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The endocrine system is a network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder that results from either insufficient insulin production or ineffective use of insulin by the body. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates glucose levels in the blood. In people with diabetes, glucose levels can become dangerously high, leading to various complications.

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The five senses include sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Each sense involves specialized sensory organs, such as the eyes, ears, taste buds, and olfactory receptors, that detect specific stimuli and transmit sensory information to the brain. The brain then processes this information and generates conscious perception of the sensory experience.

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Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons and other cells. Recreational drugs can affect neurotransmitter levels by increasing or decreasing the release, uptake, or breakdown of certain neurotransmitters, leading to altered mood, perception, and behavior. Repeated drug use can lead to changes in the brain's reward circuitry, resulting in addiction, which is characterized by compulsive drug-seeking behavior despite negative consequences.

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The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are two branches of the autonomic nervous system that control involuntary processes such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses by increasing heart rate, dilating blood vessels, and releasing adrenaline, while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes "rest and digest" responses by slowing heart rate, constricting blood vessels, and stimulating digestion. These two systems work together to maintain homeostasis in the body.

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The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of all the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord, and is responsible for transmitting information to and from the central nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movement and sensation, including the movement of skeletal muscles, while the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary processes, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration, and is further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses, while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes "rest and digest" responses.

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The five major parts of the brain are the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The cerebrum is responsible for voluntary movement, sensation, language, thought, and emotion. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance. The brainstem controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. The thalamus relays sensory and motor information to the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormone secretion.

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The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord and is responsible for processing and coordinating sensory input and motor output. The brain is divided into different regions that control various functions, such as movement, sensation, emotion, and cognition, while the spinal cord serves as a relay between the brain and the rest of the body. The CNS also includes various supporting cells, such as neurons and glial cells, which are essential for its function.

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Muscle physiology includes the processes of muscle contraction, relaxation, and energy metabolism. Muscle contraction is controlled by the sliding filament theory, in which actin and myosin filaments slide past each other to shorten the muscle fiber. Muscle relaxation is controlled by the calcium ion pump, which removes calcium from the muscle cell, allowing the muscle to return to its resting state. Energy for muscle contraction is provided by ATP, which is generated through various metabolic pathways, including glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation.

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Muscle anatomy refers to the structure and function of muscles. Muscles are composed of muscle fibers, which are organized into fascicles, and fascicles are organized into muscle groups. The three main types of muscle tissue are skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle, each with their own unique characteristics and functions.

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Axial muscles are those that are located in the central axis of the body, including the muscles of the head, neck, spine, and ribcage, and are involved in posture, respiration, and other core functions. Appendicular muscles are those that are located in the limbs and their attachment points to the axial skeleton, including the muscles of the arms, legs, and pelvis, and are involved in movement and manipulation of the environment.

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The physiology of a bone includes the processes of bone remodeling, bone growth and development, and bone repair. These processes are controlled by a variety of hormones and signaling molecules, including parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and osteocalcin. Bone remodeling involves the coordinated activity of bone resorbing cells called osteoclasts and bone-forming cells called osteoblasts, while bone growth and repair involve the proliferation and differentiation of specialized cells called chondrocytes and osteoblasts.

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A bone has a complex structure that includes both compact and spongy bone tissue, bone marrow, cartilage, and periosteum. The shaft of a long bone is called the diaphysis, while the rounded ends are called the epiphyses, and the joint surface is covered by articular cartilage. The medullary cavity contains bone marrow, and the periosteum is a tough membrane that covers the outer surface of the bone.

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The axial skeleton refers to the bones that form the central axis of the body, including the skull, spine, and ribcage, while the appendicular skeleton refers to the bones that make up the limbs and their attachment points to the axial skeleton. The axial skeleton provides support and protection for vital organs, while the appendicular skeleton enables movement and manipulation of the environment.