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Plato was an Ancient Greek Philosopher. He was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. Plato was the founder of the Academy in Athens. Plato had an aristocratic origin and his parents' plans for his political career, but he devoted his life to philosophy and his ideas. He wrote the Republic Duality of the Psyche. (History of Psychology)

Plato primarily studied the duality of psyche, connections between the mind and the body, and mental state. He defined 3 aspects of the psyche; reason, feeling, and appetite. (History of Psychology) He proposed that the human psyche was the base of knowledge and that our minds were created with everything that we need to know. He says that learning is a process called anamnesis, where we have to unlock all of the knowledge we were born with. He says that the healthy mind will create a balance between the three parts of the mind (the logistikon, the thumos, and the epithumeticon) and the dualistic aspect of the mind, and the three parts are balanced between intellect and desire. (Shuttleworth, Aristotle’s Psychology - History of Psychology)

Plato would primarily fall under cognitive psychology for his work on how people learn and unlock knowledge from the brain, and also the different parts of the brain and the mind (some aspects of what he studied could fall under gestalt or behaviorism).

History of Psychology. www.psyking.net/id19.htm.

---. Aristotle’s Psychology - History of Psychology. explorable.com/aristotles-psychology#:~:text=He%20used%20the%20idea%20of,of%20the%20knowledge%20it%20needed.

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Aristotle was a prominent Greek Philosopher and polymath. He made many contributions to logic, criticism, rhetoric, physics, biology, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, and government politics. He studied under the philosopher, Plato, eventually gaining popularity for rejecting his ideas. When he got older he became a teacher, founding his own school in Athens, the Lyceum (Kenny and Amadio)

Aristotle wrote the first known psychological text, called "Para Psyche". This can be translated to 'About the Mind'. This book laid the groundwork for the study of psychology. He proposed that the mind was the main reason for the body's function ("first entelechy"). Aristotle believed that there were three types of souls defining life; the animal soul, the plant soul, and the human soul. Aristotle tried to understand and examine the relationships between impulses and urges within the human mind. (Shuttleworth)

Aristotle's philosophies of the mind would primarily fall under behaviorism. (Shuttleworth, Aristotle’s Psychology - History of Psychology)

Kenny, Anthony J. P., and Anselm H. Amadio. “Aristotle | Biography, Works, Quotes, Philosophy, Ethics, and Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 May 1999, www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle.

Shuttleworth, Martyn. Aristotle’s Psychology - History of Psychology. explorable.com/aristotles-psychology#:~:text=Aristotle%2C%20building%20upon%20the%20work,Psyche%2C%20'About%20the%20Mind.

---. Aristotle’s Psychology - History of Psychology. explorable.com/aristotles-psychology#:~:text=Aristotle%2C%20building%20upon%20the%20work,Psyche%2C%20'About%20the%20Mind.

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John Locke was born in England and was educated at Oxford. He served as a private physician and tutor before becoming a writer in his later years.

Locke is mostly know for his economic and political views. In psychology, he promoted the idea of a tabula rasa. In this idea, humans are born with a "blank slate" and develop their intelligence and personality based on their interactions with others, education, and environment.

Many of his ideas form the basis of both behaviorism and social psychology.

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Franz Mesmer was a physicist from Germany. In 1754, age 20, he began studying at the Jesuit College of the University of Ingolstadt where he took classes in Mathematics, Philosophy, Physics, Theology, French, and Latin. At the end of his studies he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Mesmer considered the health effects caused by movements of the heavenly bodies. He was well known for his work with animal magnetism. (Famous Scientists)

The main idea that Mesmer is known for is hypnosis, called animal magnetism. In 1774 during a magnetic treatment with a female patient, he perceived a fluid flowing through the woman’s body whose flow was affected by his will. He called this fluid and its manipulation 'Animal Magnetism' and developed an elaborate theory regarding its effect on health. He thought that every individual had magnetic fluid flowing through channels throughout his body and that blockages in the flow of this fluid caused emotional or physical disease.  He believed that certain individuals had more or less innate animal magnetism, and therefore varied in their ability to manipulate the flow of this fluid. (HMI College of Hypnotherapy)

Franz Mesmer would fall under the school of psychology of gestalt, because of the connection of the mind to the body through this hypnosis.

Famous Scientists. “Franz Mesmer - Biography, Facts and Pictures.” Famous Scientists, 15 Aug. 2018, www.famousscientists.org/franz-mesmer.

HMI College of Hypnotherapy. hypnosis.edu/history/the-birth-of-mesmerism.

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With education at the University of Vienna and the University of Ingolstadt, Franz Mesmer theorized the existence of a natural energy transference occurring between all animated and inanimate objects, which he called "animal magnetism", which is referred to as mesmerism. He was a German physician with an interest in astronomy, and he published a doctoral dissertation which was about the influence of the moon and the planets on the human body and diseases. He also proposed in this that there was an existence of an invisible fluid in the body that reacts to the gravitational force on the planets.

Mesmer's theory of Mesmerism later became a forerunner of the modern practice of hypnotism. He later revised his theory which could be activated by any magnetized object and manipulated by any trained person. He used his hypnosis to achieve results with patients, claiming cures for blindness, paralysis, convulsions, and other hysterical conditions. His discovery of this theory of illness that involved internal magnetic forces helped lay the groundwork for modern spiritualism and was of great interest to psychical researchers investigating paranormal phenomena.

This hypnosis that he discovered fits in with psychoanalysis which dealt with the unconscious mind to cure mental disorders and bio-psychoanalytical.

Glass, Don. “The History of ‘Mesmerize’ and ‘Hypnotism.’” A Moment of Science - Indiana Public Media, indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/history-mesmerize-hypnotism.php.
"Franz Mesmer." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 20 Feb. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Mesmer. Accessed 8 Mar. 2023.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Franz Anton Mesmer | German Physician.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Mar. 2023, www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Anton-Mesmer.

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Ernst Weber was a German physician and is considered to be one of the founders of experimental psychology. Weber was born into an academic background, with his father serving as a professor at the University of Wittenberg. He became a doctor, specializing in anatomy and physiology.

He mainly studied on sensation and touch, along with his emphasis on good experimental techniques led to new directions and areas of study for future psychologists, physiologists, and anatomists.

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Fechner is well known to psychologists as the founder of psychophysics, a set of methods for empirically relating measured sensory stimulus to reported sensation.

He developed experimental procedures for measuring sensations in relation to the physical magnitude of stimuli and proposed three methods of measurement known as just-noticeable difference, constant stimuli, and average error.

Fechner as the founder of psychophysics best aligns under the structuralism school of psychology with the connections of sensory organs to physical stimuli as well as behaviorism as his three methods of measurement laid the groundwork for empirical understandings of behaviorism.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Gustav Fechner | German Philosopher and Physicist.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 July 1998, www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-Fechner.

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Herman Von Helmholtz was interested in conducting research on human eyesight and hearing. He was interested in the connections between quantifiable physical inputs and the corresponding human perceptions, motivated by psychophysics. He was trained primarily in physiology. By measuring the speed of brain impulses and researching the physiology of hearing and vision, Helmholtz made a contribution to psychology.

"Hermann von Helmholtz." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 7 Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz. Accessed 10 Mar. 2023.

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Paul Broca was a French physician and anatomist who made significant contributions to the field of neuropsychology. He is best known for his discovery of the region in the brain now known as Broca's area, which is responsible for language production. Broca's research on language processing led to the development of the field of neurolinguistics, which investigates the neural basis of language. His work also helped establish the biological school of psychology, which emphasizes the role of physiological processes in behavior and mental processes. Broca's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of language processing and the relationship between brain function and behavior.

Paul Broca falls under the school of psychology known as cognitive psychology and humanistic psychology

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Paul Broca | French anthropologist and pathologist. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Broca

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Charcot was a French neurologist and anatomical pathology professor. He was born in France before neurology was a specialization. He used his artistic abilities and memory to make associations about disease patterns in the field of medicine and anatomy. (Kumar et al.)

After making many medical discoveries and accomplishments, Charcot began to study hypnosis and hysteria. He created the Salpetriere school of hypnosis and sought to put this technique on a firm scientific footing by describing the successive stages of hypnosis and showing that changes take place in the nervous system when an individual is hypnotized. He learned that hypnotization is neurological and hysteria is emotional, which was very untraditional. He was able to demonstrate the production and removal of hysterical symptoms by hypnosis. His observations helped connect abnormal conditions and normal behavior, and furthered the use of hypnotic suggestion as a therapeutic tool. (N)

Charcot's connections between medical and psychological assets fall under the psychoanalytical, biopsychological, and cognitive schools of psychology.

