many applications for insulation require a composite form. Composite products have distinct characteristics that may differ from the basic characteristics listed for the three primary types of insulation. Compressed or laminated insulations, such as the organic-based materials, usually are treated with additives to reduce their flammability and increase their useful life. However, this treatment will also change its basic thermal characteristics.

Structural insulated panels (SIPs). Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) were first introduced in the building industry in the mid-1980s. Their design is simple: a core of rigid foam insulation sandwiched by oriented strand board (OSB). Technically, each one-piece building panel consists of a solid core of expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam sandwiched between "skins" of OSB, plywood, sheet metal, or gypsum. Each panel is produced in a factory-controlled setting in sizes ranging from 4ft x 8ft (1.2m x 2.4m) to 8ft x 24ft (2.4m x 7.2m).

SIPs can make up an entire structural assembly with little, if any, of other framing. SIPs can be used in the construction of residential homes, strip-mall buildings, or small commercial projects. The properties of foam core panels vary, depending on size and thickness as well as the type of foam core and "skins" used.

See Construction Management Report CM-45-12, Structural Insulated Panels, for additional information.

Insulating concrete forms. Insulating concrete forms, (ICFs) are hollow foam blocks or panels that are stacked into the shape of the exterior walls of a building. Workers then pour reinforced concrete inside, creating a foam-concrete sandwich. Other material, such as recycled wood, polyurethane, and various cement mixtures, can also be used. The result is a wall that is exceptionally strong, energy-efficient, and durable and can be built in any style. The most commonly used materials for the blocks or panels are either expanded polystyrene foam or extruded polystyrene foam. The forms fit together with interlocking tongue and groove joints and are stacked according to the building design. If ties are required to hold the forms together, they are usually made of either metal or plastic.

See Construction Technology Report CT-40-07, Insulating Concrete Forms, for additional information.

Exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFS). In construction terms, Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS) are known as "barrier-type systems." EIFS, also referred to as "synthetic stucco," are multi-layered exterior wall systems that are used on both commercial buildings and homes. While each EIFS differs in design, they typically consist of a polystyrene-based insulation board, a cementitious base coat reinforced by glass fiber mesh, and an acrylic-based finish coat. The insulation board is glued or fastened to the underlying substrate, such as plywood, sheet metal, brick, or stone, and the base and finish coats applied to complete the system.

EIFS that use a combustible insulation or substrate create an inherent fire hazard during construction. These materials may be exposed (sometimes for several weeks) during construction. To reduce the risk of fire, only the amount of combustible insulation that can be covered with the base coat in the same day should be installed.

See Construction Technology Report CT-30-04, Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems, for additional information.

Reflective Foil Insulation

Reflective insulation is insulation (closed-cell foam, fiberglass, wool, etc.) covered by a reflective surface (foil) that is designed to both insulate from heat loss and reflect radiant heat back into the space. These coverings are often found in unfinished garages and other large spaces where reflection of radiant heat back into the space aids in temperature control.

Reflective insulations are categorized into two primary types: single-layer and multi-layer.

Single-layer is actually a laminate consisting of a Kraft paper core faced on both sides with aluminum foil adhered to it with a fire-retardant (FR)-treated adhesive. Multi-layered foil usually consists of top and bottom layers of Kraft paper/aluminum foil laminates with the aluminum foil facing outward and multiple mid-layers aluminized i.e., (covered) Kraft paper. Each sheet is separated by a dead air space of approximately 1in (25mm).

Since the early 1980s, most reflective insulation has been treated with fire retardants. Reflective Insulation Manufacturers Association International (RIMA-I) provides technical specifications for reflective insulation on their website. The RIMA specifications require that products have a flame-spread rating of not more than 25, when tested in accordance with ASTM E84 - 11a, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials. Another concern that has been theorized is that with the metallic coating being a conductor, a faulty or uninsulated wire in contact with the product can present a hazard. However, faulty wiring presents a hazard regardless of the insulation type, and the thinness of the foil may limit the ability of the product to carry any current by disintegrating.

In general, all insulation presents some degree of risk. Properly tested, installed, and protected insulation provides only minimal risk of property loss. The manufacturers' recommendations for installation and care of insulating materials, in addition to the requirements of code, should be followed.

For more information on loss control and managing business risks, check out the American Family Insurance Loss Control Resource Center.

COPYRIGHT ©2012, ISO Services, Inc.

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Many different types of insulation are used in construction, from simple, cellulose-based products to specially engineered, composite-based building components. Learn more about different types of insulating materials available and the loss considerations for these products.

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It's impossible for a building to be considered " earthquake proof." Earthquakes vary in type, location and magnitude, and even some of the best retrofitting may not stand up to an overwhelmingly powerful earthquake (say, an 8.5). Even so, you can take measures to secure a building before an earthquake and to prevent potentially dangerous complications afterward. It starts with making sure your house doesn't move from its foundation during the earthquake's resulting ground motion.

A seismic retrofit generally involves bolting the house to the foundation -- if it's not already. Plywood is used to brace the walls, which in turn are attached to structural supports known as floor framing. The foundation itself might need some work. For example, an expert might recommend that an old brick foundation be replaced or "capped" with concrete [source: Burnett]. These efforts, when done properly, can help to shift the earthquake's force. Instead of damaging the structure of the house or knocking it off its foundation, the foundation itself absorbs the brunt of the shaking.

Usually the actual shaking of the quake tends to do the most damage to buildings. The distance from the epicenter and the magnitude determine how much damage might be caused, but the type of soil and construction of the house are important as well. A weak foundation on top of soft, sandy soil poses more hazards than a firm foundation on solid bedrock. In addition to shaking, earthquakes may also bring with them fire, water leaks and other aftereffects.

Retrofitting can costs tens of thousands of dollars, though it may be much less. Some contractors specialize in retrofitting, but a structural engineer may be needed.

Besides securing the foundation and structure, individual items should also be considered. Large pieces of furniture, particularly those that are taller than they are wide, should be bolted to the wall. Store breakable items on low shelves or in cabinets than can be secured shut. Be careful of placing pictures or other items that could fall over beds. Finally, make sure you have a working fire extinguisher.

During the retrofitting process, it's a good time to identify places that will be safe during a quake, though we'll discuss this topic more later. Also keep in mind that emergency instructions (such as for shutting off gas) should be handy, and make sure you have a pair of good shoes, a flashlight and warm clothing readily accessible.

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Earthquake Survival: Securing the Home - Earthquake survival in your home is discussed in this section. Learn about earthquake survival.

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Triangle Fire | Timeline

Deadliest Workplace Accidents

March 25, 1911
New York, New York
Workers at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory become trapped after a tossed match ignites an enormous fire. Exits are blocked, and several people jump out of the ninth and tenth-floor windows in attempt to escape. The 146 victims were mostly women and girls.

March 8, 1924
Castle Gate, Utah
A miner ignites a pocket of methane gas while lighting his safety lamp, causing an underground explosion that kills 172 men.

1930s
Boulder City, Nevada
Over the five-year construction period of the Hoover Dam, there are at least 96 construction-related deaths, though accurate records were not kept. Many are caused by carbon monoxide poisoning in the diversion tunnels.

April 16 and 17, 1947
Texas City, Texas
The S.S. Grandcamp explodes while in port, killing 581 people. It had been holding roughly 2,300 tons of ammonium nitrate when someone noticed a fire on board.

July 6, 1988
North Sea
An American oil rig, the Piper Alpha, explodes and kills 167 men.

Originally published in 2011.

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Deadliest Workplace Accidents | American Experience | PBS

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Danger can be ever present in some jobs. Explore some of the deadliest workplace accidents since 1860.

