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XLI Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Księdza Jana Twardowskiego w Krakowie » Kanał z komentarzami

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Get to know us!  XLI LO Kraków students.

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Welcome to Our School & City!  XLI LO in Kraków.

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Presentation of students Dubois Koszalin

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Lycée Saint Maurice Notre Dame des Champs | Lycée Saint Maurice Lycée Saint Maurice Notre Dame des Champs

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Lycée Saint Maurice Lycée Saint Maurice Notre Dame des Champs | Lycée Saint Maurice Notre Dame des Champs

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Wordwall - Créer les meilleures leçons plus rapidement

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1) city 2) school 3) interests / hobbies 4) music 5) films / series 6) sports 7) countries 8) holidays 9) future jobs and plans 10) University/ studies 11) Sports people, athletes 12) Celebrities, stars.

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1) city 2) school 3) interests / hobbies 4) music 5) films / series 6) sports 7) countries 8) holidays 9) future jobs and plans 10) University/ studies

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Real-time meetings by Google. Using your browser, share your video, desktop, and presentations with teammates and customers.

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Call your penpal and have a ten-minute conversation about anything you want.

Sum up the conversation here.

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Guidelines for Writing an Article about Two Famous People: One French and One Polish

Objective: The goal of this assignment is to write an article comparing two famous people: one from France and one from Poland. You will explore their lives, achievements, and impact on society, making sure to include important details that will help your readers understand why these individuals are well-known and influential.

Step 1: Choose Your Subjects

French Person: Choose a well-known French figure. This could be someone from history, politics, science, art, or entertainment. Some examples include Marie Curie (scientist), Napoleon Bonaparte (historical figure), Edith Piaf (singer), or Emmanuel Macron (current president).

Polish Person: Similarly, choose a famous Polish figure. You might pick someone like Marie Curie (scientist), Lech Wałęsa (politician), Fryderyk Chopin (composer), or Andrzej Wajda (director).

Step 2: Research

French Person:

Find information about their early life, career, and key accomplishments.

Note how their work or actions impacted French culture or the world.

Polish Person:

Research the same aspects: early life, achievements, and influence.

Understand how this person has contributed to Polish society or the global community.

Make sure to use reliable sources like books, articles, or websites from educational institutions to support your article.

Step 3: Organize Your Article Your article should be clear, well-structured, and informative. Follow this structure:

1. Introduction (around 80-100 words):

Briefly introduce the two famous people you have chosen.

Mention why you think it’s interesting to compare them (e.g., both made major contributions to their fields, both were influential in their countries, etc.).

2. Main Body (around 300-350 words):

Paragraph 1: Write about the first person (French). Include key facts like birthdate, background, achievements, and contributions.

Paragraph 2: Write about the second person (Polish). Again, include their early life, accomplishments, and legacy.

Paragraph 3: Compare and contrast the two. Think about their similarities and differences. For example:

How did their work or achievements affect their countries?

Did they face similar challenges in their lives?

What values did they promote or represent?

3. Conclusion (around 80-100 words):

Summarize the main points.

End by explaining why these individuals remain important in history or to society today.

Step 4: Use Proper Language and Tone

Formal Writing Style: Since this is an academic article, use a formal and objective tone. Avoid slang and personal opinions.

Linking Words: Use connectors such as “on the other hand,” “in addition,” “similarly,” or “however” to make comparisons between the two people.

Vocabulary: Use a mix of simple and advanced vocabulary, but always make sure it’s clear and appropriate for your readers.

Step 5: Check Your Work Before submitting your article:

Proofread for mistakes: Check your grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

Make sure your article flows well: Ensure that one idea leads naturally to the next.

Cite your sources: If you used specific quotes or data, make sure to mention where you found them.

Additional Tips:

You may use images if they help illustrate your article (e.g., a famous photo of each person).

Be mindful of word count. Aim for 450-500 words in total.

Make sure to follow the guidelines closely to ensure you have a well-rounded article.

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Guidelines for Creating a Video of a Conversation Between Two Famous People: One French and One Polish

Objective: The goal of this project is to create a video in which two famous historical or modern figures—one from France and one from Poland—engage in a conversation. You will need to imagine what these figures might talk about, considering their backgrounds, achievements, and cultural differences. This video should showcase your understanding of both figures and your creativity in bringing them to life through dialogue.

Step 1: Choose Your Figures

French Person: Select a famous French person. This could be a historical figure or someone contemporary. Consider figures like Napoleon Bonaparte, Marie Curie, Edith Piaf, or Emmanuel Macron.

Polish Person: Similarly, pick a famous Polish person. You could choose someone like Lech Wałęsa, Fryderyk Chopin, Wisława Szymborska, or Andrzej Wajda.

Step 2: Research Your Chosen Figures

Before writing the conversation, it’s important to understand the personalities, achievements, and historical context of the people you have chosen. This will make the conversation more realistic.

French Person:

What are their major achievements?

What were the most important aspects of their life and career?

What were their views on society, politics, or art?

Polish Person:

What are their main accomplishments?

What challenges did they face in their life?

How are they remembered in Poland and internationally?

Step 3: Write the Dialogue

Imagine that these two figures are meeting and having a conversation. The dialogue should reflect their personalities, their time periods, and their achievements.

Context of the Conversation: Think about what they might talk about. For example, if they are both historical figures, they might discuss their experiences in war, politics, or science. If one is a musician and the other a politician, they might talk about the role of art in society and politics.

Tone and Language:

Use formal language and respectful tones—since these people are famous and likely highly respected in their fields.

Dialogue Style: The conversation should be engaging, thoughtful, and informative. Each person should express their viewpoints clearly.

Interactivity: Have them ask each other questions based on their respective lives or expertise.

Length of the Conversation: Keep the conversation concise, around 3 to 5 minutes in length. Ensure the conversation feels natural and balanced—each person should speak for about the same amount of time.

Step 4: Prepare the Script

Write the Script: Write the full conversation out before filming. Be sure to include:

Introduction: Briefly introduce who the two figures are (e.g., “Today, we have Napoleon Bonaparte from France and Lech Wałęsa from Poland discussing their experiences in leadership and revolution.”).

Dialogue: The main part of the conversation, making sure to include pauses for reflection and response. Avoid overly long sentences to keep the conversation flowing.

Conclusion: End the conversation with a conclusion or a reflection that ties back to the individuals' lives or work.

Step 5: Prepare for Filming

Costumes and Props:

If possible, dress as your chosen figures or use props that represent their time or achievements. This will help bring the conversation to life visually.

For example, Napoleon might wear a military uniform, and Marie Curie could have a lab coat or scientific equipment nearby.

Setting:

Choose a simple, quiet location where you can film. You don’t need a complex background—just make sure it's suitable for a conversation (e.g., a table or space where both characters can sit).

Performance Tips:

Stay in character. Imagine how the person would speak and express themselves based on their time, status, and personality.

If you are filming with a partner, make sure to rehearse the conversation to ensure a smooth and natural exchange.

Step 6: Filming the Video

Record the Video:

Make sure both characters are clearly visible and the audio is clear. If you are using a smartphone or camera, set it up on a stable surface.

Focus on good lighting so the video is easy to watch.

Engage in the Conversation: Both characters should have their lines prepared, but they should try to sound natural and spontaneous.

Eye Contact: Look at each other (or the camera, depending on the setup) while speaking. This will make the conversation seem more real.

Step 7: Edit the Video

Edit the Clips: You can use simple video editing software (like iMovie, Windows Movie Maker, or even online tools) to put together the video.

If there are any mistakes, cut them out.

You may add subtitles to make the dialogue easier to follow for the audience.

Add any background music or sound effects only if they enhance the video and do not distract from the conversation.

Step 8: Submit the Video

Final Check: Watch the video before submitting it to make sure:

The conversation is clear and well-paced.

The characters are represented accurately and respectfully.

The video is of good quality (audio and visual).

Submission: Submit your video according to your teacher's instructions (via email, school platform, etc.).

Additional Tips:

Creativity: Feel free to add creative elements, like flashbacks or references to important moments in the lives of the characters.

Accuracy: Ensure that the facts you present in the dialogue are accurate, based on your research.

Language: Since this is for an ESL class at a B2 level, be mindful of using clear and accurate English. Avoid overly complex vocabulary, but aim to use varied and appropriate language.

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Guidelines for Creating a Video Reacting to the Trend "I Don't Want to Be French"

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Guidelines for Creating a Video Reacting to the Trend "I Don't Want to Be French"

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Objective: The goal of this project is to create a video in which you react to the viral trend "I don't want to be French." You will explore why this trend has become popular, share your opinion, and reflect on the cultural and social implications behind it. This project allows you to engage with contemporary social media culture and express your thoughts in a creative and thoughtful way.

Step 1: Understand the Trend

Before creating your video, it's important to research and understand the trend "I don’t want to be French." This could be an internet meme, a reaction to a specific event, or a broader cultural conversation. The trend might involve people expressing frustration with aspects of French culture, politics, or society, or it could be a humorous, satirical commentary.

What is the trend? What are people saying when they claim "I don't want to be French"?

Why is this trend popular? Is it a reaction to something specific in French culture, politics, or society?

Who started it? Are there influencers, celebrities, or social media personalities who have made this trend viral?

This background research will help you provide a more informed and relevant reaction in your video.

Step 2: Decide on Your Approach

You have different options for how you can react to the trend. Choose the approach that feels most natural and interesting to you:

Personal Reaction: Share your own thoughts and feelings about the trend. Do you agree with it? Why or why not? Discuss how it makes you feel about France and French culture.

Cultural Reflection: Reflect on the broader implications of the trend. What does it say about cultural identity and the way people view other countries or cultures? Is it a criticism of French society or something else?

Humorous Reaction: If the trend is satirical or comedic in nature, you can create a lighthearted or funny video reacting to it, but make sure not to cross the line into disrespect.

Historical Context: Provide some historical background if the trend is related to French history or specific events. You can discuss why certain aspects of French history or culture might lead to such a trend.

Step 3: Plan Your Video

Before filming, take some time to plan your video. Here’s how you can structure it:

Introduction (30-45 seconds):

Introduce yourself and explain what you’ll be talking about.

Briefly explain the trend “I don’t want to be French.” and why it has become popular.

State your initial reaction or stance (e.g., whether you agree with the trend or find it controversial).

Main Body (2-3 minutes):

React to the Trend: Discuss your thoughts in detail. You could address:

Why is the trend popular? What do people find appealing or interesting about it?

Is there truth behind it? Do you think there are legitimate issues with French culture, politics, or society that might explain the trend?

Humorous or Satirical Angle: If you're reacting humorously, exaggerate your points in a playful way, but be mindful to avoid offense.

Personal Opinion: Share your own experiences or observations about French culture. Is there anything about being French that you think is misunderstood or misrepresented?

Conclusion (30-45 seconds):

Sum up your reaction. You could also ask your audience for their opinion on the trend (this helps engage your viewers).

End with a reflective or thought-provoking question to leave your audience thinking about the topic.

Step 4: Be Creative and Engage Your Audience

Visuals: If possible, add visuals to make your video more engaging. You could include clips, images, or memes that relate to the trend or help illustrate your points.

Tone and Personality: Your tone should match the approach you’ve chosen. If you’re being serious, maintain a thoughtful and respectful tone. If you’re being humorous, make sure the humor is appropriate for the topic.

Music and Effects: You can add background music to set the mood (make sure it’s not too loud and doesn’t distract from your voice). Simple sound effects or text overlays can add personality to your video.

Step 5: Record Your Video

Set-Up: Choose a quiet and well-lit place to record your video. Make sure your background is clean and not distracting.

Camera/Phone Position: Set your camera at eye level to make the video feel natural and personal. If you are using a smartphone, ensure it is stable and not shaky.