Kumar, David D., et al. “Jean-Martin Charcot: The Father of Neurology.” Clinical Medicine & Research, vol. 9, no. 1, Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation, 1 Mar. 2011, pp. 46–49. https://doi.org/10.3121/cmr.2009.883.

N, Sam M. S. “What Is CHARCOT, JEAN-MARTIN (1825- 93)? Definition of CHARCOT, JEAN-MARTIN (1825- 93) (Psychology Dictionary).” Psychology Dictionary, 5 Dec. 2018, psychologydictionary.org/charcot-jean-martin-1825-93.

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German physiologist and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt graduated from the University of Heidelberg in 1856 with a medical degree. He focused on experimental psychology. Wundt demonstrated that introspection may be employed in repeatable scientific procedures to explore mental states.

"Wilhelm Wundt." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 5 Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt. Accessed 10 Mar. 2023.

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American philosopher and psychologist, a leader of the philosophical movement of pragmatism and a founder of the psychological movement of functionalism.

James  proposed a study upon deaf-mutes realizing that those with inner ear damage may not experience vertigo. He experimented on participants by placing them on a swing winding up the swing ropes and then allowing them to rapidly untwist. He then asked participants to open their eyes and walk in a straight line. Only 1 participant did not experience dizziness of the 200 volunteers. A majority of the 519 deaf mute children reported slight dizziness or no dizziness at all however.

William James falls under the psychological school of thought known as functionalism which sought causal relationships between internal states and external behaviors

Milar, Katharine S. “William James and the Sixth Sense.” https://www.apa.org, www.apa.org/monitor/2012/09/sixth-sense#:~:text=Participants%20closed%20their%20eyes%20and,to%20walk%20a%20straight%20line.

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G. Stanley Hall was an American psychologist and teacher from Massachusetts. He was inspired by Wilhelm Wundt's book and switched from philosophy to psychology. He was the first American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology and was the first president of the American Psychological Association. Hall briefly studied in Wundt's experimental lab. He had a significant impact on the early development of psychology in the US. Hall founded the first American psychology laboratory at John Hopkins University. (Cherry)

Hall published 489 books on psychology (all topics: economic, social, intellectual isolation of the elderly, types of aggression, etc), but is best known for his work on child development, especially adolescence. He developed an influential concept of genetic psychology based on evolutionary theory. (Parry) He also developed the adolescent theory. He described adolescence as storm and stress (storm refers to a decreased level of self-control, and stress refers to an increased level of sensitivity), and says that these are due to biological changes in puberty. (Cherry)

Hall falls under the biopsychosocial school of psychology, as his research and discoveries surround how biological, psychological, and social factors and their complex impact on health.

Cherry, Kendra. “Biography of Psychologist G. Stanley Hall.” Verywell Mind, 25 Mar. 2020, www.verywellmind.com/g-stanley-hall-biography-2795507.

Parry, Manon. “G. Stanley Hall: Psychologist and Early Gerontologist.” American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, 30 May 2006, https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2006.090647.

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Carl Wernicke was a German psychiatrist and neurologist. Wernicke studied medicine during his secondary education at Breslau University. After finishing school, he found a job as an assistant at the Ophthalmology Department at Breslau University. Wernicke served as an army surgeon during the France-Prussian war of 1870. Once the war was over, Wernicke returned to Breslau University as an assistant again, but this time he got to work in the psychiatry department.

Wernicke is most associated with the cognitive school of psychology because neuropsychology focuses on how a person's brain is related to their cognition or the nervous system.

He is best known to speech-language pathologists for his discovery of the area in the cerebrum responsible for receptive language/speech.

https://www.studysmarter.us/explanations/psychology/famous-psychologists/carl-wernicke/

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Ivan Pavlov was a Russian and Soviet psychologist, experimental neurologist, and physiologist, and he influenced fields beyond physiology and became the basis of behaviorism. He received his doctorate and studied in Germany. He organized the Physiology Department of the Institute of Experimental Medicine in Saint Petersburg. He was known for founding classical conditioning, and he was appointed to the Russian Academy of Sciences and received the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology. (“The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904”)

Ivan Pavlov studied the physiology of digestion at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. He researched and studied dogs, and noticed their natural salivation upon the presentation of food. He also noticed their salivation when they saw a white lab coat on an assistant. This lead him to believe that a conditioned response occurred by the dogs association of the presentation of food with the assistant. Pavlov was also able to demonstrate that animals could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a tone as well (the bell). (Cherry, “Ivan Pavlov and His Discovery of Classical Conditioning”)

Ivan Pavlov would fall under the school of psychology of behaviorism due to his classical conditioning work.

“The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904.” NobelPrize.org, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1904/pavlov/facts.

---. “Ivan Pavlov and His Discovery of Classical Conditioning.” Verywell Mind, 27 Mar. 2020, www.verywellmind.com/ivan-pavlov-biography-1849-1936-2795548.

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Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the area of memory. He is best known for his pioneering research on memory and forgetting, and his discovery of the forgetting curve, which describes how forgetting occurs over time. Ebbinghaus also introduced the concept of nonsense syllables, which he used to study memory without the interference of prior knowledge or associations. His research on memory helped establish the cognitive school of psychology, which focuses on understanding the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, and problem-solving. Ebbinghaus's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of human memory, and his methods for studying memory continue to be used in research today.

Herman was best known for his experimental psychology and was under the branch of cognitive psychology

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, February 22). Hermann Ebbinghaus | German psychologist. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hermann-Ebbinghaus

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Freud was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior. Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.

In a report he released, Freud described his experiments with cocaine as a treatment for both physical and mental illnesses. He gave himself the medication to treat his headaches and nervousness.

Freud falls under the school of psychology known as psychoanalysis in which an individual must successfully complete each stage to become a psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed ego and superego

Rosenberg, Jennifer. “Sigmund Freud.” ThoughtCo, 23 Jan. 2020, www.thoughtco.com/sigmund-freud-1779806#:~:text=In%201884%2C%20Freud%20published%20a,cure%20for%20headaches%20and%20anxiety.

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Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who is best known for his contributions to the development of intelligence testing. In the late 19th century, Binet was asked by the French government to develop a way to identify children who were struggling in school and in need of extra help. He created a series of tests that assessed various cognitive abilities, such as memory and attention, and used these tests to measure a child's mental age. Binet's work helped establish the field of psychometrics, which is concerned with the measurement of psychological traits and abilities. His intelligence tests were widely adopted and became the basis for the modern IQ test. Binet's work also had a significant impact on the development of the cognitive school of psychology, which focuses on understanding mental processes such as perception, attention, and memory.

Binet with his assessments of intelligence best falls under the school of thought known as cognitive psychology.

Cherry, K. (2020). Alfred Binet and the Simon-Binet Intelligence Scale. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/alfred-binet-biography-2795503#:~:text=He%20believed%20that%20intelligence%20was,that%20intelligence%20was%20not%20fixed.

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Lewis Terman was an American Psychologist and author. He attended Stanford Graduate School of Education.

Terman was apart of the cognitive psychology school of thought. He is mostly known for his work in educational psychology and studying children.

Terman's major contribution to psychology was his role in educational psychology. His intelligence tests have now been used widely and during his work he advocated for children who are gifted.

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American philosopher and psychologist, Mary Whiton Calkins, whose work informed theory and research of memory, dreams, and self. Her scholarly accomplishments include inventing the paired-associates technique for studying learning and memory and writing four books and over 100 articles on topics related to memory, dream analysis, self-psychology, and consciousness. She had an education at Harvard University and Smith College and established one of the first psychological laboratories in the country at Wellesley College.

Her discoveries and accomplishments were a huge help in the study of biopsychology, cognition, and psychoanalysis.

National Women’s History Museum, www.womenshistory.org/mary-whiton-calkins.

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Charles Edward Spearman was an English psychologist known for his work in statistics. He was also known for the development of his two-factor theory of intelligence using factor analysis. Spearman was known for experimental psychology. Spearman's theory describes the correlation between the interaction of physical arousal and cognitive.

"Charles Spearman." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 9 Jan. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spearman. Accessed 10 Mar. 2023.

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Alfred Adler is considered the first community psychologist, because his work pioneered attention to community life, prevention, and population health. Adlerian psychology emphasizes the human need and ability to create positive social change and impact.

Adler believed that we all have one basic desire and goal: to belong and to feel significant. Adler developed the first holistic theory of personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy that was intimately connected to a humanistic philosophy of living.