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Industrial fires claim multiple lives and millions of dollars in direct and shut-down costs annually. Their prevention should be sought in all aspects of industrial design, including insulation. However, much confusion has surrounded insulation material combustibility and toxicity. Misleading terminology based on some equally misleading testing methods has led to the questionable evaluation of the fire and toxic smoke risk.

When people think of fire as a cause of death, they often think of flames; however, in a list of the four ways in which fire can kill, flames are the least likely cause of death.*

Asphyxiation - Fire consumes oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere, thus reducing its concentration. If the oxygen concentration falls below 17%, critical thinking and coordination may become difficult. When concentration falls below 16%, attempts to escape the fire may be irrational, wasting vital seconds. With further drops, a person loses his muscular coordination for skilled movements, and muscular effort leads rapidly to fatigue. Breathing ceases when the oxygen content falls below 6%.

Exposure to super-heated air or gases - With temperatures above 150 °C (300 °F), loss of consciousness or death can occur within several minutes. In addition, hot smoke with high moisture content is a special danger since it destroys tissues deep in the lungs by burning.

* Alarifi, A.& Phylaktou, H. & Andrews, G. (2016). What Kills People in a Fire? Heat or smoke

Smoke and toxic products - Inhalation of smoke or the products of incomplete combustion, can kill without any exposure to flames. In addition to carrying toxic products, thick smoke may be laden with organic irritants, such as acetic acid and formaldehyde. In the early stages of a fire, the irritants which attack the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, are often the more significant danger. In addition, smoke also blocks the visibility of exits, making it even more difficult to for attempting to flee the dangers of a fire.

Many toxic components of smoke are responsible for injury or death. These substances include but are not limited to, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes, hydrogen cyanide, sulfur dioxide, and ammonia. Furthermore, there is ample evidence that the hazard of two or more toxic gases is greater than the sum of the hazards of each, and low oxygen levels and high temperatures may increase the toxic effects. In addition to toxic gases that attack the lungs, there are irritants that attack the eyes with blinding effects, preventing escape. Some fire gases dull the senses of the victim or his awareness of injury.

Flames - Since the previously mentioned factors can debilitate, confuse, blind, or kill with little or no warning, thinking that advancing flames will always be sufficient warning for escape may be a fatal gamble.

Thermal insulation is recognized as playing a potentially active role in fire propagation, either by being inherently combustible or by absorbing (wicking) liquids that are themselves combustible. Contributing to this danger is a frequent misunderstanding of tests, classifications, terminology, and the protection provided by specific materials. References to "self-extinguishing" and "fire retarding" are often interpreted as the equivalent of "noncombustible."

In most cases, it is not flames, but the smoke and toxic fumes resulting from burning (including "slow-burning" or "self-extinguishing" materials) that cause the highest rate of death or injury.* In fact, of the numerous ways by which fire can kill, flames are the least likely cause. The standard "fire triangle" model illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite and keep going: a combustible material, an ignition source, and a combustion supporter. Eliminate any one of these components and an ongoing fire is not possible. For this reason, it is advisable to use a completely incombustible material, eliminating one of the three elements which contribute to fire propagation.

* Alarifi, A.& Phylaktou, H. & Andrews, G. (2016). What Kills People in a Fire? Heat or smoke

Nearly all manufacturers make claims related to the performance of their insulation materials in situations related to fire exposure. Fire testing often gives varying, ambiguous, or even nontransferable data. For example, the ASTM E84 - Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials and E136 - Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750°C, are often viewed as the industry-wide standard for fire testing of insulation materials. However, a review of the test methodology one can conclude that the tests do not appear directly related to the reality of a real industrial fire. The results of these tests can be significantly altered using fire-retardant additives. While additives can reduce flame spread ratings of plastic foams under test conditions, these may have little retardant effect under actual fire situations.

Other conditions that can significantly affect actual-vs-tested fire behavior are the substrates on which insulation is applied, and the rate at which maximum temperatures are attained in chemical or petroleum fires compared with structural or building fires.

As discussed earlier, just because a material is classified as non-combustible, it does not mean that fire risk is completely mitigated. The absorptive nature and composition of the material can contribute greatly to fire and smoke development and increase overall fire risk.

FOAMGLAS® insulation has been widely tested and proven by real-life situations to be non-absorptive to combustible liquids or gases. The issues with absorption that non-closed cell materials suffer from are eliminated when using closed-cell FOAMGLAS® insulation.

This is also the reason why engineers often specify non-absorptive, non-combustible cellular glass insulation systems as the recommended system for applications with a risk of leaking organic fluids.

Finally, the inorganic nature of cellular glass insulation helps to minimize the potential fire risk of condensed hydrocarbon gases or liquid oxygen as it has proven to minimize the dangers associated with oxidizing organic materials.

Additionally, this also is the reason why FOAMGLAS® insulation does not produce toxic smoke or gases in case of a fire.

Real-life situations have validated test results that showed a smoke development index of zero. This contributes to the overall fire safety by maintaining fast and safe access to escape routes and allowing people to reach emergency services fast.

Insulation materials play an important role in the fire safety of buildings and installations; however, not all insulation materials react the same in case of fire. Designers should consider a wide range of when specifying insulation systems for fire protection.

Material properties such as absorption, the potential for development of smoke and toxic gases, as well as combustibility should be considered as part of the strategy for total fire safety of an insulation system.

We can conclude that a closed-cell, nonabsorbent, incombustible cellular glass insulation system that does not add to the spread of fire nor produce smoke or toxic gases, can help to ensure maximum fire safety.

interested in reading about

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The behavior of industrial insulation in case of fire

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Industrial fires claim multiple lives and millions of dollars in direct and shut-down costs annually. Their prevention should be sought in all aspects of industrial design, including insulation. However, much confusion has surrounded insulation material combustibility and toxicity. Misleading terminology based on some equally misleading testing methods has led to the questionable evaluation of the fire and toxic smoke risk.

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T.T. Lie

This Digest discusses various effects of insulation on fire safety, a subject of current interest because of the greatly increased use of insulation to conserve energy in buildings. It is a summary of Chapter 5 of the National Fire Protection Association Fire Protection Handbook. ¹

Influence on Ignition of Materials

If thermal insulation is applied around heat producing objects, such as light fixtures, the heat produced by the electrical current will not dissipate easily and the objects may become sufficiently hot to ignite materials in contact with them. Some of the new insulating materials can increase the potential for overheating because they release heat during their curing period. Improper installation of insulation by inexperienced contractors or homeowners is another factor that increases the chances of fire by overheating of electrical fixtures.

Insulation applied to the back of a thin lining such as a plywood finish can accelerate ignition when exposed to an ignition source. The insulation reduces the rate of heat loss resulting in more rapid rise in the temperature of the surface facing the ignition source. Insulation has much less effect on surface temperatures for linings thicker than 6 mm.

Besides the cases in which insulation can indirectly contribute to the ignition of materials, the insulation itself may be a potential hazard if it ignites relatively easily.

Influence on Growth of Fire

Adding insulation to the walls and ceiling of a room may increase the rate at which a fire will grow. The insulation will retain heat from the fire in the room in the same way as heat from heating systems is conserved. This accumulation of heat may result in the flashover* stage being reached much earlier than in a room with less insulation.