Speak Clearly: Make sure your voice is loud and clear so your audience can easily follow your points.

Step 6: Edit Your Video

Cut Out Mistakes: Edit your video to remove any mistakes or unnecessary pauses. You can use simple editing software like iMovie or online tools (e.g., Canva Video Editor, Adobe Spark).

Add Text or Graphics: You can add text overlays, emojis, or even meme-style reactions to emphasize certain points or make your video more entertaining.

Ensure Smooth Transitions: If you change scenes or add images, make sure the video transitions smoothly.

Step 7: Review and Finalize

Watch the Video: Review your video before submitting. Make sure it’s engaging, clear, and flows well.

Check for Clarity: Ensure that your thoughts are expressed clearly and that your reaction to the trend makes sense.

Be Respectful: Be mindful of cultural sensitivities. Make sure your video does not cross any boundaries or offend people unintentionally.

Step 8: Submit the Video

Format and Length: Ensure that your video meets any technical requirements provided by your teacher (e.g., video format, length).

Submission: Follow your teacher’s instructions for submitting the video, whether through an online platform, email, or classroom portal.

Additional Tips:

Engage Your Audience: Ask your viewers to comment on their own opinions or reactions to the trend. You could ask questions like: “What do you think about this trend?” or “Do you agree with the reasons behind it?”

Stay Balanced: Even if you’re reacting humorously, try to stay balanced and avoid being disrespectful towards French culture or people. Keep it light-hearted, but always thoughtful.

Stay Relevant: Make sure your video is up-to-date with the latest discussions and context around the trend.

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What do you know about your pen pal? Sum up the conversations you had here.

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What do you know about your pen pal? Sum up the conversations you had here.

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The Men and Women of the Polish Resistance | Poland at War Tours

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Join Poland at War Tours as we uncover the story of the brave men and women who risked everything in opposition to the brutal occupation of Poland.

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Author's note: Many of the locations mentioned in this article have changed names several times over the course of the twentieth century. In order to maintain historical accuracy, I have used the names of places as they were in 1944, but have included present-day designations as needed in parentheses to avoid confusion.

"The boundary between fighters and participants has been erased...it is a battle that is being carried on by the civilian population as well as by the AK."

Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa or AK) officer

Initial plans for Operation Tempest, a series of planned uprisings in key German-held cities in Poland during the summer of 1944, did not include Warsaw. The exiled Polish government in London and the Polish Home Army ( Armia Krajowa or AK), however, made a last-minute decision to begin an armed uprising in the Polish capital on July 31, 1944. The main goals of the uprising were to liberate the country from occupying German forces, legitimize the exiled Polish government, and present Poland as a country on equal footing with the USSR before a Soviet-backed regime could be installed.

To completely eliminate German control in Warsaw, however, the leaders of the AK needed Soviet military support, which meant the timing of the operation had to coincide with the arrival of the Red Army in Warsaw and the retreat of German forces from the city. On July 27, 1944, the 1st Polish Army, which had been incorporated into the Red Army earlier that year, was only 50 km (30 miles) south of Warsaw near the Vistula River's junction with the Pilitsa.

Two days later, the Soviet commanding officer, Konstantin Rokossovsky, ordered the tanks of his Second Army to probe German defenses outside of Warsaw. As the first company broke through German defenses and entered the outskirts of Warsaw's eastern suburb, the leaders of the Polish resistance made the decisive move to begin an armed insurrection in the Polish capital.

The Warsaw Uprising, which started on August 1, 1944, and lasted until October 2, 1944, was a major military endeavor of the Polish resistance movement during World War II. From the beginning, civilians were embroiled in the 63-day conflict enduring relentless airstrikes and the resulting fires that forced them from their homes. They were also working to procure arms, provide supplies for insurgents, erect defensive barriers, extinguish fires, and carry messages underground.

Yet, as the Soviets halted their offensive-which to this point had been a remarkable success-Nazi units had time to regroup and organize a counteroffensive, forcing the armed insurrection to hold out much longer than originally planned. Civilians were initially in favor of the uprising since they believed, as did the AK, that the fighting would last only a few days. As the unrest raged on and Warsaw received little help from the Soviets, however, civilian support diminished, leading to tensions between the AK and the population of Warsaw.

The Outbreak and Civilian Response

When General Tadeusz Komorowski, better known by his nickname Bór-Komorowski, issued the order for the AK to mobilize on August 1, 1944, the streets filled with AK soldiers as they rushed to their meeting points, many wearing civilian winter clothes to conceal weapons and ammunition despite the summer heat. After nearly five years of Nazi occupation, the civilian population in Warsaw longed for revenge.

Civilians had not been told about the uprising for security reasons, but on that day the mood in the city was full of excitement, electricity, and exhilaration-the city's population believed that they would finally be freed from their Nazi captors. Rubin Katz, who was living in Warsaw at the time, recalled the excitement in Warsaw in the hours following the outbreak of the uprising:

"We went into another room and produced a hitherto banned Polish national flag, which had been hidden since the war began, and unfurled it from the balcony railing. In no time at all other people, up and down the street, did the same, and put out their red and white flags, hanging them from flagpoles and out of windows."

Amid the excitement, civilians flocked to assist the Home Army by shoring up cellars, tunneling underground passageways, creating barricades by tearing up paving stones, and overturning trams and other vehicles. According to the testimony of Tadeusz Szczęsny, "Children, adults, old people-all wanted to help. They carry what they have, paving stones, bricks, tiles, wood, heavy furniture, a child's pram, and sandbags."

Witness accounts also describe residents holding meetings and conferences in courtyards and making defensive preparations. Entire neighborhoods organized themselves into groups. Several tram drivers used iron crowbars and pickaxes to break cobblestones into pieces of concrete slabs to construct barricades. Other people were seen hurling Molotov cocktails out of top-floor apartment buildings at German tanks and armored vehicles on the street below.

A number of surviving Jewish fighters from the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943, and others who had emerged from hiding, seized the opportunity, and immediately joined their fellow citizens in the momentous struggle. Although it is well documented that the AK leadership did not allow Jewish soldiers in their ranks, some units were more tolerant and allowed what was left of the city's Jewish population to serve alongside their compatriots. The Socialist People's Army ( Armia Ludowa), for example, readily accepted Jewish soldiers and volunteers into its ranks but, ultimately, the decision depended on the attitude of the commanding officers.

In one instance, a group of Jewish prisoners were given permission to join the ranks of the Zośka Storm Battalion. During the first week of the uprising, the battalion, which was largely comprised of Polish Boy Scouts, was ordered to liberate Gęsiówka, a concentration camp located on Gęsia ("Goose") Street inside the walls of the former Jewish Ghetto. After the AK captured the camp, soldiers found hundreds of prisoners in the middle of the camp drawn up, military style, in two long ranks. This "Jewish Battalion," led by Henryk Lederman, stood ready for action. The site astonished the commanding officer, W. Micuta, who stated,

"not only had they not been broken by Nazi savagery, they had managed to organize themselves, despite the conditions in the camp, and ready themselves as soon as an opportunity occurred."

Due to the welcome response of an armed uprising among the city's population, on August 3, Bór-Komorowski reported to the exiled Polish government that morale was high throughout the city as men and women rushed to join the AK and volunteered for a variety of roles. The majority of volunteers were workers, railway men, artisans, clerks, and factory workers, leading Bór-Komorowski to note that AK methods could not "be compared with the attack of any regular army."

Instead, he argued, "it had all the drive and enthusiasm of a revolutionary uprising. His report continued, maintaining that the success in the first few days of the uprising could be attributed to "the impetuous fervor of this first onslaught," which "more than made up for the poor quality of arms."

Despite Bór-Komorowski's reported optimism, because the AK did not inform the people of Warsaw about the uprising, many citizens became trapped in the chaos that defined those first few days of the insurrection. Those attempting to return home from work were cut off and separated from their families with no way to contact their loved ones. Children were left abandoned when their parents were unable to return home or were killed.

An untold number of people caught in the crossfire were killed, their bodies left in the streets to be covered by dust and debris from exploding buildings. Miron Bialoszewski described the atmosphere during those first days as he navigated the streets of Warsaw trying to make his way home:

"A crush. Panic. Prayer. Explosions. The rumbling, bursting of bombs. Groans and fear. The casualties and suffering of the city's population during those first few days foreshadowed the tragedy that was yet to come."

The Role of Women Combatants and Volunteers

The role of women in the Polish resistance movement and the Warsaw Uprising was crucial. Women held a variety of important positions, ranging from traditional female roles-cleaning, making beds, cooking, and delivering food-to serving as couriers and liaison offices. Polish wives, mothers, and grandmothers provided a social infrastructure, worked as nurses, and comforted soldiers.

Women were also involved in heavy fighting-one in seven combatants were women. The women's unit "Dysk," for instance, was one of five elite "Kedyw" battalions led by Jan Mazurkiewicz. During the first week of the uprising, these well-equipped soldiers succeeded in taking a huge chunk of northern Wola (a district in the western part of Warsaw).

On August 2, 1944, "Dysk" attacked the Waffen SS supply depots at Stawki, where a year and a half earlier the Jewish population of the Warsaw ghetto had been held before being sent to Treblinka. They killed all the German guards and freed a number of Jewish forced laborers. These SS warehouses contained enormous qualities of food, which would help keep the people living in the Old Town sector of Warsaw alive in the weeks to come.

Special sapper units, made up entirely of young women called minerki, saw the most hand to hand combat fighting during August and September. On August 20, the AK mounted an attack on several key Nazi positions, one of which was the State Telephone Exchange (PAST Building), Warsaw's only skyscraper at the time.

The Battle for the PAST Building had been dogged by heavy, hand to hand combat for several days, when minerki units led an attack on the building. Detonating homemade explosives in the lower levels of the building, they pushed the building's defenders to rooftops and, armed with homemade flamethrowers, set the building ablaze. Most of the German defenders inside the building jumped to their death to avoid the rapidly spreading fire or were killed trying to flee back down the stairs, making the mission a success.

As a result of their combatant roles, several women attained high ranks within the AK, such as Mariai Tarnowska, who helped in negotiation talks with the Germans concerning the evacuation of civilians from the city center and the terms for capitulation. One of the most famous, Wanda Gertz, who fought in the Polish Legion attached to the Austro-Hungarian army during World War I, became an officer and commander of an all-female battalion, and was eventually promoted to the rank of Major in September 1944.

Women within the AK had been aware of the uprising in advance, had been properly trained, and were therefore prepared for what was to come as a result of the revolt. However, like the city population as a whole, although many women rushed to volunteer and served as couriers and nurses, they had not been properly trained and became disheartened, overwhelmed, and exhausted after the first week of the revolt.

This was particularly true for women who volunteered as nurses, most of whom had no medical training, but had to assist in amputating limbs and bandaging severely burned victims-the two most common injuries. Many of the patients were adolescents, which was particularly hard for some women to witness.

Halina Zbierska, a 20-year-old student who had to assist in the amputation of an 18-year-old boy's leg, fainted during the procedure. Sabina Sebylowa, another volunteer nurse, wrote in her diary, "after the euphoria and enthusiasm it is a shock and makes us quite depressed." The diminishing morale seen in women volunteers represented the vast majority of the population as the city's inhabitants became increasingly disillusioned after several weeks of insurrection.

Child Soldiers

According to the current definition set out by UNICEF in the Paris Principles of 2007, a child soldier is "any person below 18 years of age who is or has been recruited or used by an armed force or armed group in any capacity, including but not limited to children, boys and girls, used as fighters, cooks, porters, messengers, or spies." There was, however, no contemporary definition that was internationally accepted.