Adler fits in the schools of psychology known as humanism and psychoanalytic as he explains the need for the human species to generate positive social change and impact along with striving for belonging and superiority which come along with self-actualization.

https://www.adler.edu/alfred-adler-history/#:~:text=About%20Alfred%20Adler,-Alfred%20Adler%20was&text=Adlerian%20psychology%20emphasizes%20the%20human,of%20democracy%20as%20core%20values.

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Walter Cannon was an American physiologist and psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the area of physiological psychology. He is best known for his work on the fight or flight response, a physiological reaction to stress or danger that involves the release of adrenaline and other hormones. Cannon's research helped establish the field of psychophysiology, which examines the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. He also emphasized the importance of homeostasis, the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment, and introduced the concept of feedback mechanisms in regulating bodily functions. Cannon's work helped establish the biological school of psychology, which emphasizes the role of physiological processes in behavior and mental processes. His contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of the relationship between the body and the mind.

Walter Cannon falls under the field of psychology known as psychoanalytic due to his studies of the unconscious mind in the fight or flight response

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998b, July 20). Walter Bradford Cannon | American neurologist and physiologist. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Walter-Bradford-Cannon

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Edward Thorndike was an American psychologist who graduated from Wesleyan University in 1895 and attended Harvard university where he studied animal behavior with William James. He later created a career at Teachers College, Columbia University. He was in the school of thought of functionalism. Thorndike introduced the concept of reinforcement and was the first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning.

https://simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html#:~:text=Thorndike%20(1905)%20introduced%20the%20concept,learning%2C%20such%20as%20operant%20conditioning.

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Carl Jung was the Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist who founded analytic psychology. Jung is known for his contributions to the ideas of collective unconscious, archetypes, and introversion & extroversion.

Carl Jung performed the word association experiment in which he devised a test  to show the reality and autonomy of unconscious complexes. He states that our conscious intentions and actions are often frustrated by unconscious processes whose very existence is a continual surprise to us.

Carl Jung best aligns with the school of thought known as psycho analysis with partaking in experiments and research to explain how the unconscious mind, dreams, and other psychological mechanisms exert influence on behavior

Fordham, Michael S. M., and Frieda Fordham. “Carl Jung | Biography, Archetypes, Books, Collective Unconscious, and Theory.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Jan. 2023, www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Jung.

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Robert Mearns Yerkes was an American psychologist, ethologist, eugenicist and primatologist best known for his work in intelligence testing. Yerkes attended Ursinus College. Upon graduating he received an offer from Harvard University to do graduate work in Biology. At Harvard, Yerkes became interested in animal behavior. He earned his Ph.D. in the Psychology Department.

Given his work with intelligence and comparative testing, Yerkes is classified under the cognitive school of psychology.

Yerkes is most commonly known for his work in intelligence testing and in the field of comparative psychology. During World War I he spearheaded the first mass-scale testing program, which administered psychological tests to 1,726,000 men.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Yerkes

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Max Wertheimer was a psychologist who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology. Wertheimer originally studied law at university, but soon switched to philosophy and psychology. In 1904, he graduated with a doctorate degree from the University of Wurzburg.

He is classified under the Gestalt school of psychology as he is one of the founders.

Most famously known for his book, Productive Thinking, and for conceiving the phi phenomenon as part of his work in Gestalt psychology.

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An American psychologist who desired to explain learning and motivation by using scientific laws of behavior and is most widely known for his work in drive theory. Hull spent a part of his career at Yale University and researched demonstrating that his theories could predict behavior. He worked on the prediction and measurement of aptitude at a faculty in Wisconsin where had his first major publication of the Aptitude Testing.

The reinforcement theory of learning helped form the basis of most of his works which were associated with each other in the learning process. His learning theories expressed his belief that psychology had its own quantitative laws which could be stated in mathematical equations and also discovered that the stimulus-response connection depends on both the kind and amount of reinforcement.

His works helped build the Cognitive study of psychology and as well as the study of Behavior and his approach to these discoveries and theories.

Wikipedia contributors. “Clark L. Hull.” Wikipedia, Oct. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_L._Hull.
“Clark L. Hull | American Psychologist.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 July 1998, www.britannica.com/biography/Clark-L-Hull.

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Henry Rorschach was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, well known for developing the Rorschach inkblot test to reflect unconscious parts of the personality that project into the visual stimuli generated by the inkblots for psychodiagnosis. He graduated in Medicine in Zurich in 1909. (Filho)

Rorschach wanted to know why different people reacted differently to certain stimuli. Because Rorschach was interested in both art and psychoanalysis, he suddenly realized that the two could be combined. He began showing random inkblots to people to see what their responses would be. He created the Rorschach Inkblot test to study and analyze how patients would react and what associations they would form from random stimuli. (Famous Scientists, “Hermann Rorschach - Biography, Facts and Pictures”)

Henry Rorschach would fall under the school of psychology of cognitivism because of his research in how people react to stimuli (in their brain).

Filho, Ricardo Victoria. “Hermann Rorschach: From Klecksography to Psychiatry.” Dementia & Neuropsychologia, Associação Neurologia Cognitiva e do Comportamento, Jan. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-010013.

---. “Hermann Rorschach - Biography, Facts and Pictures.” Famous Scientists, 17 Jan. 2018, www.famousscientists.org/hermann-rorschach.

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Born in Prussia, the German psychoanalyst practiced in the United States and is credited with  founding feminist psychology as a response to one of Freud's theories. Her own theories also questioned many of traditional Freudian theories and disagreed with him about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women.
She begins her study of psychoanalysis to help herself cope and looked at neurosis in a different perspective, leading to her making a detailed theory of neurosis. She believed neurosis as a continuous process, whereas neuroses as commonly occurring through sporadically in a person's lifetime. Horney believed that certain stimulus, such as bereavement and divorce as less important, but negative influences during childhood impacts a child's perception of events, as opposed to a parent's intentions.

Karen Horney's Neo-Freudian views contributed to her theory of neurotic needs and research on feminine psychology and overall, the Gestalt and Psychoanalysis study of psychology with their impacts on mental health and self-analysis.

“Contributions of Karen Horney to Psychology.” Verywell Mind, Apr. 2022, www.verywellmind.com/karen-horney-biography-2795539.
---. “Karen Horney.” Wikipedia, Feb. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Horney.

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Kurt Koffka is a German psychologist and also a cofounder of the Gestalt school of psychology. He studied at the University of Berlin and got a Ph.D. degree in 1909. One of his major works, "The Growth of the Mind," applied the Gestalt viewpoint to child psychology, and other works relating to the study of perception, memory, and learning.

His contributions to the discovery and making of the theories of the Gestalt psychology which helped people focus on the present, and allowed individuals to what their thoughts and feelings may make them feel anxious and other behavioral issues. He also believed in sensorimotor learning in his early learning, which is a type of learning which occurs after a consequence.
WebMD Editorial Contributors. “What Is Gestalt Therapy?” WebMD, 22 Apr. 2021, www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-gestalt-therapy.
"Kurt Koffka." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Oct. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Koffka. Accessed 7 Mar. 2023.
“Kurt Koffka | German Psychologist.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 July 1998, www.britannica.com/biography/Kurt-Koffka.

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Edward Tolman was an American psychologist and a professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Tolman went to Giessen in Germany to study for his PhD examination and studied Gesalt psychology while there. He later studied at Harvard University.

Tolman was a part of the school of thought of cognitive- behaviorism as he studied cognitive maps.

Tolman's greatest contribution to psychology was his work in purposive behaviorism in animals and men.

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Louis Thurnstone was an American Psychologist who worked in psychometrics and psychophysics.  He studied electrical engineering at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, and worked briefly as an assistant to Thomas Edison before taking a teaching post at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis. He became interested in the psychology of learning and received his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Chicago.

Thurstone was apart of the cognitive school of thought given his work with IQ test scores.

He made a large impact to many areas of psychology. Most famously known for his contributions to human intelligence, psychometrics, and statistics.

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German psychologist who contributed greatly to the creation of Gestalt Psychology. Working with Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka, he was a subject for Wertheimer's famous movement, known as the phi phenomenon, led them to turn to conclusions about the interent nature of vision.
This collaboration formed the founding of a new holistic vision of psychology being the gestalt theory.

He had been named the director of the Prussian Academy of Sciences anthropoid research station as he worked there for six years, and within those years he wrote a book on problem solving called The Mentality of Apes. It included his research by observing how chimps solved problems and concluded that rather than learning through trial-and-error, they had an insight which Köhler determined as unwaveringly purposeful.

These discoveries Köhler found made an impact on the behavioral studies of psychology and the observable parts of cognitive psychology through the chimpanzees' problem solving and their insight.

