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1. Topic sentence explaining the information being presented.

2. Evidences:

1. Summary of Source D

2. Summary of Source C

3. Discussion synthesizing the sources and elaborating on the framework. Transition to the next part of the topic. How can you move forward from this research gap?

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1. Topic sentence the analysis of pulsar raw data gathered from observation

2. Evidences:

1. (Source C) Scatter plot graph showing the barycentric period of PSR 0833–45 against the time (UT)

2. (Source B) The Stokes parameters (I, V, Q, U) of the pulses from CP 0328 were recorded and the fractional polarisation was determined.

3. Discussion synthesising the sources and elaborating on the framework. Transition to the next part of the topic. This method of data analysis will be used in my research, as it is able to show a distinct increase or decrease or whatever trend there is in the data. Though the data collection may be a bit different, as well as the variables on the X and Y axis.

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Topic: Possible effects of mass/temperature ratio on pulsar periodicity / rate of spin / emission / strength of emission

Sources and its relevance and context are separated into 3 main sections: interpretation, methodology, and research gap.

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Interpretation 2 (Variation of emission intensity)

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Interpretation 2 (Variation of emission intensity)

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1. Topic sentence Regarding the intensity variation found in pulsars / possible causes

2. Evidences:

1. (Source E) Intensity variations are already naturally occurring within the pulsar (intrinsic). Irregularities in the medium between source and observer, causes scintillations and diffraction of radio waves.

2. (Source B) High Intensity = one of the proposals of the mechanism of pulsar pulsation.

3. Discussion synthesising the sources and elaborating on the framework. Transition to the next part of the topic.

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Interpretation 1 (Decrease in pulsation period)

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Interpretation 1 (Decrease in pulsation period)

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1. Topic sentence These are the sources that provide information about the observed abnormal decrease in the pulsation period of Pulsar PSR 0833–45.

2. Evidences:

1. (Source C) Raw data and original observation / recollection of the Pulsar PSR 0833–45 data. Attributed the decrease to drag forces acting on the rotating neutron star and/or mass possibly ejected from the star.

2. (Source D) Further research done on the original observation of Pulsar PSR 0833–45. Interpretation aligns with preceding understanding, though the sudden period decrease was attributed to the decay of the star's angular velocity specific only to that body.

3. Discussion synthesising the sources and elaborating on the framework. Transition to the next part of the topic.

1. Related concept: intensity of emission.

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(Source E) Intensity Variations of the Pulsar CP 1919

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(Source E) Intensity Variations of the Pulsar CP 1919

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LOVELACE, R. V. E., & CRAFT, H. D. (1968). Intensity Variations of the Pulsar CP 1919. Nature, 220(5170), 875–879. https://doi.org/10.1038/220875a0

This journal focuses on the variation in emission intensity seen in the pulsar CP 1919. The results have concluded that the reason behind these variations can be attributed to only a few factors for a long-time scale. The first possibility is that these variations may have been naturally occurring, or intrinsic, to the pulsar. Another possibility is that there is a scintillation between the pulse source on the pulsar, and the observer (Earth)... Further supported by the theory that the medium separating the pulsar and the Earth has irregular electron density sizes, which cause the emitted radio waves to diffract as it propagates through the medium. This source may prove to be very beneficial to my research, as it refers to many other valuable sources concerning the same topic, and it also has good reasoning behind theories.

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(Source D) Detection of a Change of State in the Pulsar PSR 0833-45

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(Source D) Detection of a Change of State in the Pulsar PSR 0833-45

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RADHAKRISHNAN, V., & MANCHESTER, R. N. (1969). Detection of a Change of State in the Pulsar PSR 0833-45. Nature, 222(5190), 228–229. https://doi.org/10.1038/222228a0

This journal was done in extension to the previous journal by Reichley and Downs (1969) as further preceding research and interpretation of the observation results in regards to the pulsar PSR 0833–45. The periodicity of the pulsar decreased by two parts per million (ppm) between February 20 and March 13, 1969. The analysed (and graphed) decay rate of the periodicity exhibited a linear pattern, which eliminates the orbital motion of the pulsar and anything involving gravitational red-shift effects from the range of possible explanations of this phenomenon. Therefore, this phenomenon can be called a “real” change in pulsation period, corresponding to an actual change in rotational period as well. The conclusion has attributed this phenomenon to a decay of angular velocity which characterises that specific pulsar.