During World War II, child insurgents between the ages of 11 and 18 served as full-fledged members of the Polish Home Army. While they mainly served as messengers and porters, delivering reports and carrying medicine, food, ammunition, and weapons, children also played important roles putting out fires and digging graves for those who were killed. Equipped with hand grenades, Molotov cocktails, and occasionally firearms, some young adults also actively engaged in combat.

Jerzy Filipowicz's memoir, I Was Fourteen Back Then, ( Mialem wtedy 14 lat), one of the few memoirs written by a former child insurgent, joined the underground resistance movement when he was 13. Initially assigned as a courier, transporting and delivering parcels, Filipowicz participated in many skirmishes across the city. Only armed with hand grenades and a pistol, he describes the uprising as a series of conflicting emotions including "fear, the exhilaration of having won a small-scale battle, and a sense of inadequacy in the company of his older fellow insurgents." For many adolescents, taking part in the uprising gave them a sense of belonging and a way to logically process the uncertainty of foreign occupation and total war.

The majority of boys and girls who participated in the Warsaw Uprising were members of the Gray Ranks ( Szare Szeregi), an underground paramilitary wing of the Polish Scouting Association ( Zwiazek Harcestwa Polskiego or ZHP), which was created in September 1939. In November 1942, three different age groups were created within the Gray Ranks.

Those 17 and older formed the assault groups, which took part in armed resistance throughout the war. During the Warsaw Uprising, its battalions (Zośka and Parasol) gained a reputation as some of the best trained in the Home Army. Younger members between the ages of 15 and 17 served in combat groups and were mainly responsible for reconnaissance and communication missions. Those aged 12 to 14 made up the last group, codenamed Zawisza, comprised of children aged 12 to 14 and were involved in auxiliary service, such as intelligence work and carrying messages and goods.

Younger members of the ZHP, such as Tymoteusz Duchowski, who was only 11 years old when the uprising broke out, were often tasked with delivering reports and transporting ammunition and medicine throughout the maze of sewers that connected the city underground. Nicknamed "sewer rats" ( szczury kanalowe), children were ideal for this task since they were physically small. Moreover, in order to navigate and deliver messages and goods, these children had to be trained in map-reading and navigation, common skills taught by scouting associations.

It is unknown how many young people actively participated in the Warsaw Uprising, however, more than 1,000 were sent to the POW camp in Lamsdorf (Lambinowice) following the capitulation on October 2, 1944. Nevertheless, according to Ewa Stanczyk, children who "closely straddled the border between childhood and adulthood" experienced "the realities of resistance, participation, patriotic fervor, violence, and defenseless." In doing so, they "turned into powerful icons of resistance and objects of veneration in the collective consciousness of the city's inhabitants."

Total Mayhem: Losing Civilian Support

"The news is good. The Warsaw center is in our hands except the main arteries, there is fighting in the peripheral districts, the Soviet army is already close and will soon enter Praga, and the Allies will support us." - Anna Szatkowska, Diary Entry on August 2, 1944

As Anna Szatkowska's diary entry suggests, at least initially, the civilian population overwhelmingly supported the Warsaw Uprising. On August 4, 1944, Bor Komorowski reported to the exiled Polish government in London, "the civilians cooperate in the fight and even unarmed young people build barricades with enthusiasm. Women serve and fight with the men, everybody is very obedient and dedicated."

However, August 5 proved to be the high point for the AK and civilian morale. During the first five days of the uprising the Germans had been caught completely off guard, the AK outnumbered the German garrison three to one, and controlled 125 square kilometers of territory.

One reason that morale had been so high at the start of the uprising was the AK and the city population's shared belief that it would only take a few days for the Red Army to reach the city. Rumors spreading through the city supported the assumption that the Soviet army was already very close and would soon enter Praga, a neighborhood located on the eastern side of the city. Radio stations reported that the Red Army was practically in the city. One Warsaw resident described the diminishing morale as weeks passed with no sign of the Red Army:

"Now that the uprising had started, we were sure that by morning the Russians would have crossed the Vistula [River] to relieve the capital and be welcomed with open arms by the entire population. But when morning came, there was no sign of the Red Army...And still, days [and weeks] later, there was no sign of the Russians. Our dream of imminent liberation began to fade rapidly."

Since the Soviet offensive across Eastern Europe had been halted, however, it gave the Germans time to respond, become organized, and eventually rain terror on the entire city. After the first week of the uprising, neither side had gained a decisive advantage. According to historian Norman Davies, "Warsaw became the scene of long, relentless battles of attrition." The shooting became more intense, defensive explosions became more frequent, debris was constantly raining down on the city, and a haze of smoke developed as the city slowly burned to the ground.

The people of Warsaw became horrified at seeing corpses piling up in the streets and courtyards of the city as they struggled to survive themselves. Death appeared all around them and food, shelter, and supplies quickly dwindled. Citizens were hungry and thirsty, and suffered from exhaustion after weeks of constant warfare in the city. According to historian Alexandra Richie, "the country was bleeding and Warsaw was dying, with its capital leveled to the ground and its inhabitants killed by the thousands."

In his memoir, Miron Bialoszewski describes the change in morale among the city's population: "Volunteers, replying to the call to arms by the AK, did the best they could with few resources in the first five days of the uprising. Excavating, digging out, extinguishing fires, helping-it was difficult, although it was done, but it was [soon] made impossible by new bombs falling all the time, incendiaries. Or, rather, it was hopeless. A vicious cycle."

According to Maria Tarnowska, a survivor of the uprising, "everyday life was a terrible stress caused by permanent tension in connection with the military situation and the roar of artillery and demolished houses. Those feelings often became a catalyst for unloading emotions on the insurgent authorities and soldiers."

As the uprising seemed to endlessly continue, civilians became demoralized by the incessant bombardment, starvation rations, as well as the lack of water, electricity, and basic necessities. Tensions soon arose between the AK and civilians. The deterioration of civilian morale and tensions between the Home Army and Warsaw's populace reached a climax after the German assault on Old Town, which was a crushing loss for the AK and led to their withdrawal from several key positions on September 2, 1944.

A subsequent article in this series will examine the German response, the lack of Soviet support for the uprising, and the shift in civilian morale, culminating in the collapse of the Warsaw resistance by October 1944.

Recommended Reading

Norman Davies, Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw, (New York: Penguin, 2003).

Halik Kochanski, The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012).

Alexandra Richie, Warsaw 1944: Hitler, Himmler, and the Warsaw Uprising, (New York: Picador, 2013).

Jennifer Popowycz, PhD is the Leventhal Research Fellow at The National WWII Museum. Her research focuses on the Eastern Front and Nazi occupation policies in Eastern Europe in World War II.

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The People's War: Women, Children, and Civilians in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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Polish civilians played a critical role in the two-month long conflict in Warsaw.

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Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko (English: Andrew Thaddeus Bonaventure Kosciuszko; 4 or 12 February 1746 - 15 October 1817) was a Polish-Lithuanian military engineer, statesman, and military leader who became a national hero in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and the United States. He fought in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's struggles against Russia and Prussia, and on the U.S. side in the American Revolutionary War. As Supreme Commander of the Polish National Armed Forces, he led the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising.

Kościuszko was born in February 1746, in a manor house on the Mereczowszczyzna estate in Brest Litovsk Voivodeship, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At age 20, he graduated from the Corps of Cadets in Warsaw, Poland. After the start of civil war in the Bar Confederation in 1768, Kościuszko moved to France in 1769 to study. He returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1774, two years after its First Partition, and took a position as tutor in Józef Sylwester Sosnowski's household. After Kościuszko attempted to elope with his employer's daughter and was severely beaten by the father's retainers, he returned to France. In 1776, Kościuszko moved to North America, where he took part in the American Revolutionary War as a colonel in the Continental Army. An accomplished military architect, he designed and oversaw the construction of state-of-the-art fortifications, including those at West Point, New York. In 1783, in recognition of his services, the Continental Congress promoted him to brigadier general.

Upon returning to Poland in 1784, Kościuszko was commissioned as a major general in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Army in 1789. After the Polish-Russian War of 1792 resulted in the Second Partition of Poland, he organized an uprising against Russia in March 1794, serving as its Naczelnik (commander-in-chief). Russian forces captured him at the Battle of Maciejowice in October 1794. The defeat of the Kościuszko Uprising that November led to Poland's Third Partition in 1795, which ended the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's independent existence for 123 years. In 1796, following the death of Tsaritsa Catherine the Great, Kościuszko was pardoned by her successor, Tsar Paul I, and he emigrated to the United States. A close friend of Thomas Jefferson's, with whom he shared ideals of human rights, Kościuszko wrote a will in 1798 dedicating his U.S. assets to the education and freedom of U.S. slaves. He eventually returned to Europe and lived in Switzerland until his death in 1817. The execution of his will later proved difficult, and the funds were never used for the purpose he had intended.

Kościuszko was born in February 1746 in a manor house on the estate called "Mereczowszczyzna" near Kosów (now Kosava, Belarus) in Nowogródek Voivodeship, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. His exact birthdate is unknown; commonly cited are February 4 and February 12.

Kościuszko was the youngest son of a member of the szlachta (nobility), Ludwik Tadeusz Kościuszko, an officer in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Army, and his wife Tekla, née Ratomska. The Kościuszkos held the Polish Roch III coat of arms. At the time of Tadeusz Kościuszko's birth, the family possessed modest landholdings in the Grand Duchy, which were worked by 31 peasant families.

Tadeusz was baptized by the Roman Catholic church and the Orthodox Church, thereby receiving the names Andrzej, Tadeusz, and Bonawentura. His paternal family was ethnically Lithuanian- Ruthenian and traced their ancestry to Konstanty Fiodorowicz Kostiuszko, a courtier of Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund I the Old. Kościuszko's maternal family, the Ratomskis, were also Ruthenian.

Modern Belarusian writers interpret his Ruthenian or Lithuanian heritage as Belarusian. He once described himself as a , a term that denoted inhabitants, of whatever ethnicity, of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Modern Belarusian writers interpret Litvin as designating a Belarusian, before the word "Belarusian" had come into use. Kościuszko, however, did not speak the Belarusian language; his family had become Polonized as early as the 16th century. Like most Polish-Lithuanian nobility of the time, the Kościuszkos spoke Polish and identified with Polish culture.

In 1755, Kościuszko began attending school in Lyubeshiv, but never finished due to his family's financial straits after his father's death in 1758. Poland's King Stanisław August Poniatowski established a Corps of Cadets ( Korpus Kadetów) in 1765, at what is now Warsaw University, to educate military officers and government officials. Kościuszko enrolled in the Corps on December 18, 1765, likely thanks to the patronage of the Czartoryski family. The school emphasized military subjects and the liberal arts, and after graduating on December 20, 1766, Kościuszko was promoted to (a military rank roughly equivalent to modern lieutenant); he stayed on as a student instructor and by 1768 had attained the rank of captain.

In 1768, civil war broke out in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, when the Bar Confederation sought to depose King Stanisław August Poniatowski. One of Kościuszko's brothers, Józef, fought on the side of the insurgents. Faced with a difficult choice between the rebels and his sponsors-the King and the Czartoryski family, who favored a gradualist approach to shedding Russian domination-Kościuszko chose to leave Poland. In late 1769, he and a colleague, the noted artist Aleksander Orłowski, were granted royal scholarships, and on October 5 they set off for Paris. They wanted to further their military education, but as foreigners they were barred from enrolling in French military academies, and so they enrolled instead in the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. There Kościuszko pursued his interest in drawing and painting and took private lessons in architecture from the noted French architect Jean-Rodolphe Perronet.