"Wolfgang KöHler." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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American Psychologist, Karl Spencer Lashley, was most widely known for his contributions to the study of learning and the memory. He was elected to many scientific and philosophical societies and even awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal and the honorary Doctor of Science degrees from multiple universities.

He first started out studying brain mechanisms and how they  were related to sense receptors, conducted work on instincts, color visions, and studied primates and animals. After conducting experiments and research on rats, he eventually concluded with two principles on memory: mass action and equipotentiality. His research on the cortical basis of learning and discrimination has stemmed out these two principles.

These contributions on the study of the brain, parts of the brain, and memories all helped the future study of psychology and the biological and behavioral schools of psychology.

"Karl Lashley." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 Jan. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Lashley. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Born in Vienna, Anna Freud is a British psychoanalyst of Austrian-Jewish and the sixth and youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud. Anna, the founder of child psychoanalysis also made fundamental contributions to understanding how the ego, and consciousness, function in averting painful ideas, feelings, and impulses. In her theory, she argued that children should only be analyzed when they reach the latency period, which began around the age of six. She attended a private school but later was said that she learned very little at school with a majority of her learning from the teachings of her father's friends and associates. Anna followed the path her father took contributing to the research and works of psychoanalysis, childhood, and defense mechanisms.

Her works in the field of psychoanalysis was able to launch a new world of studies towards psychology within children and the unconscious mind following her father's footsteps in becoming a renowned psychoanalyst.

"Anna Freud." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Jan. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Freud. Accessed 8 Mar. 2023.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Anna Freud | Austrian-British Psychoanalyst.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Jan. 2023, www.britannica.com/biography/Anna-Freud.

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An American physiologist and sleep researcher who is recognized as the father of modern sleep research. He was the world's first scholar to concentrate entirely on sleep and before him, few scientists had deeply investigated the intricacies of sleep. These had previously been dismissed as a state of quiescence.

Kleitman and Eugene Aserinsky a student of Kleitman's, reported the discovery of rapid eye movements (REMs) during sleep and suggested the association of these eye movements with dreaming. This discovery demonstrated that there were at least two major kinds of sleep and that sleep included active brain processes.

Kleitman most aligned with the field of biopsychology and cognitive psychology with his discoveries in REM sleep and active brain processes in sleep.

“Nathaniel Kleitman PhD 1895-1999.” UChicago Medicine, 15 Aug. 1999, www.uchicagomedicine.org/forefront/news/nathaniel-kleitman-phd-1895-1999.

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David Wechsler was an American psychologist who created the intelligence scale. He studied at the City College of New York and Columbia University, where he received his doctorate. Wechsler also served as chief psychologist at Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital in New York City.

Wechsler was a cognitive psychologist who focused on intelligence and cognitive ability.

His major contribution to psychology was developing well-known intelligence scales, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).

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Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist, well known for his theory of cognitive development, and how intelligence changes as a child grows. Piaget studied natural sciences at the University of Neuchâtel where he obtained a Ph.D. After a semester spent at the University of Zürich where he developed an interest for psychoanalysis, he spent one year working at the Ecole de la rue de la Grange-aux-Belles where he did his first experimental studies of the growing mind.(About Piaget | Jean Piaget Society)

Piaget had several ideas or theories about cognitive development throughout his career, which were about intellectual development, the roots of knowledge, schemas, and especially the four stages of cognitive development. The four stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational, each at different times in a child's life. He provided support for the idea that children think differently than adults and his research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children. (Cherry, “Jean Piaget Biography (1896-1980)”)

Jean Piaget would fall under the school of psychology of cognitivism due to his theories and research in cognitive development.

About Piaget | Jean Piaget Society. piaget.org/about-piaget.

---. “Jean Piaget Biography (1896-1980).” Verywell Mind, Nov. 2022, www.verywellmind.com/jean-piaget-biography-1896-1980-2795549#:~:text=Today%2C%20Jean%20Piaget%20is%20best,intelligence%20and%20formal%20thought%20processes.

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Benjamin Lee Whorf was an American linguist and fire prevention engineer. He was known for his hypotheses. Originally educated as a chemical engineer, he took up an interest in linguistics late in his life, studying at Yale University.

Whorf studies linguistics which is associated with the cognitive school of psychology.

Whorf is most famous for his idea that the language you speak affects the way that you view and think about the world, otherwise known as linguistic relativity or the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

https://www.varsitytutors.com/ap_psychology-help/influential-psychologists?page=6#:~:text=Benjamin%20Lee%20Whorf%20is%20a,or%20the%20Sapir%2DWhorf%20hypothesis.

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Gordon Allport was a prominent American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the area of personality psychology. He believed that a person's personality is not fixed, but rather dynamic and can change over time, influenced by both internal and external factors. Allport was a pioneer in the study of trait theory, which focused on identifying and measuring specific personality traits. He also emphasized the importance of the individual and their unique experiences in shaping personality. Allport's work had a lasting impact on the field of psychology and helped establish the humanistic school of psychology, which emphasizes the subjective experiences of individuals and the importance of personal growth and self-actualization.

Gordon Allport was a humanistic psychologist in his works on  three different types of traits, cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.

Gordon W. Allport. (n.d.). Department of Psychology. https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/gordon-w-allport

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Best remembered for his psychometric study of human intelligence, Joy Paul (J.P.) Guilford, American psychologist, also studied the distinction between convergent and divergent production of the human intelligence. Guildford  proposed that three dimensions were necessary for accurate descriptions and was a member of the Society of Experimental Psychologists in 1937 and became the third president of the Psychometric Society.

He identified a total of 90 discrete intellectual abilities and 30 behavioral abilities and his Structure of Intellect Theory stated that an individuals performance on intelligence test can be traced back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of intelligence with 180 different intellectual abilities organized among 3 dimensions.
Guilford's theory and studies on intellectual abilities and performance is part of the cognitive school of Psychology as it is tied in with cognitive abilities of humans.

“J. P. Guilford.” Wikipedia, Feb. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._P._Guilford.
J. P. Guilford - New World Encyclopedia. www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/J._P._Guilford.

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An American neurophysiologist and behavioral scientist most known for his wide-ranging work with the nervous system, nerve metabolism, psychopharmacology, and the biological basis of schizophrenia. Gerard wrote over 500 scientific papers investigating the biology of language, ethics, biology and cultural evolution, education, and even the impact of science on public policies. With a lot of his work to help understand the brain and nervous system, he was able to study the electrical impulses of nerve cells and a more basis of modern research into learning and memory and even mental illnesses. Because he was one of the first to challenge the theory that mental diseases has a psyhological and cultural origins, he was able to present evidence that schizophrenia is caused by a faulty body chemistry.
These studies that Gerard contributed to are related to, and helped, progress the biological and behavioral schools of psychology .

europhysiologist, behavioral scientist,
"Ralph W. Gerard." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 5 Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_W._Gerard. Accessed 29 Mar. 2023.
Times, New York. “Ralph Waldo Gerard Dies at 73; Tied Schizophrenia to Chemistry.” The New York Times, 19 Feb. 1974, www.nytimes.com/1974/02/19/archives/ralph-waldo-gerard-dies-at-73-tied-schizophrenia-to-chemistry-phd.html.

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Carl Rogers was an American Psychologist known for his development with the humanistic approach and his unconditional positive regard theory and the actualizing tendency. Rogers went to the clinical psychology program of Columbia University, and received his Ph.D. in 1931.  He began his clinical work at the Rochester Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, influencing him to develop his own approach. (Boeree)

Rogers has the idea that establishing a relationship with an accepting and understanding therapist would help clients resolve their problems and gain insight into their lives. This became known as unconditional positive regard. He also researched client-centered therapy, as Rogers analyzed transcripts from hundreds of therapy sessions and administered psychometric tests to clients before and after receiving therapy to determine the effectiveness of therapy. He developed new ethical standards for psychotherapy that emphasized client agency and confidentiality. (“Carl Rogers, PhD: 1947 APA President”)

Rogers would fall under the humanistic school of psychology as he was one of the developers and discoverers of it.

Boeree, C. George. Carl Rogers. webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/rogers.html.

“Carl Rogers, PhD: 1947 APA President.” https://www.apa.org, www.apa.org/about/governance/president/carl-r-rogers#:~:text=He%20developed%20the%20person%2Dcentered,field%20of%20clinical%20psychological%20research.

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Erik Erikson was a German-American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the area of developmental psychology. He is best known for his theory of psychosocial development, which describes the eight stages of human development, each associated with a unique psychological crisis or challenge. Erikson proposed that successful resolution of these crises leads to healthy development, while failure to resolve them can result in psychological problems. His work helped establish the developmental school of psychology, which focuses on understanding how individuals change and develop over time. Erikson's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of human development and the factors that contribute to healthy psychological functioning. His theories continue to be influential in the study of developmental psychology and have been applied to various fields such as education, healthcare, and social work.