Once a material, such as the lining in a room, is ignited, the temperature of the surface of the material will largely determine the speed of flame propagation. An increase in the rate at which surface temperature rises will result in more rapid flame propagation and production of flammable gases. For example, foam plastics in a fire will attain a surface temperature of 200°C in a few seconds whereas wood, under the same circumstances, requires 10 minutes to reach that temperature. The very rapid surface temperature rise of foam plastics is probably why some of them propagate flames so quickly -- particularly thermosetting foam plastics. Thermoplastic foam may melt before its temperature reaches a critical value. If that occurs, extremely fast propagation of fire is unlikely.

Protected Foam Plastic

At present, plastic foams for some applications, are required to be protected by a cover that will prevent excessive temperature rise. The flame propagation properties of the cover are determined by its surface characteristics and are essentially independent of the foam plastic underneath it.

A test method for measuring the performance of a protective cover has recently been developed. ² test gives a measure of the time during which the material will protect against a post-flashover* fire. This time is given in Table 1 for various materials. The test ensures that foam plastic will not contribute to the growth of a fire for at least the time indicated by the test results.

Table 1. Time of protection against post-flashover fire.
(Thickness of protection 12.5mm)

Material of protection Protection time, min.

The Division of Building Research has carried out tests on the behaviour of foam plastic material in cavity walls. The results indicate that if foam plastic insulation is sandwiched between two layers of non-combustible materials without an air space, upward propagation of fire is slow, even for plastics with a high flame-spread rating. A typical speed of propagation is a few centimetres per hour. However, if there is an air space between the wall and the foam plastic, the fire may spread upward rapidly but will be prevented from spreading to the room side of the cavity by the non-combustible material forming the wall.

Spread of fire from storey to storey in a cavity wall filled with insulation can be prevented by well designed fire stops. The installation of these stops, prescribed in many building codes, is important if combustible insulation is used in cavity walls.

Insulation in Attics

Fires in concealed spaces can be especially hazardous if the space is wide and enclosed by combustible materials as in some attics. In row houses, for example, fire, smoke and toxic gases may spread quickly through such spaces from one house to another.

The use of loose fill insulation can increase fire potential if the material is combustible. If however, the materials are properly treated with flame retardants and fire stops are correctly installed, loose fill insulation can be used without excessive risk. Proper installation will ensure that electrical devices will not overheat and ignite material surrounding such devices.

Smoke and Toxic Gases

Fire statistics reveal that the products of thermal decomposition (smoke and toxic gases) are responsible for the majority of fire deaths. Many new insulation materials release harmful decomposition products very rapidly, some more rapidly than traditional building materials. Their increased use presents a smoke and toxicity problem which is of great concern.

Smoke. -- The main danger from smoke is the reduction of visibility. It will often impede the escape of occupants from a burning building and prolong the exposure to heat and toxic products produced by the fire.

Table 2 gives the smoke production of various unprotected materials under similar test conditions and the time to obscuration under these conditions. The figures are approximate and are only intended to show the order of magnitude of the smoke production of various materials as observed by one specific fire test.

Table 2. Smoke production of various unprotected materials.

Material Time to obscuration, min.

Some materials used as insulation produce smoke much more rapidly than wood does. If the surface area of the insulation is large and unprotected, most of the smoke produced by a fire in a room may be caused by the insulation. If the surface area is small compared to that of all combustible materials in the room, (not more than 10 per cent), the smoke will not be excessive compared to the smoke produced by all burning materials.

If the insulation is protected, smoke production may drop to very low values. Table 3 shows how a protective cover of 12.5 mm type-X gypsum wallboard influences the smoke production of a number of materials.

Toxic Gases. -- Various methods for evaluating the toxic hazard of fires are discussed in Canadian Building Digest 197. ³

Compounds such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are recognized as harmful products; others such as water vapour and the hydrocarbons contribute little or no toxic hazard. Burning test samples under specified test conditions and determining the resulting concentrations of a few of the most important toxicants usually will give a reasonable indication of the toxicity of insulation materials.

A protective cover over the insulation may substantially delay the development of toxic products. According to measurements made in a room with walls insulated with foam plastic and protected with plywood approximately 6 mm thick, it took more than 20 min. after the ignition of the fire before the insulation generated toxic products.

Under these conditions the materials in the room will play a far greater role than the insulation in the walls in determining whether toxic combustion products will hamper safe evacuation of people during a fire.

Failure of Structural Elements during Fire

Because thermal insulation added to the walls and roofs increases the temperature of a fire in a room, it may add to the risk of failure of structural elements during the fully developed stage of a fire. Besides causing higher fire temperatures, insulation may also increase the rate of temperature rise in roof or wall assemblies; e.g., in the plenum between ceiling and roof if insulation is placed on top of the roof. These temperature changes may affect the fire performance of structural elements and fire separations in various ways.

Roofs. -- Roofs whose fire performance may be affected by the addition of insulation are those supported by steel members, e.g., joists and beams, and those using steel reinforcing (reinforcing and prestressing steel). Steel loses strength when it is heated to high temperatures -- the higher the temperature the lower its strength. There is a critical temperature at which the steel has lost so much strength that it can no longer support the load.

Typical roofs that are supported by steel members are assemblies consisting of a steel deck supported by steel beams or joists and covered with concrete topping. Installing insulation on top of the concrete increases the temperature of the supporting steel during a fire. If the concrete is sufficiently thick, however. this increase will be small. Adding insulation has no significant effect on the fire resistance of a roof assembly if the thickness of the concrete is 5 cm or greater. ⁴ If there is no concrete cover and the insulation is placed directly on the steel deck the fire resistance of the roof assembly may be reduced substantially.

Walls. -- Walls lined on the room side with an insulating material will increase fire temperatures. There is also risk of flame spread across the insulation if it is combustible and not covered by a protective lining. The temperatures in the wall will be lower and its fire resistance will improve. The over-all effect of a cover on a wall's structural fire performance will be favourable, particularly if the lining is a good insulator.

If the insulation is installed in a cavity, the effect on the structural fire resistance of the wall may be unfavourable. This is particularly trite of thin walls, where large deflections may be produced and cause the wall to buckle due to unequal expansion of the wall material on opposite sides of the cavity.

Although adding insulation may reduce the structural fire performance of fire barriers, such as roofs, floors and walls, it increases their thermal fire resistance, i.e., their ability to prevent excessive heat penetration through the fire barrier.

Table 3. Influence of protection on smoke production.
(Protection of 12.5 mm Type-X Gypsum Wallboard)

Material Time to Obscuration, min.

Unprotected Protected

Cork

3.3

180

Polystyrene foam

2

13

Polyurethane foam

0.7

2.5

Summary

The effect of thermal insulation on fire safety in buildings and the resulting potential hazards may be summarized as follows:

1. Insulation can affect the ignition of materials.

it can increase temperature around heat producing objects such as light fixtures.

applied to the back of thin linings it increases the potential for more rapid ignition.

it may be a potential hazard if it ignites easily. particularly in confined spaces such as attics.

2. Insulation can influence the rate at which a fire will grow.

a well insulated room will retain heat with resulting potential for faster fire growth.

3. Some insulations are potential hazards as they ignite relatively easily and propagate flame.

this can increase the rate at which fire propagates as high surface temperatures are attained more quickly.

foam plastic in cavity walls with air space has the potential for rapid flame spread.

4. Some insulation products release harmful decomposition products that result in greater production of smoke and toxic gas.

smoke and toxic products reduce visibility impeding evacuation during a fire.

5. Higher temperatures during fires in insulated structures may affect structural strength.

structural steel members can lose strength when heated to high temperatures.

higher temperatures can cause deflection and buckling of thin walls.

Most of these potential hazards from insulation can be reduced or eliminated by the use of suitable protective covers and by proper installation and construction practice.

