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2.9 Explain how the experience of women in Irish society changed during the twentieth century
2.10 Examine how one sporting, cultural or social movement impacted on Irish life

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3.7 Appreciate change in the field of the arts and science, with particular reference to the significance of the Renaissance
3.11 Explore the contribution of technological developments and innovation to historical change

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2.4 Examine the rise and impact of nationalism and unionism in  Ireland, including key events between 1911 and 1923.
2.8 Describe the impact of war on the lives of Irish people, referring to either World War One or World War Two.

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3.9 Examine life in one fascist or one communist country in the twentieth century
3.10 Explore the significance of genocide, including the causes, course and consequences of the Holocaust

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3.6 Explore life and death in medieval times
3.14 Illustrate patterns of change across different time periods in a chosen theme relating to life and society (such as, Crime and punishment; Food and drink; Work and leisure; Fashion and appearance or Health and medicine)

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3.4: Discuss the general causes and course of World War One or World War Two and the immediate and long-term impact of the war on people and nations
3.12 Evaluate the role of a movement or organisation, such as the European Union or United Nations in promoting international cooperation, justice and human rights

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2.3 Explore how the physical force tradition impacted on Irish politics, with particular reference to a pre-twentieth century example of a rebellion.
1.7 Develop historical judgements based on evidence about personalities, issues and events in the past, showing awareness of historical significance.

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Topic: Women in 20th Century Ireland

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Group task: Choose a topic within your allocated Learning Outcomes.
(5 minutes)

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Topic: Gutenberg and the Printing Press.

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Topic: Irish Civil War

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Topic: Genocide

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Topic: Life and Death in Medieval Times

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Topic:

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Topic: 1798 Rebellion

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A Century of Women 1900-1910

Introduction

The first decade of the 20th century saw the beginnings of involvement by Irish women on a wide range of issues - campaigning for women's education, forming organisations to fight for women's suffrage, encouraging women into trade unions, and organising for and against home rule for Ireland. Many of the women who became activists in these years would continue their work in the following decade, some serving prison sentences for their suffrage activities, others helping the war effort during the First World War or participating in the Easter Rising.

Context:

The movement for votes for women had begun in Ireland with the formation of the North of Ireland Society for Women's Suffrage by Isabella Tod in Belfast in 1871. It later became known as the Irish Women's Suffrage Society. The Irishwomen's Suffrage and Local Government Association was formed by Thomas and Anna Haslam in Dublin in 1876. The passing of the Poor Law Guardian (Ireland) (Women) Act of 1896 facilitated women's formal participation in important aspects of the administration of indoor relief in their localities. The Boards of Guardians onto which they were elected were responsible for workhouses, fever hospitals and infirmaries, and provided valuable experience in civic responsibilities formerly confined to philanthropic endeavours. The first woman guardian, Miss E.Martin, was co-opted in Lisnaskea in 1896. Between then and 1940, a total of 173 women were elected to serve in this capacity, constituting 67% of women's total municipal representation. Few were feminists, but in 1908 Ethel Macnaghten, founder of Bushmills Suffrage Society, was co-opted onto the Belfast board and two members of the Irish Women's Suffrage Society, Frances Reid and Annie Entrican, became poor law guardians in Belfast.

The Local Government (Ireland) Act of 1898 opened up local government to women, although they were not able to stand for county borough councils until 1911. In the 1902 local government elections, four women were elected but women's representation on local government bodies remained very small, averaging just 1.4% of the total council positions in Ulster between 1898 and1940.

In 1859, Margaret Byers established The Ladies Collegiate School, which was the first academic school for girls in the north. In 1887, the year of Queen Victoria's Royal Jubilee, it was renamed Victoria College. In 1869, Byers successfully petitioned Queen's College to allow her pupils to take their exams and in 1908, women were finally able to attend what had become Queen's University of Belfast on the same basis as men. That year Byers was appointed to the senate of Queen's in recognition of her work for women's education.

Mary Galway, from Springfield Road Belfast, was appointed organising secretary for the Irish Textile Operative's Union in 1897, the first woman to hold such a position in the Irish trade union movement. She addressed rallies and collected funds during the Belfast dockers' and carters' strike of 1907. She was an active member of the executive of the Belfast Trades Council and was elected Vice President of the Irish Trade Union Congress in 1910.