He falls under the field of psychology known as psychoanalysis with his theories of psychosocial development.

Erik Erikson. (n.d.). Department of Psychology. https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/erik-erikson

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Burrhus Frederic Skinner, born in Susquehanna, PA was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, social philosopher, and even inventor. He was awarded the National Medal of Science and was a professor of psychology at Harvard University with education at Harvard University as well.

B. F. Skinner had a major impact on behaviorism and the study of operant conditioning and experimental psychology. His theory of learning, the operant conditioning process, is one of the most well-known in psychology. In his theory of learning, reinforcement played a critical role in behavior development and the impacts of positive and negative behavior in nature. With many accomplishments and awards, B. F. Skinner is among one of the most renowned leaders of the behaviorist movement in psychology.

"B. F. Skinner." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 Feb. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner. Accessed 6 Mar. 2023.
Cherry, Kendra. “B. F. Skinner's Life, Theories, and Influence on Psychology.” Verywell Mind, 23 Aug. 2022, www.verywellmind.com/b-f-skinner-biography-1904-1990-2795543.

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Harry Harlow is an American psychologist known mainly for his work with maternal separation, dependency needs and also social isolation. This lead to the knowledge of how important caregiving and companionship is to the development of young animals or humans. He went to the University of Wisconsin-Madison where he where he worked on his research and sometimes side-by-side with Abraham Maslow. He earned many rewards such as the National Medal of Science, the Howard Crosby Warren Medal, and the Gold medal from the American Psychological Foundation.

His study with monkeys and their relationships with the companionship and care with their surrogate mothers was a huge contribution to the psychological study of Cognition and as well as Behaviorism.

His experiments proposed the impact that emotional comfort, regardless if there was food or not,  had on the development of a young mind, in this case, monkeys.

“Harry Harlow.” Wikipedia, Apr. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Harlow.---. “Harry Harlow.” Wikipedia, Apr. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Harlow.
“Biography of Psychologist Harry Harlow.” Verywell Mind, Nov. 2020, www.verywellmind.com/harry-harlow-biography-1905-1981-2795510.

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Raymond Cattell was a British-American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of personality psychology. He is best known for developing the 16 Personality Factors (16PF) theory, which identified the underlying traits that contribute to human personality. Cattell also developed the concept of fluid and crystallized intelligence, which distinguishes between the ability to reason and solve problems in novel situations versus the ability to use learned knowledge and skills. His work helped establish the trait theory of personality, which emphasizes the stable and enduring characteristics that distinguish individuals from one another. Cattell's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of personality and intelligence, and his theories have been widely used in areas such as career counseling and employee selection.

Raymond Cattell best falls under cognitive and psychoanalytic psychology for his personality theory and his measurement of intelligence

Raymond Cattell. (n.d.). Department of Psychology. https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/raymond-cattell#:~:text=Raymond%20Cattell%20was%20an%20influential,components%20of%20personality%20and%20intelligence.

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Abraham Maslow was an American Psychology from New York and the creator of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, becoming the founder of humanistic psychology. He went to City College of New York. He transferred to the University of Wisconsin and found a mentor in psychologist Harry Harlow, where he earned a bachelor's, master's, and doctorate. (Cherry, “Biography of Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)”)

Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs to explain human motivation. This suggested that people have a number of basic needs that must be met before people move up the hierarchy to pursue more social, emotional, and self-actualizing needs. (Cherry, “Biography of Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)”). He believed that people are born with the desire to achieve their maximum potential. He researched the experiences of emotionally healthy people, and he identified their “peak experiences,” moments when they were in complete harmony with the world (their strengths rather than negatives. He also worked on the relation to metamotivation and cognition to these needs. (GoodTherapy Editor Team)

Maslow would fall under the school of psychology of Humanism, as he is the founder of it and the Hierarchy of needs.

Cherry, Kendra. “Biography of Abraham Maslow (1908-1970).” Verywell Mind, Mar. 2023, www.verywellmind.com/biography-of-abraham-maslow-1908-1970-2795524.

GoodTherapy Editor Team. Abraham Maslow Biography. 6 July 2015, www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/abraham-maslow.html.

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Roger Sperry was an American neuropsychologist, neurobiologist, cognitive neuroscientist. He has also won a Nobel Prize. He was a Psychobiologist who was known for his contribution of discovering that humans beings are of two minds. Sperry discovered that the left hemisphere of the brain was responsible for language understanding and articulation, while the right hemisphere could recognize a word, but could not articulate it.

https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/roger-sperrys-split-brain-experiments-1959-1968#:~:text=Sperry%20received%20the%201981%20Nobel,but%20could%20not%20articulate%20it.
(Roger Sperry’s Split Brain Experiments (1959–1968) | the Embryo Project Encyclopedia)

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Mary Ainsworth's work on attachment theory emphasized the importance of early relationships. Her research showed that early attachments critically impact a child's development and well-being. Her work also influenced other areas of psychology, such as parenting and child care, and inspired further research on how early attachment affects adult romantic relationships.

Ainsworth devised an experiment called the “Strange Situation” in reaction to John Bowlby's initial finding that infants form an emotional bond to its caregiver. In this experiment, the infant is placed in scenarios with or without its mother as well as with or without a stranger.

Ainsworth best aligns under the cognitive school of psychology as children automatically have an emotional bond to their caregiver and look to them for comfort.

https://psychology.tcnj.edu/ainsworth/#:~:text=Ainsworth%20devised%20an%20experiment%20called,with%20or%20without%20a%20stranger.

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William Masters and Virginia Johnson studied human sexual response, dysfunction, and disorders. They worked together at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Washington University in St. Louis before founding the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation (Masters and Johnson Institute), where they conducted independent sexological research and organized training workshops. (Masters and Johnson Collection)

They discovered the theory of a four-stage model of sexual response (also known as, the human sexual response cycle) and their study of sexual response among the elderly. They measured physiological responses to sexual stimulation in their subjects with methods such as electrocardiography, electroencephalography, and intravaginal photography. They identified four distinct stages of sexual arousal (excitement, plateau, orgasmic, and resolution), described arousal- and 🤬-related changes in vaginal and uterine tissues, and determined that women are capable of having multiple orgasms. They also discovered that in a healthy individual, sexual desire can persist into advanced age. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Masters and Johnson would fall under the school of psychology of biopsychology and humanistic, because their research is different genetic and biological processes and also about behaviors and needs.

Masters and Johnson Collection. kinseyinstitute.org/collections/archival/masters-and-johnson.php.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Masters and Johnson | American Research Team.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 July 1998, www.britannica.com/biography/Masters-and-Johnson.

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Hans Eysenck was a psychologist who spent most of his professional career in Great Britain where he worked on intelligence and personality and other issues in psychology. His theory of personality focused on temperaments, which he had said to be largely controlled by genetic influences. Eysenck also utilized statistical techniques known as factor analysis to identify 2 primary dimensions of personality: extraversion and neuroticism, and a later added dimension known as psychoticism.
His studies played a major role in establishing apporaches to clinical training and psychotherapy which branches from the psychoanalysis school of psychology.

“Psychologist Hans Eysenck Biography.” Verywell Mind, 31 Mar. 2020, www.verywellmind.com/hans-eysenck-1916-1997-2795509.
"Hans Eysenck." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 26 Feb. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck. Accessed 29 Mar. 2023.

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Julian Rotter was an American psychologist from New York. Rotter attended the University of Iowa where he studied with Kurt Lewin. After earning his master's degree, Rotter practiced clinical psychology - one of the few  at the time - at Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts. Rotter, who earned a doctorate in clinical psychology, became one of the first clinical psychologists to be trained in what is now the traditional way. (The Social Learning Theory of Julian B. Rotter)

Julian's primary work was on the social learning theory, including the locus of control (well-known), behavioral potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, etc. Rotter chose the empirical law of influence as his motivating factor. Rotter combined behaviorism and the study of personality without relying on physiological instincts or desires as motivation. The main idea of ​​Julian Rotter's social learning theory is that personality represents the interaction of an individual with his environment. One cannot speak of the inner personality of an individual that is independent of the environment. Rather, to understand behavior, one must consider both the individual (ie, his life history of learning and experience) and the environment (ie, the stimuli of which the person is aware and responds). (The Social Learning Theory of Julian B. Rotter)

Julian Rotter would fall under the school of psychology of gestalt or behaviorism because he studies our minds and how we interact with our environments and why we act how we act.