References

1. Fire Protection Handbook, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, 15th ed., Section 5, Chap. 5. (In process.)

2. Standard Method of Test for the Evaluation of Protective Coverings for Foam Plastic, ULC-S124-1976, Underwriters' Laboratories of Canada, Toronto.

3. Sumi, K., and Y. Tsuchiya. Evaluating the Toxic Hazard of Fires. National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Canadian Building Digest 197, July 1978.

4. Stanzak, W. W., and L. Konicek, Effect of Thermal Insulation and Heat Sink on the Structural Fire Endurance of Steel Roof Assemblies, Can. J. Civ. Eng., 6, 1979, pp. 32-35.

* Flashover is characterized by an almost instantaneous ignition of materials in all parts of the room.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
Government of Canada, National Research Council Canada, Institute for Research in Construction

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CBD-218. Effects of Insulation on Fire Safety - NRC-IRC

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CBD-218. Effects of Insulation on Fire Safety

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A flood happens when water overflows or soaks land that is normally dry. There are few places on Earth where people don't need to be concerned about flooding.

Subjects

Ecology, Earth Science, Geology, Engineering, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography, World History

A flood happens when water overflows or soaks land that is normally dry. There are few places on Earth where people don't need to be concerned about flooding. Generally, floods take hours or even days to develop, giving residents time to prepare or evacuate. Sometimes, floods develop quickly and with little warning.

A flood can develop in a many ways. The most common is when rivers or streams overflow their banks. These floods are called riverine floods. Heavy rain, a broken dam or levee, rapid icemelt in the mountains, or even a beaver dam in a vulnerable spot can overwhelm a river and send it spreading over nearby land. The land surrounding a river is called a flood plain.

Coastal flooding, also called estuarine flooding, happens when a large storm or tsunami causes the sea to rush inland.

Floods are the second-most widespread natural disaster on Earth, after wildfires. All 50 states of the United States are vulnerable to flooding.

Effects of Floods

When floodwaters recede, affected areas are often blanketed in silt and mud. This sediment can be full of nutrients, benefiting farmers and agribusinesses in the area. Famously fertile flood plains like the Mississippi River valley in the American Midwest, the Nile River valley in Egypt, and the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East have supported agriculture for thousands of years. Yearly flooding has left millions of tons of nutrient-rich soil behind.

However, floods have enormous destructive power. When a river overflows its banks or the sea moves inland, many structures are unable to withstand the force of the water. Bridges, houses, trees, and cars can be picked up and carried off. Floods erode soil, taking it from under a building's foundation, causing the building to crack and tumble. Severe flooding in Bangladesh in July 2007 led to more than a million homes being damaged or destroyed.

Floods can cause even more damage when their waters recede. The water and landscape can be contaminated with hazardous materials, such as sharp debris, pesticides, fuel, and untreated sewage. Potentially dangerous mold can quickly overwhelm water-soaked structures.

As flood water spreads, it carries disease. Flood victims can be left for weeks without clean water for drinking or hygiene. This can lead to outbreaks of deadly diseases like typhoid, malaria, hepatitis A, and cholera. This happened in 2000, as hundreds of people in Mozambique fled to refugee camps after the Limpopo River flooded their homes. They soon fell ill and died from cholera, which is spread by unsanitary conditions, and malaria, spread by mosquitoes that thrived on the swollen river banks.

In the United States, floods are responsible for an average of nearly 100 deaths every year, and cause about $7.5 billion in damage.

China's Yellow River valley has seen some of the world's worst floods in the past 100 years. The 1931 Yellow River flood is one of the most devastating natural disasters ever recorded-almost a million people drowned, and even more were left homeless.

Natural Causes of Floods

Floods occur naturally. They are part of the water cycle, and the environment is adapted to flooding. Wetlands along river banks, lakes, and estuaries absorb flood waters. Wetland vegetation, such as trees, grasses, and sedges, slow the speed of flood waters and more evenly distribute their energy. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the wetlands along the Mississippi River once stored at least 60 days of flood water. (Today, Mississippi wetlands store only 12 days of flood water. Most wetlands have been filled or drained.)

Floods can also devastate an environment. The most vulnerable regions are those that experience frequent floods and those that have not flooded for many years. In the first case, the environment does not have time to recover between floods. In the second case, the environment may not be able to adapt to flood conditions.

In August 2010, Pakistan experienced some of the worst floods of the century. The annual monsoon, on which Pakistani farmers and consumers rely, was unusually strong. Tons of water drenched the nation. The Indus River burst its banks. Because the river flows almost directly through the narrow country, almost all of Pakistan was affected by flooding.

Millions of Pakistanis lost their homes, and almost 2,000 died in the floods. The province of Punjab, the country's agricultural center, was particularly devastated. Rice, wheat, and corn crops were destroyed. The impact of the floods continued long after the monsoon dwindled and the Indus subsided. Pakistanis experienced food shortages, power outages, and loss of infrastructure. Outbreaks of cholera and malaria developed near resettlement camps. Experts estimated that the rebuilding effort would cost up to $15 billion.

Sometimes, floods are triggered by other natural disasters, such as earthquakes and tsunamis. In January 2011, a major earthquake struck off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. The quake triggered a massive tsunami, its crest reaching as high as 40 meters (131 feet). The tsunami crashed more than 10 kilometers (six miles) inland, flooding homes, businesses, schools, parks, hospitals, and the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant. A dam holding a reservoir burst, triggering another flood that destroyed homes.

Rain that accompanies hurricanes and cyclones can quickly flood coastal areas. The rise in sea level that occurs during these storms is called a storm surge. A storm surge is a type of coastal flood. They can be devastating. The storm surge that accompanied the 1970 Bhola cyclone flooded the low-lying islands of the Ganges Delta in India and Bangladesh. More than 500,000 people were killed, and twice that number were left homeless.

The strong winds associated with hurricanes and cyclones can also whip up and move huge amounts of water, forcing a storm surge far inland. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina brought huge amounts of wind and rain to the Gulf Coast of the United States. The city of New Orleans, Louisiana, was particularly hard-hit. The storm surge from Hurricane Katrina caused some of the city's levees to break. Levees protect New Orleans from the Mississippi River. The river rushed in and flooded entire neighborhoods. Hundreds of people drowned, and the storm did more than $100 billion in damage.

Artificial Causes of Floods

Floods can also have artificial sources. Many man-made floods are intentional and controlled.

Rice farmers, for instance, rely on flooded fields. Rice is a semi-aquatic crop-it grows in water. After rice seedlings are planted, farmers flood their fields, called rice paddies, in about 15 to 25 centimeters (six to 10 inches) of water. Rice paddies must be carefully engineered to allow controlled flooding. Strong dikes or levees, as well as regulated channels for irrigation, are required.

Sometimes, engineers flood an area to restore an ecosystem. In 2008, the U.S.'s Grand Canyon was deliberately flooded. Water was released from dams on the Colorado River, which runs through the Grand Canyon. In 20 minutes, enough water was released from a dam at Lake Powell, Utah, to fill up the Empire State Building. Hydrologists, engineers, and environmentalists hoped that flooding the canyon would help redistribute sediment-which had been blocked up by dams-and create sandbars. Sandbars provide a wildlife habitat, often serving as a shallow bridge for animals such as beavers and bighorn sheep to cross from one side of the river to the other.

Dams control the natural flood plains of lakes and rivers. Hydrologists may intentionally flood areas to prevent damage to the dam or increase the water supply for agriculture, industry, or consumer use.