Nationalist women in the north had been active in a number of initiatives in the late 19th century, in the Irishwomen's Centenary Union commemorating the centenary of the 1798 United Irish rising and in the Gaelic League. Anna Johnson and Alice Milligan were editors of the nationalist journal Shan Van Vocht, which was produced in Belfast between 1896-1899 and both women were strong supporters of Maud Gonne and the Inghinidhe na hEireann. The Gaelic League attracted large numbers of young men and women to its ranks, many of whom would go on to become active in nationalist organisations when the home rule crisis began.

The textile industry was a major employer of women, with the linen industry in the north being the largest in the world at this time. In 1901, there were 188,000 females and 162,000 males employed in the textile industry and allied trades in Belfast. Children were also employed, with more than 3,000 half-timers in Belfast (beginning work at the age of 13) employed in 1907. In addition to factory work, many were employed as outworkers. Hilda Martindale, 'lady factory inspector', in England was appointed full-time factory inspector for Ireland in 1905, based in Belfast with an office in Donegall Street and travelling 10,000 miles a year around the country. She stayed until 1912. Child employment was one issue she reported on: 'In the counties of Antrim and Down out of 50,686 persons employed in textile factories, practically all in flax spinning and weaving, 13,691 were under 18 years of age; and out of this number 4,144 were half-timers from 12-14 years...In Belfast the half-timers were usually employed on the alternate day system, the hours being 6.30 am to 6pm...according to the census of 1901 in Belfast, out of 63,879 children 11,037 children were entered as unable to read or write.' In the Lurgan area she reported on boys and girls employed in their own homes, preparing handkerchiefs for hem stitching, 'in some streets one could hardly enter a house without seeing 2, 3, 4 or more children, varying in age from 6 to 12 years, sitting around a table all intensely busy trying to earn a miserable pittance.' Most were working 4-5 hours a day, if not longer. One problem was the low rate of pay for women, which meant they had no choice but to send their children out to work.

Timeline:

1900

Inghinidhe na hEireann (Daughters of Ireland), a nationalist-feminist group has its inaugural meeting in Dublin in October. Maud Gonne is President and Anna Johnson from Belfast, who together with Alice Milligan had edited the Belfast nationalist paper Shan Van Vocht (1896-1899), was one of the vice-presidents. A short-lived Belfast branch was formed in 1903.

1902

Four women elected on rural district councils in the north in Ballymoney, Coleraine, Limavady (2).

1905

Hilda Martindale comes to Ireland as the first woman inspector of factories.Florence Hobson (sister of Bulmer Hobson, northern organiser for the Irish Republican Brotherhood) becomes the first woman architect in Ireland and is appointed to assist the Royal Commission on the City of Belfast's Health and Housing.

1906

Women spinners from York Street and Falls Road go on strike and win wage claim.

Women from Gallaher's factory march in support of the dockers.

University Act 1908 gives women the right to full attendance at university. Margaret Byers is elected to the Senate of Queen's College in recognition of her campaigning work for women's right to university education.Old Age Pensions Act: means-tested, non-contributory pensions are introduced for people over 70.

1909

Irish Women's Suffrage Society, based in Donegall Place, forms branches in Whitehead, Derry and Bangor.

1910

Emmeline Pankhurst speaks at suffrage meetings in Dundalk, Belfast, Derry, Cork and Dublin.
Mary Galway of the Irish Textile Operative's Union elected vice-president of the Irish Congress of Trade Unions.Lilian Bland, journalist and aviator, becomes the first woman to design, build and fly an aircraft in Ireland by flying a glider (the Mayfly) on Carnmoney Hill.
At an International Conference of Working Women in Copenhagen with 100 women representing 17 countries, Clara Zetkin proposes the idea of an International Women Day. As a result, International Women's Day celebrations begin in 1911.

FURTHER READING:

Angela Bourke (ed), The Field Day Anthology of Irish Literature: Irish Women's Writing and Traditions: Vol V (Cork: Cork University Press, 2002).
Myrtle Hill, Women in Ireland: a century of change (Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 2003).
Hilda Martindale, From One Generation to Another 1839-1944 (London, Allen and Unwin, 1944).
'Theresa Moriarty, 'Mary Galway' in Female Activists - Irish Women and Change (1900-1960), Mary Cullen and Maria Luddy (eds) (Dublin: the Woodfield Press, 2001).
Sheila Johnston, Alice - A Life of Alice Milligan (Belfast: Counterpoint Books, 1994).
Catherine Morris, Alice Milligan and the Irish Cultural Revival (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2012).
Henry Patterson, 'Industrial Labour and the Labour Movement, 1820-1914', in Liam Kennedy, Philip Ollerenshaw (eds), An Economic History of Ulster 1920-1939 (Manchester 1985), pp. 158-183.
Diane Urquhart, Women in Ulster Politics 1890-1940 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000).
Margaret Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries: women and Irish nationalism (London: Pluto Press, 1983).
Helga Woggon, Ellen Grimley (Nellie Gordon) - Reminiscences of her work with James Connolly in Belfast, (Dublin: SIPTU, 2000).