The Social Learning Theory of Julian B. Rotter. psych.fullerton.edu/jmearns/rotter.htm.

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David McClelland was an American psychologist from New York, known for his work on human motivation and the need to work for it (the Need Theory). He earned a bachelor’s degree from Wesleyan University in 1938 and a master’s degree in psychology from the University of Missouri in 1939. He graduated from Yale University with a Ph.D. in experimental psychology in 1941. (Psychology)

David discovered the achievement-based motivational theory and models, and promoted bettering employee assessment methods, advocating competency-based assessments and tests. He researched the three types of motivation, which are the need for achievement, the need for authority and power, and the need for affiliation. He also researched the characteristics of the people who use each type of motivation and how to understand each of them. (David Mcclelland: Achievement Motivation – BusinessBalls.com)

David McClelland falls under the school of psychology of cognitivism and gestalt due to the connection and research on how and why we are motivated to do things.

Psychology, Practical. “David McClelland Biography + Contribution to Psychology.” Practical Psychology, 22 Mar. 2022, practicalpie.com/david-mcclelland.

David Mcclelland: Achievement Motivation – BusinessBalls.com. www.businessballs.com/improving-workplace-performance/david-mcclelland-achievement-motivation.

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George Miller was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of cognitive psychology and of cognitive neuroscience. He made important contributions to psycholinguistics and the study of human communication. One discovery was that human short-term memory is generally limited to holding seven pieces of information, plus or minus two. He received his Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard. (Doorey)

George made many advances in cognitive psychology, especially with memory and linguistics. Miller said that language must be a key element of any theory of psychology because it is a means of making private or internal psychological phenomena observable, measurable, and public. Miller wrote a book called "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”, where he stated that short-term memory is subject to certain limits, including span and the quantity of information that can be stored at a given time. (APS)

George Miller would fall under the school of psychology of cognitivism, due to all of his studies with the brain and memory.

Doorey, Marie. “George a. Miller | American Psychologist.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Apr. 2009, www.britannica.com/biography/George-A-Miller.

APS. “Remembering George a. Miller.” Association for Psychological Science - APS, 26 Sept. 2012, www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/remembering-george-a-miller.

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Eserinsky was the son of a dentist of Russian-Jewish descent and was a pioneer in sleep research. He made the discovery of REM sleep after hours of studying the eyelids of sleeping subjects when he was a graduate student at the University of Chicago in 1953.

Eugene Eserinsky's discovery of REM sleep was able to launch a new world of science with new branches of medicine, leading to the diagnosis and treatment of sleep disorders, and changing the way we view our dreams and ourselves. Eserinsky was a major factor in progress of biopsychology and cognitive psychology with his discovery of sleep and rapid eye movement

Brown, Chip. “The Stubborn Scientist Who Unraveled a Mystery of the Night.” Smithsonian Magazine, 1 Oct. 2003, www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-stubborn-scientist-who-unraveled-a-mystery-of-the-night-91514538.
"Eugene Aserinsky." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Jan. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Aserinsky. Accessed 9 Mar. 2023.

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James Olds was an american psychologist that worked with Peter Milner to discover the pleasure center of the brain while he was still a postdoctoral at McGill University. His hiscovery of this reward system in the brain was one of the most imporant discovery in the field concerned with brain substrates of behavior.
James began his college career as an undergrad at Univerisity of Winsconsin Madison, and transferred to St. John's College, and was able to recieve his doctoral training at Harvard University.
He went on to perform many systematic studies with the help of a standard and sensitive technique to determine whcih portions of the brain supported self stimulation. His development of new technical approaches helped take advantage of new developments in the brain and in behavioral sciences which characterized contributions made to the study of learning and memory. His discovery and works contributed to the field of behaviorism and cognitivism.
Olds, James (1922-1973) | Encyclopedia.com. www.encyclopedia.com/psychology/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/olds-james-1922-1973.
“Biographical Memoirs.” National Academies Press eBooks, National Academies Press, 29 Oct. 1999, “
National Academies Press eBooks, National Academies Press, Oct. 1999, doi.org/10.17226/9681.

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Richard Lazarus was an American psychologist, scholar, and researcher who focused on studying human emotion, with his theory of emotion being what he is known for. He was from New York, and he received his doctorate at the University of Pittsburgh. He wrote 13 books on psychology. (Nagourney, “Dr. Richard S. Lazarus, 80; Charted Terrain Of Emotion”)

He made many discoveries, including discoveries on preparing someone for emotion, unconscious and consciousness, coping, blindsight, and stress (12.04.2002 - Richard Lazarus, UC Berkeley Psychology Faculty Member and Influential Researcher, Dies At 80); specifically  recognizing the importance of the cognitive determinants of the stressor and their evaluation, which determine to a large extent the character of the stressful situation and the way of reaction following it. He believed that stress reaction depends primarily on the cognitive appraisal. He discovered that it took place in three phases: primary assessment, secondary assessment, and tertiary assessment.  (“Richard Stanley Lazarus (1922 - 2002)”) He discovered the cognitive appraisal theory. This is how an individual evaluates the impact of an event on his or her self or well-being, and is connected to many things.

Richard falls under the school of psychology of behaviorism due to his findings in emotional psychology or cognitivism due to the studies on stress/mental patterns.

---. “Dr. Richard S. Lazarus, 80; Charted Terrain Of Emotion.” The New York Times, 16 Dec. 2002, www.nytimes.com/2002/12/16/us/dr-richard-s-lazarus-80-charted-terrain-of-emotion.html#:~:text='',-Continue%20reading%20the&text=Richard%20Stanley%20Lazarus%20was%20born,after%20he%20retired%20in%201991.

12.04.2002 - Richard Lazarus, UC Berkeley Psychology Faculty Member and Influential Researcher, Dies At 80. 4 Dec. 2002, newsarchive.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2002/12/04_lazarus.html.

“Richard Stanley Lazarus (1922 - 2002).” (C) 2009 KPs, moodle.czu.cz/scorms/EPE04E/PS201/resources/18.Richard_Stanley_Lazarus.htm.

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Stanley Schachter was an American Psychologist from New York. He was trained as a social psychologist at Yale University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of Michigan, where he received his Ph.D. Schachter produced, on the basis of his own intuitions and distinctive research and analytic style, the prize-winning Psychology of Affiliation (1959). He won the American Psychological Association’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1969 and was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1983. (Schachter, Stanley | Encyclopedia.com)

The main theory that he was known for was the Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory of Emotion, which states that there are two key components of an emotion: physical arousal and a cognitive label. In other words, the experience of emotion involves first having some kind of physiological response which the mind then identifies. All of the participants were told that they were being injected with a new drug to test their eyesight.
However, one group of participants was informed of the possible side-effects that the injection might cause while the other group of participants was not.
Participants were then placed in a room with another participant who was actually a confederate in the experiment. (Cherry, “The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion”)

Stanley Schachter would fall under the schools of psychology of gestalt and cognitive due to the research on emotion.

Schachter, Stanley | Encyclopedia.com. www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/schachter-stanley.

---. “The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.” Verywell Mind, Dec. 2022, www.verywellmind.com/the-two-factor-theory-of-emotion-2795718.

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Rosalyn Cartwright was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the area of sleep and dreaming. She is best known for her research on the function of dreams, and proposed that dreaming is a way for the brain to process and integrate emotional experiences. Cartwright also developed a therapy called dream psychotherapy, which uses the content of patients' dreams to gain insights into their emotional and psychological issues. Her work helped establish the cognitive-behavioral school of psychology, which focuses on how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected and influence each other. Cartwright's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of the role of sleep and dreams in mental health and emotional processing.

Rosalind Cartwright best falls under the school of psychology known as behaviorism psychology studying their issues and working with the cognitive psychology side to explain these behaviors.

Lynn. (2021, February 8). The Queen of Dreams: Remembering Rosalind D. Cartwright, PhD - Sleep Research Society. Sleep Research Society. https://sleepresearchsociety.org/the-queen-of-dreams-remembering-rosalind-d-cartwright-phd/

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Carroll Izard was an American psychologist best known for his contributions to differential emotions theory and also the Maximally Discriminative Affect Coding System. He studied facial feedback hypothesis and the cause of facial expressions. He later started his research on the emotional development in not the affect towards facial expressions, but also young children. Earning a PhD from Syracuse University, he later carried out pioneering research into human emotions and even being able to join the Department of Psychology at University of Delaware, where he was also able to become a professor.