Kościuszko, however, did not give up on improving his military knowledge. He audited lectures for five years and frequented the libraries of the Paris military academies. His exposure to the French Enlightenment, along with the religious tolerance practiced in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, strongly influenced his later career. The French economic theory of physiocracy made a particularly strong impression on his thinking. He also developed his artistic skills, and while his career would take him in a different direction, all his life he continued drawing and painting.

In the First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, Russia, Prussia and Austria annexed large swaths of Polish-Lithuanian territory and gained influence over the internal politics of the reduced Polish and Lithuanian states. When Kościuszko finally returned home in 1774, he found that his brother Józef had squandered most of the family fortune, and there was no place for him in the Army, as he could not afford to buy an officer's commission. He took a position as tutor to the family of the magnate, province governor (voivode) and hetman Józef Sylwester Sosnowski and fell in love with the governor's daughter Ludwika. Their elopement was thwarted by her father's retainers. Kościuszko received a thrashing at their hands, an event that may have led to his later antipathy to class distinctions.

In the autumn of 1775, he decided to emigrate to avoid Sosnowski and his retainers. In late 1775, he attempted to join the Saxon army but was turned down and decided to return to Paris. There he learned of the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, in which the British colonies in North America had revolted against the British Crown and begun their struggle for independence. The first American successes were well-publicized in France, and the French people and government openly supported the revolutionaries' cause.

On learning of the American Revolution, Kościuszko, himself a man of revolutionary aspirations, sympathetic to the American cause and an advocate of human rights, sailed for America in June 1776 along with other foreign officers, likely with the help of a French supporter of the American revolutionaries, Pierre Beaumarchais. On 30 August 1776, Kościuszko submitted an application to the Second Continental Congress; he was assigned to the Continental Army the next day.

Kościuszko's first task was building fortifications at Fort Billingsport in Paulsboro, New Jersey, to protect the banks of the Delaware River and prevent a possible British advance up the river to Philadelphia. He initially served as a volunteer in the employ of Benjamin Franklin, but on 18 October 1776, Congress commissioned him a colonel of engineers in the Continental Army.

In spring 1777, Kościuszko was attached to the Northern Army under Major General Horatio Gates, arriving at the Canada-US border in May 1777. Subsequently posted to Fort Ticonderoga, he reviewed the defenses of what had been one of the most formidable fortresses in North America. His surveys prompted him to strongly recommend the construction of a battery on Sugar Loaf, a high point overlooking the fort. His prudent recommendation, in which his fellow engineers concurred, was turned down by the garrison commander, Brigadier General Arthur St. Clair.

This proved a tactical blunder: when a British army under General John Burgoyne arrived in July 1777, Burgoyne did exactly what Kościuszko had warned of and had his engineers place artillery on the hill. With the British in complete control of the high ground, the Americans realized their situation was hopeless and abandoned the fortress with hardly a shot fired in the Siege of Ticonderoga. The British advance force nipped hard on the heels of the outnumbered and exhausted Continentals as they fled south. Major General Philip Schuyler, desperate to put distance between his men and their pursuers, ordered Kościuszko to delay the enemy. Kościuszko designed an engineer's solution: his men felled trees, dammed streams, and destroyed bridges and causeways. Encumbered by their huge supply train, the British began to bog down, giving the Americans the time needed to safely withdraw across the Hudson River.

Gates tapped Kościuszko to survey the country between the opposing armies, choose the most defensible position, and fortify it. Finding just such a position near Saratoga, overlooking the Hudson at Bemis Heights, Kościuszko laid out a strong array of defenses, nearly impregnable from any direction. His judgment and meticulous attention to detail frustrated the British attacks during the Battle of Saratoga, and Gates accepted the surrender of Burgoyne's force there on October 16, 1777. The dwindling British army had been dealt a sound defeat, turning the tide to an American advantage. Kościuszko's work at Saratoga received great praise from Gates, who later told his friend Dr. Benjamin Rush: "[T]he great tacticians of the campaign were hills and forests, which a young Polish engineer was skillful enough to select for my encampment."

At some point in 1777, Kościuszko composed a polonaise and scored it for the harpsichord. Named for him, and with lyrics by Rajnold Suchodolski, it later became popular with Polish patriots during the November 1830 Uprising. Around that time, Kościuszko was assigned a black orderly, Agrippa Hull, whom he would treat as an equal and a friend.

In March 1778 Kościuszko arrived at West Point, New York, and spent more than two years strengthening the fortifications and improving the stronghold's defenses. It was these defenses that the American General Benedict Arnold subsequently attempted to surrender to the British when he became a traitor. Soon after Kościuszko had finished fortifying West Point, in August 1780, General George Washington granted Kościuszko's request to transfer to combat duty with the Southern Army. Kościuszko's West Point fortifications would be widely praised as innovative for the time.

After traveling south through rural Virginia in October 1780, Kościuszko proceeded to North Carolina to report to his former commander General Gates. However, following Gates's disastrous defeat at Camden on August 16, 1780, the Continental Congress had selected Washington's choice, Major General Nathanael Greene, to replace the disgraced Gates as commander of the Southern Department. When Greene formally assumed command on 3 December 1780, he retained Kościuszko as his chief engineer. By then, he had been praised by both Gates and Greene.

Over the course of this campaign, Kościuszko was placed in command of building bateaux, siting the location for camps, scouting river crossings, fortifying positions, and developing intelligence contacts. Many of his contributions were instrumental in preventing the destruction of the Southern Army. This was especially so during the famous "Race to the Dan", when British General Charles Cornwallis chased Greene across 200 miles (320 km) of rough back country in January and February 1781. Thanks largely to a combination of Greene's tactics, and Kościuszko's bateaux, and accurate scouting of the rivers ahead of the main body, the Continentals safely crossed each river, including the Yadkin and the Dan. Cornwallis, having no boats, and finding no way to cross the swollen Dan, finally gave up the chase and withdrew back into North Carolina. The Continentals regrouped south of Halifax, Virginia, where Kościuszko had earlier, at Greene's request, established a fortified depot.

During the Race to the Dan, Kościuszko had helped select the site where Greene eventually returned to fight Cornwallis at Guilford Courthouse. Though tactically defeated, the Americans all but destroyed Cornwallis' army as an effective fighting force and gained a permanent strategic advantage in the South. Thus, when Greene began his reconquest of South Carolina in the spring of 1781, he summoned Kościuszko to rejoin the main body of the Southern Army. The combined forces of the Continentals and Southern militia gradually forced the British from the back country into the coastal ports during the latter half of 1781 and, on August 16, Kościuszko participated in the Second Battle of Camden. At Ninety Six, Kościuszko besieged the Star Fort from 22 May to 18 June. During the unsuccessful siege, he suffered his only wound in seven years of service, bayonetted in the buttocks during an assault by the fort's defenders on the approach trench that he was constructing.

Kościuszko subsequently helped fortify the American bases in North Carolina, before taking part in several smaller operations in the final year of hostilities, harassing British foraging parties near Charleston, South Carolina. He had become engaged in these operations after the death of his friend Colonel John Laurens, taking over Laurens's intelligence network in the area. He commanded two cavalry squadrons and an infantry unit, and his last known battlefield command of the war occurred at James Island, South Carolina, on 14 November 1782. In what has been described as the Continental Army's final armed action of the war, he was very nearly killed as his small force was routed. A month later, he was among the Continental troops that reoccupied Charleston following the British evacuation of the city. Kościuszko spent the rest of the war there, conducting a fireworks display on 23 April 1783, to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Paris earlier that month.

Having not been paid in his seven years of service, in late May 1783, Kościuszko decided to collect the salary owed to him. That year, he was asked by Congress to supervise the fireworks during the July 4 celebrations at Princeton, New Jersey. On 13 October 1783, Congress promoted him to brigadier general, but he still had not received his back pay; many other officers and soldiers were in the same situation. While waiting for his pay, unable even to finance a voyage back to Europe, Kościuszko, like a number of others, lived on money borrowed from the Polish-Jewish banker Haym Solomon. Eventually, he would receive a certificate for 12,280 dollars, at 6%, to be paid on 1 January 1784, and the right to 500 acres (202.34 ha; 0.78 sq mi) of land, but only if he chose to settle in the United States. For the winter of 1783-84, his former commanding officer, General Greene, invited Kościuszko to stay at his mansion. He was also inducted into the Society of the Cincinnati. and the American Philosophical Society. During the Revolution Kościuszko carried an old Spanish sword at his side, which was inscribed with the words, Do not draw me without reason; do not sheathe me without honour.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

On 15 July 1784, Kościuszko set off for Poland, where he arrived on 26 August. Due to a conflict between his patrons, the Czartoryski family, and King Stanisław August Poniatowski, Kościuszko once again failed to get a commission in the Commonwealth Army. He settled in Siechnowicze ( Belarusian: Сяхновічы, now Sehnovichi, Belarus). His brother Józef had lost most of the family's lands through bad investments, but with the help of his sister Anna, Kościuszko secured part of the lands for himself. He decided to limit his male peasants' (obligatory service to the lord of the manor) to two days a week, and completely exempted the female peasants. His estate soon stopped being profitable, and he began going into debt. The situation was not helped by failure of the money promised by the American government-interest on late payment for his seven years' military service-to materialize. Kościuszko struck up friendships with liberal activists; Hugo Kołłątaj offered him a position as lecturer at Kraków's Jagiellonian University, which Kościuszko declined.

Finally the Great Sejm of 1788-92 introduced some reforms, including a planned build-up of the army to defend the Commonwealth's borders. Kościuszko saw a chance to return to military service and spent some time in Warsaw, among those who engaged in the political debates outside the Great Sejm. He wrote a proposal to create a militia force, on the American model. As political pressure grew to build up the army, and Kościuszko's political allies gained influence with the King, Kościuszko again applied for a commission, and on 12 October 1789, received a royal commission as a major general. He began receiving the high salary of 12,000 a year, ending his financial difficulties. He asked for a transfer to the Lithuanian army but was instead assigned to a unit in the west, in Greater Poland. On 1 February 1790, he reported for duty in Włocławek, and in mid-March he was given a command. Around summer, he commanded some infantry and cavalry units in the region between the Bug and Vistula Rivers. In August 1790 he was posted to Volhynia, stationed near Starokostiantyniv and Międzyborze. Prince Józef Poniatowski, who happened to be the King's nephew, recognized Kościuszko's superior experience and made him his second-in-command, leaving him in command when he was absent.

Meanwhile, Kościuszko became more closely involved with the political reformers, befriending Hugo Kołłątaj, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and others. Kościuszko argued that the peasants and Jews should receive full citizenship status, as this would motivate them to help defend Poland in the event of war. The political reformers centered in the Patriotic Party scored a major victory with the adoption of the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Kościuszko saw the Constitution as a step in the right direction, but was disappointed that it retained the monarchy and did little to improve the situation of the most underprivileged, the peasants and the Jews. The Commonwealth's neighbors saw the Constitution's reforms as a threat to their influence over Polish internal affairs. A year after the Constitution's adoption, on 14 May 1792, reactionary magnates formed the Targowica Confederation, which asked Russia's Tsaritsa Catherine II for help in overthrowing the Constitution. Four days later, on 18 May 1792, a 100,000-man Russian army crossed the Polish border, headed for Warsaw, beginning the Polish-Russian War of 1792.

The Russians had a 3:1 advantage in strength, with some 98,000 troops against 37,000 Poles; they also had an advantage in combat experience. Before the Russians invaded, Kościuszko had been appointed deputy commander of Prince Józef Poniatowski's infantry division, stationed in West Ukraine. When the Prince became Commander-in-Chief of the entire Polish (Crown) Army on 3 May 1792, Kościuszko was given command of a division near Kiev.