Engineers may also intentionally flood areas to prevent the possibility of worse flooding. When heavy rains caused the Souris River to flood in 2011, for example, the water level nearly reached the top of the Alameda Reservoir in Oxbow, Saskatchewan, Canada. Faced with the prospect of catastrophic flooding if the entire dam broke, engineers chose to release huge amounts of water. The reservoir remained intact, but the release contributed to massive floods in both Saskatchewan and the U.S. city of Minot, North Dakota.

Not all man-made floods are intentional, however. The natural banks of rivers and streams shrink as people develop land nearby. River banks are valuable real estate for housing, businesses, and industry. From Shanghai, China, to San Antonio, Texas, U.S., rivers are the sites of busy urban areas. In rural areas, factories use river currents to distribute runoff. To accommodate such development, river banks are paved with hard, non-porous materials. Soils and plants are replaced with concrete and asphalt, which can't absorb water. An unusual amount of rain can cause these rivers to quickly overrun their concrete banks.

Australia is conducting an investigation of Brisbane's development decisions after the Brisbane River overran its banks and flooded the country's capital in 2011. Streets, downtown business districts, and bridges were destroyed. Water reached the third row of seats in the city's rugby stadium. The flood waters were high enough at two meters (six feet) that bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) were spotted swimming up major streets.

Concrete banks also increase the amount of runoff flowing to nearby bodies of water. This increases the risk of coastal flooding. Venice, Italy, for instance, is frequently flooded as tides from the Adriatic Sea seep into the heavily developed islands on which the city rests.

Hydrologists, engineers, and city planners constantly work to reduce flood damage. Shrubs and plants create buffers to prevent runoff from seeping into flood plains, urban areas, or other bodies of water. The thick vegetation between a river and a flood plain is called a riparian zone.

Despite their efforts, people can also radically fail to control floods. The most famous flood in American history, the Johnstown Flood, was an artificial disaster. The tragedy killed 2,209 people and made headlines around the country.

Johnstown, Pennsylvania, U.S., was on a floodplain at the meeting of the Stony Creek and Little Conemaugh rivers. As more people moved to the city, the banks of the rivers were paved and narrowed, causing yearly flooding. Residents were prepared for this. They watched the river and moved their belongings upstairs or onto rooftops as the city flooded.

However, residents were not prepared for the additional flood from an entire lake. Located in nearby mountains, Lake Conemaugh was a reservoir created by the South Fork Dam. The lake was an exclusive retreat for members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, which owned the dam. Lake Conemaugh contained 20 million tons of water.

On May 31, 1889, the dam broke and the water rushed down the river at 64 kilometers (40 miles) per hour. Johnstown's leading industry was steel production, and the flood waters quickly became choked with industrial debris-steel cables, chemical solvents, glass, rail cars. The flood destroyed a wire factory, filling the water with tons of barbed wire. About 80 people died when floating wreckage caught fire.

Rebuilding Johnstown took years-the bodies of some victims were not found until 20 years later. Although the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club failed to maintain the dam, members of the club successfully argued that the disaster was an "act of God."

Flood Classification

Disaster experts classify floods according to their likelihood of occurring in a given time period. The most common classifications are a 10-year flood, a 50-year flood, and a 100-year flood. A 100-year flood, for example, is an extremely large, destructive event that would be expected to happen only once every century.

But this is only an estimate. What "100-year flood" actually means is that there is a 1 percent chance that such a flood could happen in any given year. In recent decades, 100-year floods have occurred more frequently. This may be due to global warming, the current period of climate change.

The Red River, which flows along the border of North Dakota and Minnesota, chronically floods. Anything over 8.5 meters (28 feet) is considered "flood stage" in the area. In 1997, the river crested at almost 12 meters (40 feet), a record level. In 2009, the record was beaten as the river flooded again, reaching a height of almost 12.5 meters (40.8 feet). The river flooded for 61 days.

Flash floods can develop within hours of heavy rainfall. Flash floods can be extremely dangerous, instantly turning a babbling brook into a thundering wall of water that sweeps away everything in its path. Most deaths from flooding occur as a result of flash floods. Flash floods do not have a system for classifying their magnitude.

Deserts are vulnerable to flash floods. Wadis and arroyos are dry river beds that only flow during heavy rains. Wadis can be dangerous during flash floods because they rarely have riparian zones to slow the flood's energy. The city of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, developed on the site of several wadis, and floods are frequent after heavy rains. More than 100 people died in flash floods in Jeddah in 2009. The floods developed so quickly that many victims drowned in their cars as streets became submerged.

Predicting Floods

Today, hydrologists study past flood patterns to help predict where and when floods will happen in the future. The predictions are only estimates, however. Weather, land, and climate can all change.

An area's soil and groundwater provide clues about flooding. Pedologists, or soil scientists, work with hydrologists to determine how much water a region's earth can absorb. Agricultural soil, for instance, can absorb much more water than sand or bare rock. Groundwater is water already in the earth-in soil, underground reservoirs called aquifers, and even porous rocks. The type of soil and the amount of groundwater tells hydrologists how much more water the earth can absorb.

Determining the amount of runoff in an area can also provide clues about the possibility of flooding. Runoff happens when there is more water than soil can absorb. Excess water overflows and runs on top of the land. Runoff can come from natural processes, such as icemelt. It can also come from human activity, such as excess irrigation, sewage, and industrial waste. Controlling runoff can help control floods.

Hydrologists work with meteorologists to evaluate snowfall and snowpack. Melting snow contributes to runoff and increases groundwater levels. When snow melts quickly, the ground may not have time to absorb the water. Snowfall is one of the biggest contributors to flooding, and cannot always be predicted. Rapid snowmelt in the Andes Mountains, for example, creates mudslides and floods that disable railways and bridges. In 2010, snowmelt flooding trapped 4,000 tourists in towns near the remote historic site of Machu Picchu, Peru, for two days.

Modern technology helps researchers predict floods. Doppler radar, for example, shows scientists where a storm is most severe. Doppler uses motion to detect weather patterns and create computerized images of rainfall. Automated gauges placed in rivers measure the height and speed of river currents, and the amount of rain received. Geographic information system (GIS) maps made with this information help scientists warn people if a river will overrun its banks and flood areas nearby.

Preventing Floods

For thousands of years, people have tried to prevent and control floods. Yu the Great, for example, is a legendary figure in Chinese history. Around 2100 B.C.E., Yu developed a way to control the devastating floods of the Yellow River. Yu studied data from previous Yellow River floods, noting where the flow was the strongest and flood plains were most vulnerable. Instead of damming the river, Yu dredged it-he and a team of engineers made river channels deeper to accommodate more water. Yu also oversaw the construction of numerous irrigation canals, which diverted the flow of the river's mainstem during times of flooding.

It's not always possible to prevent floods, but it is often possible to minimize flood damage. Structures around rivers, lakes, and the sea can contain flood waters. Levees, runoff canals, and reservoirs can stop water from overflowing.

Levees are usually made of earth. They are built by piling soil, sand, or rocks near a river's banks. Levees may also be made of blocks of wood, plastic, or metal. They may even be reinforced by concrete. Levees in New Orleans, for example, use compacted earth, wooden beams, iron rebar, steel pilings, and concrete to hold back the mighty Mississippi River.

Runoff canals are man-made channels. These structures are connected to rivers and direct excess water away from buildings and residences. One of the first canals in North America was constructed in about 200 B.C.E. to control the seasonal flood waters of Lake Okeechobee, Florida, U.S. Today, southern Florida is criss-crossed by runoff canals that redirect the flow of the Everglades, the "River of Grass" that runs from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. These canals redirect flood water away from urban areas in southern Florida and toward irrigation canals primarily used for fields of sugar cane.