His works focused on the development research on emotions, which he was also able to conduct groundbreaking research on. This challenged the theory that emotions were undifferentiated and also validated universally recognizable expressions; he was also able to define personality as interrelated systems and emotions as a one of the core components. Izard's theory of emotions identified 10 primary and discrete emotions

His works in the field of psychology impacted the emotional fields, the cognitive study of psychology and the behaviorism stem of psychology.

Wikipedia contributors. “Carroll Izard.” Wikipedia, Jan. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carroll_Izard.
Izard, Carroll E. The Psychology of Emotions. Springer Science and Business Media, 1991.

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Torsten Wiesel (Born 1924 - Currently 98 years old)

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Torsten Wiesel (Born 1924 - Currently 98 years old)

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Swedish neurophysiologist Torsten Nils Wiesel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. By identifying the crucial phase in the development of the visual system and doing research on how the brain's visual cortex processes visual information, he made a contribution to psychology.

Torsten Wiesel (1924– ) | the Embryo Project Encyclopedia. embryo.asu.edu/pages/torsten-wiesel-1924#:~:text=Wiesel%20received%20a%20total%20of,visual%20cortex%20of%20the%20brain.
https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/torsten-wiesel-1924#:~:text=Wiesel%20received%20a%20total%20of,visual%20cortex%20of%20the%20brain.

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Albert Bandura developed social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy, which have had enormous influence across social, cognitive, developmental, educational and clinical psychology.

In the famous Bandura Bobo doll experiment, researchers verbally and physically abused an inflatable clown doll in front of young children, who then emulated the actions of the adults by attacking the doll in a similar manner. Other experiments in which youngsters observed such violence on video produced similar results.

Bandura falls under the school of psychology known as behaviorism as well as cognitivism with his founding of the social learning theory.

Nolen, Jeannette L. “Albert Bandura | Biography, Theory, Experiment, and Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 11 Feb. 2023, www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Bandura.

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Donald Broadbent was a British psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of cognitive psychology. He was a pioneer in the study of attention, and his influential model of attention proposed that information is filtered at an early stage based on physical characteristics, such as pitch or color. Broadbent's research on attention also led to the development of the dichotic listening task, a technique used to study selective attention. His work on information processing helped establish the cognitive school of psychology, which focuses on understanding the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, and problem-solving. Broadbent's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of how we process and attend to information in the environment.

Donald Broadbent best falls under the school of thought known as cognitive psychology due to his experimental psychology in the study of attention.

Mcleod, S., PhD. (2023). Theories of Selective Attention. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/attention-models.html

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A Swiss-American psychiatrist, an author of an internationally best-selling book, a pioneer in near-death studies, and the one behind the Kübler-Ross model. She was an inductee into the National Women's Hall of Fame, and named by Time as one of the greatest thinkers of the 20th century and earned nineteen honorary degrees. In 1970, she gave an Ingersoll Lecture at Harvard University on the theme of On Death and Dying, her book, and even taught 125,000 students in death and dying courses in colleges, seminaries, and medical school.

In her best-selling book, she proposes the Kübler-Ross model, otherwise famously known today as the "Five Stages of Grief": denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Her five stages of grief model is used to explain reactions to change and loss, known as the Kübler-Ross Change Curve.
Her model not only contributed to just to the field of psychology, but understanding reactions from changes in life as tools to help us frame and identify what we are feeling. Her five stages were an important part of physiological and psychoanalysis field of psychology

"Elisabeth KüBler-Ross." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_K%C3%BCbler-Ross. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.
EKR Foundation. “Elisabeth Kübler-Ross Biography - EKR Foundation.” EKR Foundation, 12 Sept. 2019, www.ekrfoundation.org/elisabeth-kubler-ross.

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The American Psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg, served as a professor in the psychology department at the University of Chicago and a graduate of the School of Education at Harvard University. He studied the field of moral judgment and also published an article based on his views. While extending off of Piaget's finding about moral development in children, he also created a new field within psychology, known simply as "moral development".

Being the 30th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century, his unpublished dissertation describes what is now known as Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development. His theory holds that moral reasoning is the basis of ethical behavior and has six identifiable developmental stages each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas as they progress

This contribution was a major part of the progression of the study of psychology as a whole but mostly the humanistic process of psychology and the study of moral psychology

"Lawrence Kohlberg." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Feb. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Dement spent the majority of his career as a well-liked professor in the psychiatry division at Stanford University, where he established what is thought to be the first productive sleep disorders clinic in history. Up to 1,200 students attended his seminar on sleep and dreams.

Dement moved to New York and established a sleep center there, operating out of a Manhattan flat. He made the discovery that narcolepsy was characterized by aberrant REM sleep there, which later inspired him to develop the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) as a widely used diagnostic method for the disorder.

Dement aligned under the biological psychology and cognitive psychology

Sandomir, Richard. “Dr. William Dement, Leader In Sleep Disorder Research, Dies At 91.” The New York Times, 30 June 2020, nytimes.com/2020/06/27/science/dr-william-dement-dead.html#:~:text=Dement%20spent%20his%20working%20life,as%20many%20as%201%2C200%20students.

Theffron. “In Memoriam: Sleep Pioneer and AASM Founding President Dr. William C. Dement.” American Academy of Sleep Medicine – Association for Sleep Clinicians and Researchers, 19 Oct. 2022, aasm.org/in-memoriam-sleep-pioneer-founding-president-william-bill-dement/#:~:text=From%20Chicago%2C%20Dement%20went%20to,standard%20diagnostic%20tool%20for%20narcolepsy.

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Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, and cognitive psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the area of language acquisition. He is best known for his theory of generative grammar, which proposes that humans are born with an innate capacity for language and that there is a universal grammar that underlies all languages. Chomsky also argued that language development is largely independent of general cognitive development, and that language is not simply learned through environmental input, but rather through an innate capacity for language acquisition. His work helped establish the cognitive school of psychology, which focuses on understanding the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, and problem-solving. Chomsky's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of language acquisition and cognitive development, and his theories continue to shape the field of linguistics and cognitive psychology.

Chomsky best falls under biological and cognitive psychology shaping the field of linguistics and understanding perception, memory, and attention to the ways we interpret and express language.

McGilvray, J. A. (2023, April 7). Noam Chomsky | Biography, Theories, Books, Psychology, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Noam-Chomsky

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Walter Mischel was an American psychologist born in Austria, known for his creation of the "Marshmallow Test". After graduating from New York University with bachelor's and master's degrees in psychology, Mischel went on to get a Ph.D. from the Ohio State University in 1956. (Carli)

The Marshmallow Test epitomized the idea that there are specific personality traits that we all have inside of us that are stable and consistent and will determine our lives far into the future (self control). (Carli) Along with this test, Walter led the way in reconceptualizing the nature of the consistency and variability in social behavior that distinctively characterizes an individual across situations and over time. (Walter Mischel, PhD)

Walter Mischel would fall under the school of psychology on cognitivism because of his research regarding personality and the brain.

Carli, Julie. “Remembrance for Walter Mischel, Psychologist Who Devised the Marshmallow Test.” NPR, 21 Sept. 2018, www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/09/21/650015068/remembrance-for-walter-mischel-psychologist-who-devised-the-marshmallow-test.

Walter Mischel, PhD. fabbs.org/our_scientists/walter-mischel-phd.

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Gordon Bower was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of cognitive psychology. He was a pioneer in the development of cognitive models of learning, memory, and problem-solving. Bower's research on memory demonstrated that people remember information better when it is organized into meaningful units, rather than presented in a random sequence. He also developed the concept of spreading activation, which explains how related concepts in memory are interconnected and can be accessed more quickly. Bower's work helped establish the cognitive school of psychology, which focuses on the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, and problem-solving. His contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of how we acquire, process, and store information.

Gordon Bower falls under the field of cognitive psychology as a pioneer in the development of learning, memory, and problem solving.

Stanford University. (2020, June 30). Eminent psychology professor Gordon Bower dies | Stanford News. Stanford News. https://news.stanford.edu/2020/06/24/eminent-psychology-professor-gordon-bower-dies/

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Allan R. Wagner was an American experimental psychologist and learning theorist. Wagner enrolled at the University of Iowa to study chemistry, he discovered psychology in his junior year and was allowed to enroll in Kenneth Spence’s graduate course in learning and Gustoff Bergman’s graduate course, and served as Department Chair of Psychology at Yale.

Wagner was a part of the behaviorism school of thought as his primary focus was associative learning, a form of conditioning.

Wagner has made major contributions to psychology by revolutionizing theories of habituation, classical conditioning, and instrumental conditioning.