The Russians attacked on a wide front with three armies. Kościuszko proposed that the entire Polish army be concentrated and engage one of the Russian armies, in order to assure numerical parity and boost the morale of the mostly inexperienced Polish forces with a quick victory; but Poniatowski rejected this plan. On 22 May 1792, the Russian forces crossed the border in Ukraine, where Kościuszko and Poniatowski were stationed. The Crown Army was judged too weak to oppose the four enemy columns advancing into West Ukraine, and began a fighting withdrawal to the western side of the Southern Bug River, with Kościuszko commanding the rear guard. On June 18, Poniatowski won the Battle of Zieleńce; Kościuszko's division, on detached rear-guard duty, did not take part in the battle and rejoined the main army only at nightfall; nonetheless, his diligent protection of the main army's rear and flanks won him the newly created Virtuti Militari, to this day Poland's highest military decoration. (Storożyński, however, states that Kościuszko received the Virtuti Militari for his later, July 18 victory at Dubienka.) The Polish withdrawal continued, and on July 7 Kościuszko's forces fought a delaying battle against the Russians at Volodymyr-Volynskyi (the Battle of Włodzimierz). On reaching the northern Bug River, the Polish Army was split into three divisions to hold the river defensive line-weakening the Poles' point numerical superiority, against Kościuszko's counsel of a single strong, concentrated army.

Kościuszko's force was assigned to protect the front's southern flank, touching up to the Austrian border. At the Battle of Dubienka (18 July 1792) Kościuszko repulsed a numerically superior enemy, skilfully using terrain obstacles and field fortifications, and came to be regarded as one of Poland's most brilliant military commanders of the age. With some 5,300 men, he defeated 25,000 Russians led by General Michail Kachovski. Despite the tactical victory, Kościuszko had to retreat from Dubienka, as the Russians crossed the nearby Austrian border and began flanking his positions.

After the battle, King Stanisław August Poniatowski promoted Kościuszko to lieutenant-general and also offered him the Order of the White Eagle, but Kościuszko, a convinced republican would not accept a royal honor. News of Kościuszko's victory spread over Europe, and on 26 August he received the honorary citizenship of France from the Legislative Assembly of revolutionary France. While Kościuszko considered the war's outcome to still be unsettled, the King requested a ceasefire. On 24 July 1792, before Kościuszko had received his promotion to lieutenant-general, the King shocked the army by announcing his accession to the Targowica Confederation and ordering the Polish-Lithuanian armies to cease hostilities against the Russians. Kościuszko considered abducting the King as the Bar Confederates had done two decades earlier, in 1771, but was dissuaded by Prince Józef Poniatowski. On 30 August Kościuszko resigned his army position and briefly returned to Warsaw, where he received his promotion and pay, but refused the King's request that he remain in the Army. Around that time, he also fell ill with jaundice.

The King's capitulation was a hard blow for Kościuszko, who had not lost a single battle in the campaign. By mid-September 1792 he was resigned to leaving the country, and in early October he departed from Warsaw. First he went east, to the Czartoryski family manor at Sieniawa, which gathered various malcontents. In mid-November he spent two weeks in Lwów (in Ukrainian, Lviv; in German, Lemberg), where he was welcomed by the populace; since the war's end, his presence had drawn crowds eager to see the famed commander. Izabela Czartoryska discussed having him marry her daughter Zofia. The Russians planned to arrest him if he returned to territory under their control; the Austrians, who held Lwów, offered him a commission in the Austrian Army, which he turned down. Subsequently they planned to deport him, but he left Lwów before they could do so. At the turn of the month, he stopped in Zamość at the Zamoyskis' estate, met Stanisław Staszic, then went on to Puławy.

He did not tarry long there either: on 12-13 December, he was in Kraków; on 17 December, in Wrocław; and shortly after, he settled in Leipzig, where many notable Polish soldiers and politicians formed an émigré community. Soon he and some others began plotting an uprising against Russian rule in Poland. The politicians, grouped around Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj, sought contacts with similar opposition groups in Poland and by spring 1793 had been joined by other politicians and revolutionaries, including Ignacy Działyński. While Kołłątaj and others had begun planning an uprising before Kościuszko joined them, his support was a major boon to them, as he was among the most popular individuals in Poland.

After two weeks in Leipzig, before the second week of January 1793, Kościuszko set off for Paris, where he tried to gain French support for the planned uprising in Poland. He stayed there until summer, but despite the growing revolutionary influence there, the French paid only lip service to the Polish cause, and refused to commit themselves to anything concrete. Kościuszko concluded that the French authorities were not interested in Poland beyond what use it could have for their own cause, and he was increasingly disappointed in the pettiness of the French Revolution-the infighting among different factions, and the growing reign of terror.

On 23 January 1793, Prussia and Russia signed the Second Partition of Poland. The Grodno Sejm, convened under duress in June, ratified the partition and was also forced to rescind the Constitution of 3 May 1791. With the second partition, Poland became a small country of roughly 200,000 square kilometers (77,000 sq mi) and a population of some 4 million. This came as a shock to the Targowica Confederates, who had seen themselves as defenders of centuries-old privileges of the magnates, but had hardly expected that their appeal for help to the Tsarina of Russia would further reduce and weaken their country.

In August 1793, Kościuszko, though worried that an uprising would have little chance against the three partitioning powers, returned to Leipzig, where he was met with demands to start planning one as soon as possible. In September he clandestinely crossed the Polish border to conduct personal observations and meet with sympathetic high-ranking officers in the residual Polish Army, including General Józef Wodzicki. The preparations went slowly, and he left for Italy, planning to return in February 1794. However, the situation in Poland was changing rapidly. The Russian and Prussian governments forced Poland to again disband most of her army, and the reduced units were to be incorporated into the Russian Army. In March, Tsarist agents discovered the revolutionaries in Warsaw and began arresting notable Polish politicians and military commanders. Kościuszko was forced to execute his plan earlier than he had intended and, on 15 March 1794, set off for Kraków.

Kościuszko Uprising

Learning that the Russian garrison had departed Kraków, Kościuszko entered the city on the night of 23 March 1794. The next morning, in the Main Square, he announced an uprising. Kościuszko received the title of Naczelnik (commander-in-chief) of Polish-Lithuanian forces fighting against the Russian occupation. He proceeded to mobilize the populace, intending to raise sufficient numbers of volunteers to counteract the larger and more professional Russian Army. He also hoped that neither Austria nor Prussia would intervene, and so discouraged insurgent activity in the Austrian and Prussian Partitions.

Kościuszko gathered an army of some 6,000, including 4,000 regular soldiers and 2,000 recruits, and marched on Warsaw. The Russians succeeded in organizing an army to oppose him more quickly than he had expected, but he scored a victory at Racławice on 4 April 1794, where he turned the tide by personally leading an infantry charge of peasant volunteers (kosynierzy, scythemen). Nonetheless, this Russian defeat was not strategically significant, and the Russian forces quickly forced Kościuszko to retreat toward Kraków. Near Połaniec he received reinforcements and met with other Uprising leaders (Kołłątaj, Potocki); at Połaniec he issued a major political declaration of the Uprising, the Proclamation of Połaniec. The declaration stated that serfs were entitled to civil rights and reduced their work obligations (corvée). Meanwhile, the Russians set a bounty for Kościuszko's capture, "dead or alive".

By June, the Prussians had begun actively aiding the Russians, and on 6 June 1794, Kościuszko fought a defensive battle against a Prussian-Russian force at Szczekociny. From late June, for several weeks, he defended Warsaw, controlled by the insurgents. On 28 June, a mob of insurgents in Warsaw captured and hanged Bishop Ignacy Massalski and six others. Kościuszko issued a public reproach, writing, "What happened in Warsaw yesterday filled my heart with bitterness and sorrow", and urging, successfully, that rule of law be followed. By the morning of 6 September, the Prussian forces having been withdrawn to suppress an uprising underway in Greater Poland, the siege of Warsaw was lifted. On October 10, during a sortie against a new Russian attack, Kościuszko was wounded and captured at Maciejowice. He was imprisoned by the Russians at Saint Petersburg in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Soon afterward, the uprising ended with the Battle of Praga, where according to a contemporary Russian witness, the Russians troops massacred 20,000 Warsaw residents. The subsequent Third Partition of Poland ended the existence of a sovereign Polish state for the next 123 years.

The death of Tsaritsa Catherine the Great on 17 November 1796 led to a change in Russia's policies toward Poland. On 28 November, Tsar Paul I, who had hated Catherine, pardoned Kościuszko and set him free, after he had tendered an oath of loyalty. Paul promised to free all Polish political prisoners held in Russian prisons and forcibly settled in Siberia. The Tsar gave Kościuszko 12,000 rubles, which the Pole later, in 1798, attempted to return, when also renouncing the oath.

Kościuszko left for the United States, via Stockholm, Sweden and London, departing from Bristol on 17 June 1797, and arriving in Philadelphia on 18 August. Though welcomed by the populace, he was viewed with suspicion by the American government, controlled by the Federalists, who distrusted Kościuszko for his previous association with the Democratic-Republican Party.

In March 1798, Kościuszko received a bundle of letters from Europe. The news in one of them came as a shock to him, causing him, still in his wounded condition, to spring from his couch and limp unassisted to the middle of the room and exclaim to General Anthony Walton White, "I must return at once to Europe!" The letter in question contained news that Polish General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski and Polish soldiers were fighting in France under Napoleon and that Kościuszko's sister had sent his two nephews in Kościuszko's name to serve in Napoleon's ranks. Around that time Kościuszko also received news that Talleyrand was seeking Kościuszko's moral and public endorsement for the French fight against one of Poland's partitioners, Prussia.

The call of family and country drew Kościuszko back to Europe. He immediately consulted then Vice President of the United States Thomas Jefferson, who procured a passport for him under a false name and arranged for his secret departure for France. Kościuszko left no word for either Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, his former comrade-in-arms and fellow St. Petersburg prisoner, or for his own servant, leaving only some money for them.

Other factors contributed to his decision to depart. His French connections meant that he was vulnerable to deportation or imprisonment under the terms of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson was concerned that the U.S. and France were verging on the brink of war after the XYZ Affair and regarded him as an informal envoy. Kościuszko later wrote, "Jefferson considered that I would be the most effective intermediary in bringing an accord with France, so I accepted the mission even if without any official authorization."

Before Kościuszko left for France, he collected his back pay, wrote a will, and entrusted it to Jefferson as executor. Kościuszko and Jefferson had become firm friends by 1797 and thereafter corresponded for twenty years in a spirit of mutual admiration. Jefferson wrote that "He is as pure a son of liberty as I have ever known." In the will, Kościuszko left his American estate to be sold to buy the freedom of black slaves, including Jefferson's own, and to educate them for independent life and work.

Several years after Kościuszko's death, Jefferson, aged 77, pleaded an inability to act as executor due to age and the numerous legal complexities of the bequest. It was tied up in the courts until 1856. Jefferson recommended his friend John Hartwell Cocke, who also opposed slavery, as executor, but Cocke likewise declined to execute the bequest.

The case of Kościuszko's American estate reached the U.S. Supreme Court three times. Kościuszko had made four wills, three of which postdated the American one.

None of the money that Kościuszko had earmarked for the manumission and education of African Americans in the United States was ever used for that purpose. Though the American will was never carried out as defined, its legacy was used to found an educational institute at Newark, New Jersey, in 1826, for African Americans in the United States. It was named for Kościuszko.

Kościuszko arrived in Bayonne, France, on 28 June 1798. By that time, Talleyrand's plans had changed and no longer included him. Kościuszko remained politically active in Polish émigré circles in France, and on 7 August 1799, he joined the Society of Polish Republicans ( Towarzystwo Republikanów Polskich). Kościuszko, however, refused the offered command of Polish Legions being formed for service with France. On 17 October and 6 November 1799, he met with Napoleon Bonaparte; however, he failed to reach an agreement with the French general, who regarded Kościuszko as a "fool" who "overestimated his influence" in Poland. Kościuszko, for his part, disliked Napoleon for his dictatorial aspirations and called him the "undertaker of the [French] Republic". In 1807, Kościuszko settled in château de Berville, near La Genevraye, distancing himself from politics.