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(Source C) Observed Decrease in the Periods of Pulsar PSR 0833–45

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(Source C) Observed Decrease in the Periods of Pulsar PSR 0833–45

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REICHLEY, P. E., & DOWNS, G. S. (1969). Observed Decrease in the Periods of Pulsar PSR 0833–45. Nature, 222(5190), 229–230. https://doi.org/10.1038/222229a0

This is a journal documenting the observed decrease in pulsation period of PSR 0833–45, whose results are later discovered to be aligned with Radhakrishnan and Manchester, in the same year. The date (between Feb 24 and March 3) vs. period (in nanoseconds; ns) were graphed onto a scatter plot, which later shows a stable rate of increase of the pulsation period both before and after the phenomenon (sudden decrease). Both Reichley and Downs’s initial reaction to this anomaly was that there has been a systematic error in the data collection for PSR 0833–45, but this possibility was later eliminated after comparing the data of seven other pulsars (same controlled conditions of measurement), concluding that this phenomenon really was a out of the normal occurrence. The period P and rate of change of period ∆P/P were fractional, which can be attributed to the drag forces acting on the rotating neutron star, causing the steady decrease in rotation rate. It’s also a possibility that mass was ejected from within the star, leading to slight contraction, would be the causation behind the decrease in pulsation period overall + moment of inertia.

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(Source B) Generation of Radio Waves in Pulsars

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(Source B) Generation of Radio Waves in Pulsars

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SMITH, F. G. (1970). Generation of Radio Waves in Pulsars. Nature, 228(5275), 913–916. https://doi.org/10.1038/228913a0

This journal firstly outlines the possible differences between the mechanism of radio emissions, and X-ray, optical, infrared emissions; whether or not the same continuous spectrum (observed from the Crab pulsar) would also be observed for the pulsar radiation. The journal also listed 14 properties of radio pulses that a typical pulsar must have. Multiple proposals for the mechanisms of pulsar pulses include: High Intensity, referring to how the observed peak pulse intensity could have been enhanced by a “relativistic beaming effect”, Coherent Electron Motion and Synchrotron Radiation, Wave Amplification, and Spectrum Fluctuations. This relates to the intensity of waves, the journal also made connections with circular polarisation of the pulsars, therefore, this can be a very helpful source of information. In addition, the journal has an impact factor 69.504, meaning that it’s credible for use.

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(Source A) Radio Emission from Pulsars and Surface Temperature of Neutron Stars

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(Source A) Radio Emission from Pulsars and Surface Temperature of Neutron Stars

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RENGARAJAN, T. N. (1973). Radio Emission from Pulsars and Surface Temperature of Neutron Stars. Nature Physical Science, 242(120), 102–104. https://doi.org/10.1038/physci242102a0

This research journal focuses on the expected X-ray emissions from pulsars, saying that most may expect it to exhibit the “characteristic blackbody spectrum in the X-ray range”, considering how neutron stars are believed to be formed with the surface temperature of at least 107 Kelvin. Through calculations, a “limit” for the temperature of pulsars faster than the Crab pulsar NP 0532 was determined. This implies that because faster pulsars are younger and have a higher surface temperature, its radio emission will be suppressed by the Compton interaction to a greater degree. It was also stated that higher surface temperature comes with a higher density of photons, which may also suppress other radiations that might be emitted near the surface of the neutron star. This source will be very helpful towards my research question, as it focuses directly on the possible relationship between pulsar surface temperature and its (observable) periodicity / radio emission. It’s also reliable, as the journal, Nature, has an impact factor of 69.504.