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Paul Ekman is an American psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the area of emotions and facial expressions. He is best known for his research on the universality of facial expressions of emotions, and his identification of the six basic emotions (happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust) that are expressed through specific facial muscle movements. Ekman also developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS), which is used to measure and describe facial expressions in detail. His work helped establish the biological school of psychology, which emphasizes the role of physiological processes in behavior and mental processes. Ekman's contributions to the field have had a lasting impact on our understanding of emotions and facial expressions, and his research continues to influence the study of psychology, as well as fields such as criminology and national security.

About Paul Ekman | Emotion Psychologist. (2022, May 2). Paul Ekman Group. https://www.paulekman.com/about/paul-ekman/#:~:text=What%20did%20Paul%20Ekman%20discover,co%2Ddiscovered%20micro%20facial%20expressions.

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David Alan Washburn was an American Psychologist who received a Ph. D. in Electrical Engineering from the Carnegie Institute of Technology, is the author of many scientific books, and was a psychology professor at Georgia State University.

Washburn would be categorized in the cognitive school of though considering his research on the brain and memory and such.

His main contributions have been his research including studies of individual and group differences in cognitive competencies, particularly learning, memory, and executive functioning. He is best known for his noninvasive behavioral and cognitive research with monkeys, using game-like computerized tasks.

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Michael Gazzaniga is a professor of psychology at the University of California. Here he heads the SAGE Center for the Study of the Mind. He is from Los Angeles, California. He received a Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology in 1964, where he worked under Roger Sperry, initiating human split-brain research. (Mike Gazzaniga - Home)

Gazzaniga has made significant discoveries in understanding the functional lateralization of the human brain and how hemispheres communicate. This is in clinical neuroscience, as well as philosophy, psychology, linguistics, and anthropology. His split-brain research reveals a complex mosaic of mental processes involved in human cognition. Besides Michael's discovery that the two halves of the brain experience the world quite differently, he also pioneered using MRI to understand how genes influence the size and shape of the callosum in monozygotic twins, he has used functional imaging to examine lateral specialization in the normal brain, and he used ERPs to examine the distribution of perceptual, attentional and linguistic functions in the normal and brain-bisected patient along with much more research and studies on neurological sciences such as lesions, etc. Recently, he has even been using diffusion tensor imaging to think about how the callosum integrates information between the two half brains. (Michael Gazzaniga, PhD)

Michael fits in the school of psychology of cognitivism, as he is a major founder of the field of cognitive neuroscience.(Michael Gazzaniga)

Mike Gazzaniga - Home. people.psych.ucsb.edu/gazzaniga/michael.

---. fabbs.org/our_scientists/michael-gazzaniga-phd/#:~:text=Through%20his%20extensive%20work%20with,hemispheres%20communicate%20with%20one%20another.

Michael Gazzaniga. www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/gazzaniga.

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Robert Rescorla was an American psychologist, known for the Rescorla-Wagner model or contingency model of classical conditioning. (The Rescorla-Wagner Model | Psych Exam Review)

The contingency model was the truly random control that showed that associative learning was driven by contingency. This discovery has revolutionary neurobiological and philosophical implications. Roberts paper pioneered an empirically indefensible treatment of time that has continued in associative theorizing down to now. This model expanded knowledge on learning processes. Rescorla also continued to develop research on Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental training. (APA PsycNet)

Rescorla would fall under the school of psychology of behaviorism because of all of his work with conditioning (classical).

The Rescorla-Wagner Model | Psych Exam Review. psychexamreview.com/the-rescorla-wagner-model.

APA PsycNet. psycnet.apa.org/record/2022-50265-001.

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Martin Seligman is an American psychologist who theorized learned helplessness. He studied psychology and earned his PhD at the
University of Pennsylvania. His career began at Cornell University as an assistant professor.

Seligman took an humanism approach that focuses on taking care of ourselves.

His most famous work is his research on learned helplessness. Meaning he discovered an organism's ability to endure unpleasant stimili and accept it.

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Howard is an American psychologist and research professor of Cognition and education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. He has also written thirty books which have been translated to 30 languages and known for his theory of multiple intelligences. According to his theory, people have many different ways to process things and information. Gardner has also identified eight intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. He became the first person to receive the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in education and received the William James Award from the APA amongst many more awards.
His study with developmental psychology and cognition has made a huge impact on the Cognition school of psychology.

"Howard Gardner." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Feb. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Gardner. Accessed 29 Mar. 2023.
“Howard Gardner.” Howard Gardner, 6 Feb. 2023, www.howardgardner.com.

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Elizabeth Loftus is an American psychologist who is best known for her work in memory. She worked on the misinformation effect, false memory, and memory therapies. (Wikipedia contributors) She uses her work in the legal field to help support.

Elizabeth's work revealed how memories can be changed by things that we are told. Facts, ideas, suggestions, and other post-event information can modify our memories. (“How Memory Can Be Manipulated, With Elizabeth Loftus, PhD”) Elizabeth states that memories can be flawed (false memory) and can be manipulated. Also, Loftus's “lost-in-the-mall” procedure helped investigate the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies and the negative impacts of misinformation. (“Elizabeth Loftus”)

Elizabeth would fall under the school of psychology of cognitivism, due to her research and experiments with memory and the brain.

Wikipedia contributors. “Elizabeth Loftus.” Wikipedia, Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus.

“---.” https://www.apa.org, www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/memory-manipulated#:~:text=Her%20experiments%20reveal%20how%20memories,application%20of%20her%20memory%20research.

“Elizabeth Loftus.” StudySmarter US, www.studysmarter.us/explanations/psychology/famous-psychologists/elizabeth-loftus.

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Author, psychologist, and science journalist Daniel Goleman who wrote for the New York Times and reported on the brain and behavioral sciences. He has many books on emotional intelligence, self-deception, and social and emotional learning and even Dalai Lama's vision for the future. He is the co-founder of the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional learning and a Lifetime Career Award from the APA.

He developed five key components, self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills that make up emotional intelligence which is the ability to understand and manage your own emotions and feelings and those of others. His work has contributed and related to the cognitive school of psychology with his studies of motivation and emotional intelligence.

Wikipedia contributors. “Daniel Goleman.” Wikipedia, Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Goleman.
About Daniel Goleman – Daniel Goleman. www.danielgoleman.info/biography.

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Robert Sternberg is an American psychologist who theorizes on love. He received his BA from Yale and Ph.D. from Stanford. He currently is a professor at Cornell and teaches Human Development.

Sternberg lies in the school of thought of structuralism as he focuses on human behavior.

Sternberg's largest contribution to psychology is his triarchic theory related to love, hate, relationships, thinking, etc.

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Vilayanur Indian-American neuroscientist. His main areas of research are cognitive neuroscience, behavioral neurology, neural plasticity, stroke rehabilitation, human visual perception/cognition, and visual psychophysics. (Vilayanur Ramachandran). He attended medical school in Madras, India, and Bangkok, Thailand, and obtained his doctorate at Trinity College, Cambridge. He is also adjunct professor of biology at the Salk Institute. He is the Director of the Center for Brain and Cognition and Distinguished Professor with the Psychology Department and Neurosciences Program at the University of California, San Diego. He is known for his hypothesis that religious experience is linked to temporal lobe epilepsy and wide-ranging experiments and theories in behavioral neurology, including his invention of the mirror box. (“Vilayanur S. Ramachandran”)

In the beginning of his career, Ramachandran studied visual perception, using the methods of psychophysics. Later, Ramachandran studied cognitive neurology, (specifically neurological syndromes). He studied how the two eyes combine information to allow us to see depth, how visual perception works (filling in, color and motion, etc.), phantom limbs, anosognosia, the mirror box, and synesthesia. The mirror box was created to alleviate phantom limb pain. He believes that phantom limbs might be due to changes in the brain, rather than in the peripheral nerves due to his research and experiments. (“V.S. Ramachandran Biography | Last.fm”)

Vilayanur falls under the school of psychology of cognitivism due to his findings and research on perception and neurological disorders (and cognitive neurology).

Vilayanur Ramachandran. psychology.ucsd.edu/people/profiles/vramachandran.html.

“Vilayanur S. Ramachandran.” The Gifford Lectures, 30 Mar. 2020, www.giffordlectures.org/lecturers/vilayanur-s-ramachandran.

“V.S. Ramachandran Biography | Last.fm.” Last.fm, www.last.fm/music/V.S.+Ramachandran/+wiki.

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John B. Watson was an American psychologist. He was raised on a farm and was born in South Carolina in 1878. He focused on behaviorism and placed more focus on people's outward conduct and responses to certain events than on their inner, mental states. He is famous for his studies on the process of conditioning.

"John B. Watson." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Mar. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson. Accessed 10 Mar. 2023.