Kościuszko did not believe that Napoleon would restore Poland in any durable form. When Napoleon's forces approached the borders of Poland, Kościuszko wrote him a letter, demanding guarantees of parliamentary democracy and substantial national borders, which Napoleon ignored. Kościuszko concluded that Napoleon had created the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 only as an expedient, not because he supported Polish sovereignty. Consequently, Kościuszko did not move to the Duchy of Warsaw or join the new Army of the Duchy, allied with Napoleon.

Instead, after the fall of Napoleon, he met with Russia's Tsar Alexander I, in Paris and then in Braunau, Switzerland. The Tsar hoped that Kościuszko could be convinced to return to Poland, where the Tsar planned to create a new, Russian-allied Polish state (the Congress Kingdom). In return for his prospective services, Kościuszko demanded social reforms and restoration of territory, which he wished would reach the Dvina and Dnieper Rivers in the east. However, soon afterward, in Vienna, Kościuszko learned that the Kingdom of Poland to be created by the Tsar would be even smaller than the earlier Duchy of Warsaw. Kościuszko called such an entity "a joke". When he received no reply to his letters to the Tsar, he left Vienna and moved to Solothurn, Switzerland.

On 2 April 1817, Kościuszko emancipated the peasants in his remaining lands in Poland, but Tsar Alexander disallowed this. Suffering from poor health and old wounds, on 15 October 1817, Kościuszko died in Solothurn at age 71 after falling from a horse, developing a fever, and suffering a stroke a few days later.

Kościuszko's first funeral was held on 19 October 1817, at a formerly Jesuit church in Solothurn. As news of his death spread, masses and memorial services were held in partitioned Poland. His embalmed body was deposited in a crypt of the Solothurn church. In 1818, Kościuszko's body was transferred to Kraków, arriving at St. Florian's Church on 11 April 1818. On 22 June 1818, or 23 June 1819 (accounts vary), to the tolling of the Sigismund Bell and the firing of cannon, it was placed in a crypt at Wawel Cathedral, a pantheon of Polish kings and national heroes.

Kościuszko's internal organs, which had been removed during embalming, were separately interred in a graveyard at Zuchwil, near Solothurn. Kościuszko's organs remain there to this day; a large memorial stone was erected in 1820, next to a Polish memorial chapel. His heart, however, was not interred with the other organs, but instead kept in an urn at the Polish Museum in Rapperswil, Switzerland. The heart, along with the rest of the Museum's holdings, were repatriated back to Warsaw in 1927, where the heart now reposes in a chapel at the Royal Castle.

The Polish historian Stanisław Herbst states in the 1967 Polish Biographical Dictionary that Kościuszko may be Poland's and the world's most popular Pole ever. There are monuments to him around the world, beginning with the Kościuszko Mound at Kraków, erected in 1820-23 by men, women, and children bringing earth from the battlefields where he had fought. The Thaddeus Kosciusko Bridge, a twin bridge structure across the Mohawk River in Albany, New York, completed in 1959, and the Kosciuszko Bridge, built in 1939 in New York City, were named in Kościuszko's honor. The New York City bridge was partially replaced in April 2017 by a new bridge of the same name, with an additional bridge that opened in August 20219.

Kościuszko's 1796 Philadelphia residence is now the Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial, America's smallest national park or unit of the National Park System. There is a Kościuszko Museum at his last residence, in Solothurn, Switzerland. A Polish-American cultural agency, the Kosciuszko Foundation, headquartered in New York City, was created in 1925.

A series of Polish Air Force units have borne the name " Kościuszko Squadron". During World War II a Polish Navy ship bore his name, as did the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division.

One of the first examples of a historical novel, Thaddeus of Warsaw, was written in Kościuszko's honor by the Scottish author Jane Porter; it proved very popular, particularly in the United States, and went through over eighty editions in the 19th century. An opera, Kościuszko nad Sekwaną (Kościuszko at the Seine), written in the early 1820s, featured music by Franciszek Salezy Dutkiewicz and libretto by Konstanty Majeranowski. Later works have included dramas by Apollo Korzeniowski, Justyn Hoszowski and Władysław Ludwik Anczyc; three novels by Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, one by Walery Przyborowski, one by Władysław Stanisław Reymont; and works by Maria Konopnicka.

Kościuszko also appears in non-Polish literature, including a sonnet by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, another by James Henry Leigh Hunt, poems by John Keats and Walter Savage Landor, and a work by Karl Eduard von Holtei.

In 1933, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative stamp depicting an engraving of Brigadier General Thaddeus Kosciuszko, a statue of Kościuszko that stands in Washington, D.C.'s Lafayette Square near the White House. The stamp was issued on the 150th anniversary of Kościuszko's naturalization as an American citizen. Poland has also issued several stamps in his honor.

There are statues of Kosciuszko in Poland at Kraków (by Leonard Marconi), which was destroyed by German forces during the World War II occupation and was later replaced with a replica by Germany in 1960 and Łódź (by Mieczysław Lubelski); in the United States at Boston, West Point, Philadelphia (by Marian Konieczny), Detroit (a copy of Leonard Marconi's Kraków statue), Washington, D.C., Chicago, Milwaukee and Cleveland; and in Switzerland at Solothurn. Kościuszko has been the subject of paintings by Richard Cosway, Franciszek Smuglewicz, Michał Stachowicz, Juliusz Kossak and Jan Matejko. A monumental Racławice Panorama was painted by Jan Styka and Wojciech Kossak for the centenary of the 1794 Battle of Racławice. The first monument to Kosciuszko in Belarus was erected in his birthplace in Mieračoŭščyna in 2018. Construction of the monument was financed through a crowdfunding campaign organized by a journalist Gleb Labadzenka (Hlieb Labadzienka).

Mount Kosciuszko, the tallest mountain in Australia, was named after the Polish freedom fighter by explorer Paweł Strzelecki. Strzelecki noted:

The particular configuration of its eminence struck me so forcibly by the similarity to the tumulus elevated in Kraków over the tomb of patriot Kosciusko (sic), that, although in a foreign country, on foreign ground, but amongst a free people, who appreciate freedom and its votaries, I could not refrain from giving it the name of Mount Kosciusko (sic).

In the United States, places named after Kościuszko include Kosciusko Island in Alaska, Kosciusko County in Indiana, the city of Kosciusko in central Mississippi, street and schools in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania, and numerous streets and parks.

Kościuszko has been the subject of many written works. The first biography of him was published in 1820 by Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, who served beside Kosciuszko as his aide-de-camp and was also imprisoned in Russia after the uprising. English-language biographies have included Monica Mary Gardner's Kościuszko: A Biography, which was first published in 1920, and a 2009 work by Alex Storozynski titled The Peasant Prince: Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution.

1. A number of (^ Anglicized spellings of Kościuszko's name appear in records, including Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the full Andrew Thaddeus Bonaventure Kosciuszko. In Lithuanian, Kościuszko's name is rendered Tadas Kosciuška. In Belarusian, it is Tadevuš Kaściuška (Тадэвуш Касьцюшка).[1] His name has a common anglicized pronunciation, /ˌ k ɒ s i ˈ ʌ s k oʊ / KOSS-ee-US-koh; the Polish pronunciation is [ˈandʐɛj taˈdɛ.uʐ bɔnavɛnˈtura kɔɕˈtɕuʂkɔ] listen ), which has been approximated in English as /t ə ˈ d eɪ ə ʃ k ɒ ʃ ˈ tʃ ʊ s k oʊ ,-ʊ ʃ k oʊ / tə-DAY-əsh kosh-CHUUS(H)-koh.[2]

2. Alex Storozynski, in his 2009 biography of Kościuszko, notes that the "twelfth is generally used", and that Szyndler (1991:103) discusses theories about Kościuszko's birthdate.^ [7][8]

3. ^ Sketches from Kościuszko's hand still survive and are guarded as national treasures in Polish museums.

4. After he returned to Poland from America and sought a Polish Army commission, the then Princess Lubomirska-she had been forced by her father to marry into the higher nobility-urged the King to offer Kościuszko a commission. When he went to Warsaw in summer 1789 to pursue the matter himself, he chanced upon her at a ball. As his friend ^ Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz later recounted, "The meeting was so emotional [for both] that they were unable to speak to each other; each moved away to a different corner of the salon and wept."[28] In 1791, he sought to marry Tekla Zurowska, but again met paternal opposition.[29]

5. Associate Justice ^ Joseph Story issued a decision to remand in Armstrong v. Lear, 25 U.S. 12 Wheat. 169 169 (1827), based on failure to submit the will for probate. The same estate was also the subject of Estho v Lear, 32 U.S. 130 (7 Pet. 130, 8 L.Ed. 632)(1832), in which Chief Justice John Marshall wrote a brief opinion suggesting remand, apparently to Virginia. Finally, the decision in Ennis v. Smith, 55 U.S. 14 How. 400 400 (1852) mentions no individual author; the chief justice was Roger Taney, and the only jurisdictions mentioned were those of Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Grodno (now in Belarus).[108]

6. Letter from Napoleon to his Minister of Police, ^ Joseph Fouché, 1807.

Bardach, Juliusz; Leśnodorski, Bogusław; Pietrzak, Michał (1987). History of the Polish State and Law. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.

Chisholm, Hugh (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information. 15. New York.

Gardner, Monica Mary (1942). Kościuszko: A Biography. G. Allen & Unwin., ltd, 136 pages., Book (Google), Book (Gutenberg)

Herbst, Stanisław (1969). "Tadeusz Kościuszko". Polski Słownik Biograficzny, 439 pages (in Polish). 14. Warszawa: Instytut Historii (Polska Akademia Nauk).

Kite, Elizabeth S. (1918). Beaumarchais and the War of American Independence. Boston: Gorham Press, 614 pages. E'book

Korzon, Tadeusz (1894). Kościuszko: biografia z dokumentów wysnuta (in Polish). Nakł. Muzeum Narodowego w Rapperswylu, 819 pages.

Makowski, Marcin Łukasz (2013). Prawdziwa twarz Tadeusza Kościuszki ("The True Face of Tadeusz Kościuszko"), Gwiazda Polarna, no. 10. Spoleczenstwo i media.

Otrębski, Tomasz (1831). "Tadeusz Kościuszko: to jest biografia tego bohatéra : pomnożona wielu dodatkami i uwagami z historycznych źrzódeł czerpanemi przez tłumacza", 1831.

Palmer, Dave R. (1976). "Fortress West Point: 19th Century Concept in an 18th Century War". Military Engineer. Military Engineer (68).

Saverchenko, Ivan; Sanko, Dmitry (1999). 150 Questions and Answers of the History of Belarus. Менск. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016.

Storozynski, Alex (2009). The Peasant Prince: Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution. New York: St. Martin's Press, 352 pages. ISBN 978-1-4299-6607-8., Book

-- (2011). Kosciuszko Książę chłopów. W.A.B. ISBN 978-83-7414-930-3.

Sulkin, Sidney; Sulkin, Edith (1944). The Democratic Heritage of Poland, "For Your Freedom and Ours": An Anthology. Poland, 236 pages: Allen & Unwin.

Alexander, Edward P. (1968). "Jefferson and Kosciuszko: Friends of Liberty and of Man". Penn State University.

Anderton, Margaret (2002). "The Spirit of the Polonaise". Polish Music Journal. 5 (2). Archived from the original on October 18, 2012.