Natural and artificial reservoirs help prevent flooding. Natural reservoirs are basins where fresh water collects. Man-made reservoirs collect water behind a dam. They can hold more water in times of heavy rainfall. In April 2011, the government of Ethiopia announced plans for a large dam on the Blue Nile River. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which would be the largest dam in Africa, would create a reservoir capable of holding 67 billion cubic meters (2.4 trillion cubic feet) of water. The dam would prevent flooding downstream and provide the nation with hydroelectric energy.

Conserving wetlands also reduces the impact of floods. Wetlands provide a natural barrier, acting as a giant sponge for storm surges and flood plains. The swamps and bayous of America's southern Louisiana and Mississippi, for instance, protect inland areas from both coastal and riverine flooding. Wetlands absorb the storm surge from hurricanes that hit the area from the Gulf of Mexico. Wetland riparian zones that line the Mississippi River protect fertile flood plains as the river overflows its banks.

Many governments mandate that residents of flood-prone areas purchase flood insurance and build flood-resistant structures. Massive efforts to mitigate and redirect floods have resulted in some of the most ambitious engineering efforts ever seen. The Thames Barrier is one of the largest flood-control projects in the world. The Thames Barrier protects the urban area of London, England, from floods from storm surges that rush up the River Thames from the Atlantic Ocean. A series of 10 steel gates span the river near London's Woolrich district. Each gate can hold back 9,000 tons of water, and disappears into the river when the water is calm.

Perhaps the most extensive and sophisticated flood-prevention program is the Zuiderzee Works in the Netherlands. The Netherlands is a low-lying nation that is plagued by coastal flooding from the North Sea. Beginning in the 1200s, the Dutch began to erect a series of massive dikes and levees on its coast. In the 1900s, Dutch engineers worked to isolate and dam an entire inlet of the North Sea, the Zuiderzee. The largest part of the Zuiderzee Works is the Afsluitdijk, a 32-kilometer (20-mile) dike that cuts off the Zuiderzee from the North Sea. In addition to protecting the Netherlands from flooding, the Zuiderzee Works has drained parts of the Zuiderzee for development.

Fast Fact

Apres Moi, le Deluge
"After me, the flood" (in French, " apres moi, le deluge") is a phrase attributed to the French King Louis XV or his mistress, Madame de Pompadour.

The phrase is a casual way of expressing irresponsibility, something like "When I leave a project, I don't care if a catastrophe happens. It no longer concerns me."

Fast Fact

Costliest U.S. Floods
As of July 2011, according to the Federal Emergency Management Association (FEMA):
Hurricane Katrina (2005)
$16.2 billion
Hurricane Ike (2008)
$2.6 billion
Hurricane Ivan (2004)
$1.2 billion
Tropical Storm Allison (1989)
$1.1 billion
Louisiana Flood (1995)
$585 million

Fast Fact

Flood Myths
Stories about great, Earth-drowning floods are common throughout world cultures. Many stories are remarkably similar: A deity warns a virtuous man about a catastrophic flood. The man builds a large boat, saving himself, his family, animals, and plants from the flood, which destroys the rest of Earth. Eventually, the man releases two birds to see if they bring back vegetation (which can only grow in soil). A bird returns, and human civilization is saved.

The most famous version of this flood myth is probably the story of Noah, recorded in the Torah, the Bible, and the Quran. Another version is the Mesopotamian legend of Utnapishtim, recorded in the Legend of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest works of literature, predating the Torah by more than a thousand years. The Maasai legend of Tumbainot, the Altai myth of Nama, and the Hawaiian myth of Nuu are all remarkably similar.

Fast Fact

"The Hero of Haarlem"
A popular story concerns a young boy from the town of Haarlem, Netherlands, who notices a leak in the town's dike. The Spaarne River is flowing through a tiny hole in the barrier, threatening to flood the town. The young boy plugs the leak with his finger, and stays there all night. Adults find him the next morning and permanently repair the leak. Although first written about by an American (Mary Mapes Dodge, in her book Hans Brinker, or the Silver Skates), the story is from the Netherlands.

The story has been changed and retold many times. In most versions, the dike is holding back the North Sea, not a river. In some versions of the story, the young boy freezes to death during his all-night stay at the dike.

Media Credits

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Illustrators

Mary Crooks, National Geographic Society

Editors

Jeannie Evers, Emdash Editing, Emdash Editing

Producer

National Geographic Society

other

Last Updated

October 19, 2023

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A flood happens when water overflows or soaks land that is normally dry. There are few places on Earth where people don't need to be concerned about flooding.

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Buildings In Earthquakes—How it's constructed impacts what you feel

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'It appears to be a total loss': Wildfires devastate Lahaina's infrastructure

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Last week's blaze took out power lines, roads and water systems in Maui, Hawaii, local officials say, but no major construction projects seem to have been affected.

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Images, maps and graphics explaining how the devastating fire at Grenfell Tower may have started and how it spread.

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Research has spawned numerous innovations

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Flood waters can wreak havoc on construction projects, and the impact on property owners and contractors alike can be financially crippling. When the affected area has dried, ruined materials should be disposed of and replaced. The time and cost of these cleanup and replacement delays can be significant. Adding insult to injury, time delays also cut into profits for commercial businesses and add extra frustration and cost.

According to National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) data ranging from 2011-2015, the average flood insurance claim is nearly $43,000 for residential properties and nearly $90,000 for commercial properties.

And that expense isn't limited just to individuals and businesses within flood zones. In fact, people outside of mapped high-risk flood areas file over 20 percent of all NFIP flood insurance claims and receive one-third of Federal Disaster Assistance for flooding. While flood coverage can be available for residential and commercial new construction, remodeling and installation projects, the location of the project is the deciding factor. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) determines which geographic areas fall under the category of critical flood zones. Need for flood insurance and availability of coverage varies on a case-by-case basis, per flood zones and project needs.

Neither you nor your clients can prevent a flood from occurring, of course, but measures can be taken to limit potential physical and financial damage from flood waters. Examples include placing portable barriers (e.g. flood walls or gates at the construction site) and making sure that electrical and mechanical equipment is placed above projected surge heights.

For insurance agents serving builders risk clients, the question should be: If flood coverage is available but isn't purchased, are clients personally prepared to bear the risk of loss from damaging floodwaters? Builders risk insurance coverage forms typically exclude flood damage. However, in many locations, coverage for flood exposure is available and can be added to builders risk policies through a policy endorsement. Clients are also often surprised to learn that purchasing an endorsement for flood coverage on a builders risk policy is often less expensive than purchasing separate flood insurance through the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).

Even clients whose projects are not physically located in designated high-risk flood zones should be encouraged to add flood protection to their builders risk policies. After all, excessive rainfall can result in flooding almost everywhere.

Choosing flood protection is a smart move for any commercial or residential builders risk client. Natural disasters and weather events are generally unpredictable, but being prepared is crucial. Fortunately, builders risk policies can be customized so clients can manage whatever Mother Nature throws their way.

Want to learn more about helping clients mitigate water intrusion and the financial impact that accompanies it? Download this Zurich risk mitigation report, Reducing Water Damage During Construction, today.
This is intended as a general description of certain types of insurance and services available to qualified customers. Your policy is the contract that specifically and fully describes your coverage. The description of the policy provisions gives a broad overview of coverages and does not revise or amend the policy.

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Deciphering the Real Impact of Construction Floods

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US Assure offers optional flood coverage to builders risk policies because water damage is known to be the most common cause of loss during construction projects.