Bumblauskas, Alfredas. "Lithuania's Millennium - Millennium Lithuaniae, Or what Lithuania can tell the world on this occasion" (PDF).

Cizauskas, Albert C. (1986). Zdanys, Jonas (ed.). "The Unusual Story of Thaddeus Kosciusko". Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences. 32 (1-Spring). ISSN 0024-5089.

Colimore, Edward (10 December 2007). "Fighting to save remains of a fort". Philadelphia Inquirer, page article.

"Comprehensive Plan - Liberty in My Name" (PDF). National Park Service, 58 pages. 4 October 2007.

Feliks, Koneczny (n.d.). "Święci w dziejach Narodu Polskiego" (in Polish). Nonpossumus.pl. Archived from the original on June 25, 2012.

Krol, George (8 July 2005). "Remarks by U.S. Ambassador George Krol at the Ceremony to Unveil the Tadeusz Kościuszko Monument". Charter 97. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013.

"Kościuszko Mound". Oficjalna Strona Kopca Kościuszki w Krakowie (in Polish). Kopieckosciuszki.pl.

Honeyman, A. Van Doren (1918). Somerset County Historical Quarterly, Volume 7. Somerset, New Jersey: Somerset County Historical Society, 334 pages.

Niestsiarchuk, Leanid (2006). Андрэй Тадэвуш Банавентура Касцюшка: Вяртаннегероя нарадзіму (Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kosciuszko: Return of the Hero to his Motherland) (in Belarusian). Brest, Belarus: ААТ "Брэсцкая друкарня". ISBN 985-6665-93-0.

Niemcewicz, Julian Ursyn (1965). Budka, Mechie J. (ed.). Under Your Vine and Fig Tree. Grassmann Pub. Co., 398 pages.

Niemcewicz, Julian Ursyn (1844). Notes of My Captivity in Russia: In the Years 1794, 1795, and 1796. William Tait, 251 pages.

Pula, James S. (1998). Thaddeus Kosciuszko: The Purest Son of Liberty. New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0576-7.

White, Anthony Walton (1883). Memoir of Thaddeus Kosciuszko: Poland's hero and patriot, an officer in the American army of the revolution, and member of the Society of the Cincinnati. G. A. Thitchener. p. 58.

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Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko (English: Andrew Thaddeus Bonaventure Kosciuszko; 4 or 12 February 1746 - 15 October 1817) was a Polish-Lithuanian military engineer, statesman, and military leader who became a national hero in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and the United States. He fought in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's struggles against Russia and Prussia, and on the U.S.

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Witold Pilecki (13 May 1901 - 25 May 1948; Polish pronunciation: [ˈvitɔlt piˈlɛt͡skʲi]; codenames Roman Jezierski, Tomasz Serafiński, Druh, Witold) was a Polish cavalry officer, intelligence agent, and resistance leader. He served as a Rotmistrz (captain) with the Polish Army in the Polish-Soviet War, Second Polish Republic, and World War II.

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JUSTICE - Toute la planète connaît Edward Snowden, l'informaticien qui a révélé le vaste système d'espionnage de l'agence américaine NSA. Une histoire forte, grâce à laquelle le jeune homme de 30 ans a rejoint le panthéon des "lanceurs d'alerte". Mais la France n'est pas en reste. Vendredi 21 mars s'ouvre le procès d'Oliver Thérondel, ex-agent de TracFin, la cellule anti-blanchiment de Bercy. Il est accusé d'avoir dévoilé et critiqué l'attitude de sa hiérarchie dans l'affaire Cahuzac.

Pour ses avocats, l'enjeu est clair: il s'agit de mobiliser l'opinion publique pour lui offrir le statut symbolique de lanceur d'alerte. Sur un blog, Olivier Thérondel avait publié des billets mettant en cause les consignes de ses supérieurs dans le suivi du dossier de Jérôme Cahuzac. L'ancien ministre du Budget a depuis été contraint à la démission, après des mois de mensonge sur sa possession d'un compte à l'étranger.

Selon l'agent, une banque (non identifiée) avait transmis très tôt à Tracfin une déclaration de soupçon. Elle indiquait qu'elle devait recevoir 685.000 euros sur un compte français détenu par Jérôme Cahuzac, en provenance d'un établissement de Singapour. Selon son récit, lorsqu'étaient parvenues les preuves effectives des transferts, son supérieur direct l'aurait enjoint, oralement, à ne plus effectuer d'opérations liées à Jérôme Cahuzac. Un catalyseur pour Olivier Thérondel.

Faute d'obtenir un ordre écrit, il avait fait part publiquement de ses interrogations, par le biais de son blog anonyme sur Mediapart. "Je ne comprenais pas qu'une telle information ne soit pas transmise immédiatement à la justice. Pourquoi ce black-out? Rien ne justifiait une telle lenteur", a affirmé l'ancien agent, identifié plus tard par la justice ( Mediapart n'a pas pu le protéger car il n'intervenait pas dans un article).

En septembre, Olivier Thérondel a été suspendu de Tracfin et réaffecté aux douanes, son corps d'origine, en région parisienne. Il fait aussi l'objet d'une procédure disciplinaire. De quoi lui donner l'envie de faire éclater la vérité sur ce que savait le fisc.

Pour son avocat Maître William Bourdon, "Olivier Thérondel est un lanceur d'alerte exemplaire" , alors qu'il est lui-même auteur d'un Petit manuel de désobéissance citoyenne. "Il a courageusement révélé les graves dysfonctionnements d'un autre lanceur d'alerte institutionnel, Tracfin. Le droit moderne est son allié et doit conduire à sa relaxe", estime l'avocat. Il espère ainsi profiter des nouvelles protections de la justice, mises en place après cette affaire retentissante.
Un statut désormais protégé par la loi française
Lanceur d'alerte, ou "whistleblower" en anglais (même si la traduction littérale ne correspond pas), est un terme relativement nouveau en France. Dans sa mythologie, on désigne une personne qui estime avoir découvert des éléments qu'il considère menaçants pour la société. De manière désintéressé, il décide alors de les porter à la connaissance du public, parfois contre l'avis même de sa hiérarchie. Un statut dont l'interprétation est capitale.

Mais il faut seulement remonter à 2007 pour que l'Etat en choisisse de le protéger. Pourquoi si tard? Probablement pour des raisons historiques liées au régime de Vichy, estiment les sociologues. La confusion est souvent entretenue entre délation et signalement de faits contraires à la loi. Il a néanmoins fallu attendre la fin 2013 pour que les agents publics profitent du dispositif.

Désormais, 5 pays de l'UE (dont la France) ont mis en oeuvre une protection complète des lanceurs d'alerte: le Royaume-Uni, le Luxembourg, la Roumanie et la Slovénie.

L'un des premiers lanceurs d'alerte français fut André Cicolella, ce chimiste spécialisé dans l'évaluation des risques sanitaires, qui fut licencié de l'Institut national de recherche et de sécurité en 1994, pour avoir dénoncé les dangers des éthers de glycol. Il a fallu attendre l'an 2000 pour que la Cour de cassation rétablisse ses droits en reconnaissant le caractère abusif de son licenciement. André Cicolella a alors entrepris de faire connaître la situation du lanceur d'alerte en proposant de lui accorder une protection juridique.

Plus proche de nous, Irène Frachon rentre également dans ce cadre. En 2010, cette pneumologue avait révélé le scandale du Mediator, ce médicament souvent prescrit comme coupe-faim, retiré du marché en 2009 pour de sa toxicité sur le cœur. Elle avait choisi d'écrire un livre, Mediator 150 mg, Combien de morts? pour relater son combat.
Jérôme Kerviel est-il un lanceur d'alerte ?
Son statut est assez spécial. L'ex-trader n'a pas cherché à révéler certains comportements contraires à l'éthique quand il était en poste. Pourtant, il veut aujourd'hui faire la lumière sur les dérives de la finance et cherche à retourner le procès à son avantage. Il a obtenu de la Cour de cassation qu'une nouvelle audience se tienne à la Cour d'appel de Versailles pour évaluer les responsabilité de la Société Générale.

Dans son arrêt, la Cour de cassation a estimé que le précédent jugement "n'a pas tenu compte des fautes" (ndlr: commises par la banque, ayant concouru au développement de la fraude et à ses conséquences financières). Jamais inquiétée jusqu'à aujourd'hui, la banque se pose en victime dans cette affaire et réclame 5 milliards d'euros à son ancien trader. Trop négligente? "Une victime négligente n'est pas pour autant une victime consentante", avait répondu l'avocat général de la Cour d'appel de Paris, Yves Le Baut.

Mais Jérôme Kerviel n'est pas ce "chevalier blanc" que sa défense tente de dépeindre. Pourtant soutien politique de l'ex-trader, Jean-Luc Mélenchon a mis le doigt sur ce qui le différencie d'un lanceur d'alerte. "Les banques sont nos ennemis aujourd'hui. Kerviel en était un rouage actif, content de lui et du système. Mais Kerviel est innocent", a écrit le coprésident du Parti de gauche sur son blog en juin dernier. En effet, l'ancien trader est tombé pour avoir pris 50 milliards d'euros de positions. Pas pour avoir dénoncé un système trop laxiste quand il y travaillait.
Le cas Hervé Falciani et sa liste d'évadés fiscaux
Si on lui pose la question, l'ancien informaticien de HSBC se présente volontiers comme un lanceur d'alerte. Il est connu pour avoir dérobé les données bancaires de milliers d'évadés fiscaux dans les fichiers de la succursale suisse de la banque. En 2008, il s'était emparé des fichiers contenant les noms de quelque 127.000 clients. Transmis à la justice française un an plus tard, ces fichiers avaient permis d'identifier 8993 évadés fiscaux et de rapatrier 1,2 milliard d'euros.

Aujourd'hui sa vie est devenue un enfer. Traqué par les autorités suisses (il risque jusqu'à sept ans et demi de prison), il fuit de pays en pays. Jusqu'à atterrir en Espagne, où il bénéficie du statut de témoin protégé. La Suisse l'accuse d'espionnage économique, de soustraction d'information et de violation de secret commercial et bancaire. Mais la justice helvétique se heurte au refus de Madrid d'extrader le Franco-Italien. Depuis ses révélations, Hervé Falciani serait menacé de mort et placé sous la protection de la police.

Certains détracteurs mettent toutefois en doute son attitude désintéressée. Selon Le Point, il apparaît que l'informaticien se serait emparé des données pour pouvoir les monnayer. Le journal s'appuie sur des rapports de l'Office fédéral de la police suisse. Dans ces derniers, le témoignage d'une ancienne amie à qui il aurait confié qu'il voulait monnayer ses données auprès de banques étrangères.

Le quotidien suisse des affaires L'Agefi affirme de son côté qu'Hervé Falciani aurait négocié la somme de 1000 dollars par fraudeur. Plus gros encore, il aurait reçu 4 millions de dollars des services de renseignements allemands. Officiellement, il dément formellement ces transactions secrètes et réaffirme son statut de "whistleblower". À 42 ans, il a annoncé son objectif de créer une "cellule de défense économique" grâce à son "réseau qui regroupe la crème des experts mondiaux" et "d'"autres lanceurs d'alertes".

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Qui sont les nouveaux lanceurs d'alerte français ?

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JUSTICE - Toute la planète connaît Edward Snowden, l'informaticien qui a révélé le vaste système d'espionnage de l'agence américaine NSA. Une histoire forte, grâce à laquelle le jeune homme de 30 a...

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Ces lanceuses d’alerte qui ont fait trembler les plus grands - Apesac

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LE TELEGRAMME Ce sont celles par qui le scandale arrive… En dévoilant au grand jour les secrets les plus enfouis, les lanceuses d’alertes deviennent les héroïnes des temps troublés. Retour sur ces femmes qui ont osé briser la loi du silence (liste non exhaustive !). Chaque jour, de nouveaux scandales arrivent, qu’ils soient politiques, financiers, […]

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Un article de Wikipédia, l’encyclopédie libre.

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Reyjon Iliana work with the correspondent

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Reyjon Iliana work with the correspondent

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Hers name is Tosia and she’s 18 years old. Her birthday was 31st of January. She loves rock, art, performances in the theaters, concerts, plants, animals and travel also. She traveled in many countries in Europe. She have been in England, Italy, Czechia, Slovakia, Albania, Hungary and few more. Hers favorite animal is the rat but is mother hates it. She has a big tabby cat. She studies many subjects like : biology, chemistry, physic, philosophy, geography, history, english, polish, italian, math, sports, business basic and career counseling (= our AP). She wants to go to the university and she wants to do cultural studies because, according to her, “it seems so interesting and not that hard”. And, she don’t know what she want to do in the futur.

Jean-Philippe Smet, (born name = Jean-Philippe Clerc), known as Johnny Hallyday, was born on June 15, 1943, in Paris and died on December 5th, 2017, in Hauts-de-Seine. He was a French singer, songwriter, and actor. His career lasted 57 years, and he was one of the most famous Francophone singers and one of the biggest celebrities in France. If he was not the first to sing rock in France, he was, around 1960, the first to popularize the genre. However, he also performed other genres such as sentimental ballads and country. Nevertheless, rock remained his main genre. He take inspiration from: rock 'n' roll, rhythm and blues, soul, psychedelic rock, soft rock, and pop rock. His spectacular shows and his vocal performances attracted many fans. In total, he released 80 albums (51 studio albums and 165 singles). He had 6 diamond discs, 22 platinum discs, 40 gold discs, and 10 Victories of Music. However, he had not managed to make himself known on the international stage despite several successful tours (such as in South America). However, his reputation as a showman was known in many countries. So, he completed 184 tours and gave more than 3,425 concerts. Throughout his life, he had 30 million spectators. He was known for his performances with a large budget and his stage effects. While suffering from lung cancer, he went on his last tour in June and July 2017. He died a few months later, and all of France was in mourning, this death made many people sad.

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This is a short presentation about the castle in our city Krakow.

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Witold Pilecki – Polish Resistance Hero and Whistleblower

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Witold Pilecki – Polish Resistance Hero and Whistleblower

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Witold Pilecki (1901–1948) was a Polish army officer, resistance fighter, and one of the first people to expose the atrocities of the Holocaust. His actions link Poland and France through the broader Allied resistance network in World War II.

In 1940, Pilecki volunteered to be imprisoned in Auschwitz to gather intelligence and build a resistance movement from within the camp. He spent nearly three years inside, documenting the Nazi crimes and smuggling reports to the Polish resistance, which were later shared with the Allies, including France and Britain.

Despite the risks, Pilecki escaped in 1943 and continued fighting with the Polish underground. After the war, he opposed the Soviet-backed communist regime in Poland. He was arrested, tortured, and executed in 1948. His story was suppressed for decades but has since gained international recognition.

Mathéo Molitor, Lorenzo Mandet, Ola Astadnik

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My pen pals name is Adrien, he is interested in history and what’s to join the army. He is also friends with Ala’s correspondent.

Antonina

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The musical career of Wladyslaw Szpilman (1911-2000) was interrupted by the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. Szpilman and his family were driven, along with hundreds of thousands of other Jews, into the Warsaw ghetto.

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My correspondent is called Antonina, she is best friends with Louka's correspondent. She likes to post her life on Instagram as well as visit places

Adrien

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My pen pal is a very… mysterious person. So discreet, in fact, that she’s never managed to find her way to my inbox. She has truly mastered the art of silence, and I must say, she’s impressively consistent. Thanks to her, I’ve discovered hidden talents for writing one-sided conversations and interpreting the meaning of no replies. One day, I hope to solve the great mystery of this one-way correspondence—or at least find out if she actually exists!

Ferrero Mia 😽😽

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Our pen pals with Sebastian Targe & Léa Jacob

He likes listening to music , almost all styles of music and more specifically metal, pop and soft rock

Since he loves music, he is part of his school radio station. The only French music he knows is from the Arcade series

His favorite football club His favorite football club is Inter Milan and his favorite player is Reus. He also likes books

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my pen pal is Weronica. She is pretty kind, and we have a lot of common points : like me she loves reading books, watching films (not really on the same subjects but it’s ok;)) and we have a very good feeling !!!

i really like her !!

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She loves horrors and « deep » movies.She also likes thrillers and crime stories. She loves to spend time with friends and family. She appreciates to walk with her dogs. She explained me the school system in Poland and she still have one year before going into the university.

Eva

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Pawel was the oldest of four children born to Roman Catholic parents in Poland's capital of Warsaw. Pawel's father had worked for the Polish merchant marine before starting his own textile business in 1930. The family moved to a comfortable apartment near the Royal Castle and the Vistula River.

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L’émouvante rencontre entre le Pape et Lidia, survivante d’Auschwitz - Vatican News

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Lidia Maksymowicz, une Polonaise d’origine biélorusse qui a survécu aux camps de concentration nazis, était présente ce mercredi 26 mai à l’audience…

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Hello, today I would like to introduce you to my Polish pen pal. Our exchange began with an email and then we exchanged our Instagram. That's where it all began.

Her name is Laura. She was born on September 18 and she also will be 18 years old soon. She lives in Cracovia in Poland. In her family, she has an older brother. His name is Oliwier. And she has a little dog, it’s a minituare schnauzer. We talked about our pets and she said my dogs were very cute. She told me what she liked to do in life. She loves cooking in her spare time (pizzas, burgers, pasta) or baking. Laura enjoys spending time with her friends. Her favorite show is Prison Break. And I have managed to make her want to watch Pretty Little Liars. We also had the chance to talk about my school trip to Poland.

She was delighted that I had really enjoyed her country. We tell each other about our days, for example one day she was at an open day at the university she wants to go to, and afterwards she went to eat at a restaurant with her friends.

It's a very nice meeting and a very nice exchange that I was able to live.

Lucile

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Karolina is a very nice person, and we both love baking and cooking.

She's the kind of person who likes to play video games and often tells me that she plays Minecraft.

Outside school, Karolina has sculpture classes but it's complicated for her to reconcile school and her hobby.

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Ola lives in Kraków, although most of her family lives in other cities. In her free time, she enjoys playing tennis, watching movies and TV series, and listening to music. 

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Ola lives in Kraków, although most of her family lives in other cities. In her free time, she enjoys playing tennis, watching movies and TV series, and listening to music. 

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Mathéo

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Black and White Vintage Newspaper Graduation Announcement Flyer

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My pen pal’s name is Magdalena Mularczyk. She is 17 years old and lives in a small village near Cracow. She goes to school in Cracow and lives in the countryside with her family. She has one older brother named Karol, and they have a good relationship. She also has many animals: a cat, a dog, some chickens, and rabbits.

Magdalena has three best friends: Milena, Maja, and her boyfriend Oliwier. In her free time, she likes to go for walks or use her rollerblades. Her record is 25 kilometers! She also likes reading, especially romance and crime books. One of her favorite books is Crime and Punishment. Sometimes, she writes poems too.

She used to go to the gym, but she stopped and hopes to start again soon. Magdalena prefers the countryside to big cities and loves walking at night to watch the stars. She is not sure about her future job, but maybe she will study languages.

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The name of my correspondent is Tosia and she’s 18 years old. Her birthday was 31st of January. She loves rock, art, performances in the theaters, concerts, plants, animals and travel also. She traveled in many countries in Europe. She have been in England, Italy, Czechia, Slovakia, Albania, Hungary and few more. Her favorite animal is the rat but is mother hates it. She has a big tabby cat. She studies many subjects like : biology, chemistry, physic, philosophy, geography, history, english, polish, italian, math, sports, business basic and career counseling (= our AP). She wants to go to the university and she wants to do cultural studies because, according to her, “it seems so interesting and not that hard”. And, she don’t know what she want to do in the futur.

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White Pink Halftone Tips for Instagram Post

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This is a special music event you should not miss. Vanessa Paradis and Edyta Górniak, two famous singers, will sing together on stage for the first time. Vanessa Paradis is a French artist. Her voice is soft and full of emotion. Edyta Górniak is from

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This is a special music event you should not miss. Vanessa Paradis and Edyta Górniak, two famous singers, will sing together on stage for the first time. Vanessa Paradis is a French artist. Her vo (1)

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This is a special music event you should not miss. Vanessa Paradis and Edyta Górniak, two famous singers, will sing together on stage for the first time. Vanessa Paradis is a French artist. Her vo (2)

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https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/19SwfvUU36G5bXLR2UTDk7W9bdOcfVper_pBjEQOJLrM/edit?pli=1&slide=id.p1#slide=id.p1

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History of  Kościuszko Mount - Julia Pastuła

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Kahoot game about Kylian Mbappe created by Jan and Mateusz form XLI LO Kraków

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Kahoot game about Kylian Mbappe created by Jan and Mateusz form XLI LO Kraków

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Join a game of kahoot here. Kahoot! is a free game-based learning platform that makes it fun to learn – any subject, in any language, on any device, for all ages!

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KAHOOT game based on Chopin presentation created by team members from Poland Emilia and Milena.  

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KAHOOT game based on Chopin presentation created by team members from Poland Emilia and Milena.  

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https://create.kahoot.it/share/frederic-chopin/6e531e0c-b7ec-45e6-8f56-e9393dd6203a

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Create interactive quizzes, polls, presentations, and more to engage your audience.

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Heroes across borders: an article about Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Jarosław Dąbrowski. 

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Heroes across borders: an article about Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Jarosław Dąbrowski. 

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Juliusz K. Francesca B. Jakub H. - Stanisław Broniewski

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Juliusz K. Francesca B. Jakub H. - Stanisław Broniewski

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Nicolas et Hugo

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Video to the previous presentation about Beksiński made by Lucile, Laura and Nikola.

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Video to the previous presentation about Beksiński made by Lucile, Laura and Nikola.

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Kahoot game to the previous presentation and video about Beksiński. 

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Kahoot game to the previous presentation and video about Beksiński. 

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Create interactive quizzes, polls, presentations, and more to engage your audience.

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https://export-download.canva.com/oL230/DAGoG8oL230/17/0-5064764157307492849.pdf?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAQYCGKMUH5AO7UJ26%2F20250521%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20250521T205746Z&X-Amz-Expires=55005&X-Amz-Signature=a5f7e276bbe9a964b207dd5071f7b25e1fcda1613476c1761d3cb80f38e3b17a&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%2A%3DUTF-8%27%27Project%2520History.pdf&response-expires=Thu%2C%2022%20May%202025%2012%3A14%3A31%20GMT

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Maria Skłodowska-Curie, Robert Lewandowski- Wiktoria, Katarzyna 

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Maria Skłodowska-Curie, Robert Lewandowski- Wiktoria, Katarzyna 

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Join a game of kahoot here. Kahoot! is a free game-based learning platform that makes it fun to learn – any subject, in any language, on any device, for all ages!

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My pen pals name is Louka, he is friends with Antonina’s correspondent. He likes rugby and wants to become a rugby coach.

Alicja

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Her name is Nele and she lives in France, although she has been born in Germany. She loves learning new languages, reading and practicing Judo.

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My pen pal is emma . She is friends with Hanna , unfortunately they were not really willing to talk at first but later it was so great she’s a truly lovely girl

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I was pared with hannah she’s a very artistic person she’s friends with emma but they were very misterious playing some silent game but after a few misunderstanding we did the presentation!

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I enjoyed working with my penpal, we had a couple of misunderstandings but eventually, we managed to finish our work.