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Written by Saunders Construction on 28th May 2020

There are several types of buildings including soft-story, tilt-up, steel moment frame, non-ductile concrete and URM (unreinforced masonry). What are their characteristics and what can be determined are vulnerable when faced with enduring an earthquake?

Soft-story structures are common among apartment buildings that are characterized by open parking on the ground floor and dwelling units built above. In other types of buildings (retail, commercial) The soft story ground floor may be enclosed by windows that do not provide any structural support and as a result the structures are considered extremely vulnerable to collapse in a major earthquake.

Tilt-up buildings are a technique of pouring a building's walls directly at the jobsite and then levitating or "tilting" the panels into position. Many new commercial buildings in California and across the nation utilized this method.

Many tilt-up structures built prior to 1994 were constructed with limited or weak connections that have been proven to fail in an earthquake, causing severe damage and/or collapse. These building defects can be easily corrected with seismic retrofitting.

Steel moment frame structures are characterized by the use of a rigid steel frame of beams connected to columns to support the many floors of the structure. These structures can sustain brittle fracturing of the steel frames at the welded joints between the beams and the columns. If the moment frames reveal cracks and fissures then they may be susceptible to collapse in a major earthquake.

Non-ductile concrete buildings have concrete floors and/or roofs supported by concrete walls, columns and/or frames. Due to their rigid construction and limited capacity to absorb the energy of strong ground-shaking, these structures are at risk of collapse in an earthquake.

URM (unreinforced masonry) buildings are categorized by walls (both load-bearing and not) and other structures made of brick, cinderblock, or other masonry materials are not braced with rebar or another reinforcing material. These buildings are susceptible to earthquake damage when the structural masonry comes apart due to the lack of strength between the masonry.

In order to protect your assets, do your due diligence and know what type of building you are working with and find out how to strengthen your building's structure when the big one hits.

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The type of building is a major factor in respect to which are most at risk for damage from an earthquake - Saunders Construction

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There are several types of buildings including soft-story, tilt-up, steel moment frame, non-ductile concrete and URM (unreinforced masonry). What are their characteristics and what can be determined are vulnerable when faced with enduring an earthquake? Soft-story structures are common among apartment buildings that are characterized by open parking on the ground floor and dwelling units ...

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A flood can cause extensive damage to your home in a very short amount of time. Water can quickly enter and saturate the building materials, furniture, and personal belongings. Even a few inches of floodwater can create significant damage and make your home uninhabitable. The effects of a flood on your home can be incredibly costly and daunting.

If you live in a flood-prone area, it's essential to be prepared and have a plan in place in case of an emergency. Learn more details on the effects of floods below.

How Does Floodwater Enter a Home?

Floodwater can enter your home through the following routes:

Doors and windows

Cracks in the foundation

The sewer system

Flood vents

Once the water has made its way in, it can quickly cause structural damage and ruin personal belongings.

The Effects of a Flood on Your Home

The following are some of the ways floodwater can damage your home:

It can compromise your foundation. Water can erode the soil around your foundation, leading to cracks and leaks. If water levels are high, there is an increased chance your foundation can wash away, resulting in severe structural problems.

Walls, ceilings, and floors can be impacted. Drywall can swell and break off, ceilings can potentially collapse, and floors can buckle due to the floodwater pressure.

It can damage your personal belongings. Floodwater typically destroys everything in its path, including appliances, electronics, and other home furnishings.

Mold and mildew can proliferate. Mold and mildew can grow in flooded areas within 24 to 48 hours after the event. This can cause health problems for you and your family. Your possessions are also at risk for mold and mildew growth.

Electrical systems can be impaired. Floodwater affects your electrical wiring, which can ultimately pose a fire hazard.

It can contaminate your water supply. Floodwater can spoil your home's water system, resulting in adverse health effects.

It can affect plumbing systems. Your plumbing can go haywire as a result of floodwater, causing leaks. Flooding can therefore occur in other areas of your home.

How to Prepare Your Home for a Flood

If you live in an area that is prone to flooding, here are some steps you can take to fortify your home:

Install flood vents. Flood vents allow water to enter your home without causing damage.

Elevate your appliances. If possible, raise your appliances and electronics above the expected floodwater level.

Anchor your fuel tanks. Securely anchor fuel tanks so they don't float away and aren't a threat to the environment.

Install a sump pump. A sump pump will remove water from your home in the event of a flood.

Have an emergency plan. Have a plan in place in case of an emergency. Your plan should include food supplies, bottled water, and other essential items.

Know your flood risk. Each area in the United States has a designated flood map. Contact your insurance agent or call the National Flood Insurance Program to learn your risk.

Preparing your home in advance can minimize floodwater damage when it happens. These tips can also ensure you and your family remain safe during a flood emergency.

Sump pumps are essential to keeping your property safe from floodwaters.

Types of Flooding

There are a few types of floods that occur in nature:

Flash floods occur when there is a lot of rain in a short period of time. They can also happen when a dam or levee breaks. Flash floods often strike with little or no warning.

Riverine floods, or river floods, happen when rivers overflow their banks. These extreme weather phenomena can be caused by heavy rains, melting snow, or a dam or levee breaking. River flooding usually occurs over days or weeks.

Coastal floods happen when a storm surge and waves from a hurricane or other severe weather event cause seawater to inundate coastal areas. High tides and rainfall can also cause coastal flooding.

Urban floods can result from heavy rains overwhelming the stormwater system in metropolitan regions. Urban flooding can cause property damage and transportation disruptions.

Pluvial floods happen when rainfall exceeds the ground's capacity to absorb water. This type of flood can take place in areas with high levels of clay or other impermeable materials in the ground.

Sewage floods occur when sewage systems are overwhelmed by heavy rains or flooding. Sewage floods can contaminate drinking water and cause health problems.

How to Stay Safe During a Flood

Knowing your flood risks and being prepared is important if you live in an area prone to flooding. Follow these tips to ensure your safety:

If you are instructed to evacuate, do so immediately. Follow the flash flood warning, watch, or advisory issued by local authorities.

Avoid driving through flooded areas. Turn around and go another way if you come across a flooded road.

Do not walk through floodwater. Floodwater can contain bacteria and waterborne diseases that can negatively affect your health.

Do not touch electrical equipment if it is wet or if you are standing in water.

Do not return to your home until the authorities say it is safe.

The Importance of Quick Flood Damage Restoration

Whether from a storm surge or other natural disaster, acting fast is crucial in the event of a flood on your property.

As previously mentioned, mold can form within 24 to 48 hours after water enters your home. Commencing water damage restoration as soon as possible increases the probability that structural drying efforts will be successful, eliminating the need for large-scale demolition and reconstruction.

When it comes to water damage restoration, PuroClean's QuickDry system quickly and effectively dries flooded and water-damaged structures.

PuroClean's unique system uses psychometric science, a proven process that monitors dehumidification and temperature to speed up evaporation and drying in as little as three days or less.

The process uses high-capacity air movers to create an air vortex and LGR dehumidifiers to draw in the wet, cold air and blow out warm and dry air. Everything can be saved when the QuickDry system is activated in time, from carpeting to drywall.

Regardless of what type of drying technology is used or the scope of the water damage, fast action is key to a successful restoration.

For Professional Flood Damage Restoration, Call the PuroClean Remediation Experts!

The recovery process after a major flooding event can be challenging. If you require assistance restoring your property after severe flooding, contact a professional flood damage restoration company like PuroClean. We have the experience and equipment necessary to get your home back to its pre-loss condition. To reach our team 24/7, please call (800) 775-7876.

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What Are the Effects of a Flood on Your Home?

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A flood can cause extensive damage to your home in a very short amount of time. Here's what you need to know about the effects of a flood.

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Oklahoma homeowners know the variety of weather the foundations of their homes must be built to withstand throughout the year, but do you know the degree of damage weather extremes such as flooding can cause?

It's easy to give little thought to your foundation when it is hidden underfoot, but its structural integrity should be at the forefront of your mind in the aftermath of a flood. Without a sturdy, functioning foundation you could find your whole home at peril. Here's what you need to know about the potential damage flooding can do to your foundation.

How does flooding damage your foundation?

Flooding damages your foundation in two main ways: from the force of fast moving water and from the water seeping in and causing or widening foundation cracks. Both kinds of damage weaken the structural integrity of your home and expose its interior to the elements in dangerous ways.

The force of flood waters and debris pressing against your house can be enough to weaken the overall structure or even separate the walls from your foundation. Foundation pilings deep in the ground aren't safe from rapid flood waters either. As the water rushes in, it can create instability that allows pilings to shift or even break. Any movement of your home's foundation puts the entire house at risk of collapse.

Can flooding lead to foundation cracks?

In a word, yes. Flooding can also create or exacerbate foundation cracks. Small cracks naturally form over time due to changes in moisture and temperature, but an extreme force like flood waters can cause cracks that can't be ignored. Foundation cracks will let cold air and moisture into your home, damaging wall and floor materials, ruining electrical elements, and introducing mold spores into your living space. More seriously, large cracks can cause instability to your home's structure, possibly resulting in collapse.

What other parts of your home are impacted by flooding?

It may not always be obvious that a home's foundation has been affected by flooding. It's always a good idea to call a professional to determine the safety of your home after a natural disaster, but there are signs you can look for yourself too. After a flood, look for cracks in door and window frames or note if doors and windows do not open and shut properly anymore. These can be signs that your house is misaligned on its foundation.

Inspect your walls, ceilings, crown molding, and floors for new cracks. Also, walk your floors to test if any are sloping oddly. Take a good look at the outside of your house to see if it has moved off its foundation or if the foundation itself appears misplaced-either higher, lower, or tilted-compared to how it previously sat in relation to your lawn. Finally, look for foundation cracks or other gaps and spaces on the exterior of your home where parts seem to have broken away from each other.
What should you do if you find flood damage?
If you see any of these signs, there's a good chance your home has foundational damage and you will need a professional consultation to determine the extent of the damage and to review restoration options. Foundation damage after flooding is a serious concern for homeowners and one that should be addressed promptly to reduce risk of further damage to your home and danger to your family.

Oklahoma homeowners, if you see signs of structural damage to your foundation, don't put off calling the professionals! Contact us today to schedule a free consultation with our experienced foundation experts. Edens Structural Solutions is here to help!

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What happens to my foundation when there is a flood?

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What happens to my foundation when there is a flood? - It's easy to give little thought to your foundation when it is hidden underfoot, but its structural integrity should be at the forefront of your mind in the aftermath of a flood. Without a sturdy, functioning foundation you could find your whole home at peril.

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An earthquake can be a scary event. Not only do you fear for you and your family's safety, but worrying about the stability of your home when it's all said and done can be a stressful task too. Earthquakes can make anyone feel powerless, but in this article, we will talk about how these events can affect your home and what you can do to fix your home afterward.

How Can Earthquakes Affect Your Home?

Foundation problems come from a shift in the soil below your home's foundation, so you can see how an earthquake can do serious damage to the stability of a house. Living in California this is an ever-present problem. This is why it's important to regularly check your home for signs of damage even after a small earthquake. A serious way that earthquakes can damage your home is by cracking your foundation. Smaller cracks may just be from normal aging of your home settling, but larger cracks that are wider than 1/4 inch are due to earth tremors. Especially horizontal cracks or cracks near windows and doors can indicate foundation movement. Cracks inside of your home might also be a sign of a foundation problem caused by an earthquake.

How To Fix Foundation Damage

If you find signs of a foundation problem in your home after a mild earthquake and you're in the San Diego County and Orange County area contact us today. We are experts at all kinds of foundation repair to lift, stabilize, and support your foundation. Foundations On The Level can reverse any foundation problem while preventing future issues from happening. Call today to get a free quote and learn more about how we can repair earthquake-related problems in your home.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Effects Can Earthquakes Have on Your Foundation?

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We talk about how an earthquake can affect your home's foundation and what you can do to repair your home afterward.

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Editor's Note: This story was updated on 22 August 2019 to clarify our data source. Then on 23 August 2019, we published a separate in-depth article giving more context to the 2019 Amazon fire season.

In the Amazon rainforest, fire season has arrived. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Aqua satellite captured these images of several fires burning in the states of Rondônia, Amazonas, Pará, and Mato Grosso on August 11 and August 13, 2019.

In the Amazon region, fires are rare for much of the year because wet weather prevents them from starting and spreading. However, in July and August, activity typically increases due to the arrival of the dry season. Many people use fire to maintain farmland and pastures or to clear land for other purposes. Typically, activity peaks in early September and mostly stops by November.

As of August 16, 2019, an analysis of NASA satellite data indicated that total fire activity across the Amazon basin this year has been close to the average in comparison to the past 15 years. (The Amazon spreads across Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and parts of other countries.) Though activity appears to be above average in the states of Amazonas and Rondônia, it has so far appeared below average in Mato Grosso and Pará, according to estimates from the Global Fire Emissions Database, a research project that compiles and analyzes NASA data. (Note that while the chart label says 2016, the 2019 data is listed on all of the plots as a green line. Roll your cursor over the green 2019 block below the plot to isolate the 2019 numbers.)
NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin, using MODIS data from NASA EOSDIS/LANCE and GIBS/Worldview and VIIRS data from NASA EOSDIS/LANCE and GIBS/Worldview, and the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership. Caption by Adam Voiland.

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Editor's Note: This story was updated on 22 August 2019 to clarify our data source. Then on 23 August 2019, we published a separate in-depth article giving more context to the 2019 Amazon fire season. In the Amazon rainforest, fire season has arrived.

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An earthquake can be a scary event. Not only do you fear for you and your family's safety, but worrying about the stability of your home when it's all said and done can be a stressful task too. Earthquakes can make anyone feel powerless, but in this article, we will talk about how these events can affect your home and what you can do to fix your home afterward.

How Can Earthquakes Affect Your Home?

Foundation problems come from a shift in the soil below your home's foundation, so you can see how an earthquake can do serious damage to the stability of a house. Living in California this is an ever-present problem. This is why it's important to regularly check your home for signs of damage even after a small earthquake. A serious way that earthquakes can damage your home is by cracking your foundation. Smaller cracks may just be from normal aging of your home settling, but larger cracks that are wider than 1/4 inch are due to earth tremors. Especially horizontal cracks or cracks near windows and doors can indicate foundation movement. Cracks inside of your home might also be a sign of a foundation problem caused by an earthquake.

How To Fix Foundation Damage

If you find signs of a foundation problem in your home after a mild earthquake and you're in the San Diego County and Orange County area contact us today. We are experts at all kinds of foundation repair to lift, stabilize, and support your foundation. Foundations On The Level can reverse any foundation problem while preventing future issues from happening. Call today to get a free quote and learn more about how we can repair earthquake-related problems in your home.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Effects Can Earthquakes Have on Your Foundation?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
We talk about how an earthquake can affect your home's foundation and what you can do to repair your home afterward.

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The Chicago Fire of 1871 and the ‘Great Rebuilding’

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Article on the 140th anniversary of the Chicago Fire focusing on city planning and the “Great Rebuilding.”