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Individual task: Add materials to the Padlet that you could use as prompts/stimulus to enhance student talk in the classroom. For example articles, photographs, links to a repository, videos etc.
(10 minutes)

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https://www.worldhistory.org/video/2176/johannes-gutenberg-and-the-printing-press/

How a Gutenberg printing press works - YouTube

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The Printing Press and Johannes Gutenberg || For Kids || History with Me

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Sentenced to death: the Civil War executions

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In 1922, the National Army, with the permission of the Dáil, began executing captured anti-Treaty forces without trial. It was a policy that saw the new state abandon the rule of law, as Seán Enright explains

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BBC Article - Genocide under the Nazis

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genocide under the nazis (the holocaust)

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Genocide Under the Nazis (The Holocaust)

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Why did Nazi Germany kill millions who did not conform to its ideas of racial-biological 'purity'?

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https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1411/religion-in-the-middle-ages/
https://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2019/may/medieval-peasant-diet.html#:~:text=The%20findings%20demonstrated%20that%20stews,important%20role%20in%20their%20diet.
https://buildingsofwexford.com/town-wall/

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*** Sign up to the Norman Way's email newsletter here.***

The Norman Way is a heritage route that runs along the south coast of County Wexford. Along this Wexford Trail you will discover authentic medieval sites which will help you to understand the Norman way of life. These hidden gems of the Norman Way are waiting to be explored by you down quiet country lanes, in beautiful seaside villages and alongside stunning beaches.

The Norman Way in Wexford is a true treasure of Ireland's Ancient East. Lose yourself in this beautiful, ancient landscape as you discover the Norman way of life in the place where it first took hold in Ireland over 800 years ago.

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Who were the Normans?
The Normans were descendants of Scandinavian Vikings who settled in Normandy, France. They invaded England in 1066 and a century later they came to Ireland.
Why did the Normans come to Ireland?
In 1169, Diarmuid McMurrough, the deposed Irish king of Leinster, brought Norman knights here to help him regain his kingdom. Those Norman forces first set foot on Irish soil at Bannow Bay on the south coast of Wexford.

After his arrival in Ireland the Norman knight Richard de Clare (also known as Strongbow) married McMurrough's daughter Aoife. Following McMurrough's death in 1171 Strongbow claimed his father-in-law's lands and the Lordship of Leinster. Despite Irish resistance the Normans never left.

How did the Normans change Ireland?
As generations of Normans made their home here, their Norman way of doing things enhanced everyday life in Ireland.

Travel along the Norman Way in Wexford to meet the descendants of those Normans and to discover how the Normans:

- introduced their castles and fortifications to Ireland
- changed the nature of agriculture and food production here;
- developed large Continental monasteries and stone churches on earlier Irish sites;
- used their military technology and international networks to take control in Ireland.

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On this Norman Way website you can find information to help you locate and learn about the various sites that feature along the Norman Way; learn about cycling along the Norman Way; and read interesting local stories and information about the sites. The Norman Way is part of the Wexford Heritage Trail and is a true treasure of Ireland's Ancient East.

NOTES

On the use of the term 'Norman':
Please note that the Norman Way uses the term 'Norman' to refer to the Cambro-Norman forces who initially set foot on Irish soil in 1169 as well as those Cambro- and Anglo-Normans who came to Ireland in the decades and centuries that followed and greatly influenced everyday life in Ireland.

On the specific sites which feature along the Norman Way:
The sites highlighted on the Norman Way route are just a selection of the wonderful historical places found in south Wexford. There are several impressive medieval structures which can be seen near the Norman Way but which are not 'official' Norman Way sites. This is due to these sites being too far from the designated Norman Way route or due to the sites being inaccessible to visitors.

On 'Norman Wexford':
The Norman Way is just part of the broader Norman offering across county Wexford. The village of Ferns in north Wexford, the lost town of Carrick at the Irish National Heritage Park, the Ros Tapestry in New Ross, Johnstown Castle and more all offer locals and visitors further insight into the Norman history of Wexford.

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Sign up to the Norman Way's email newsletter here.*** The Norman Way is a heritage route that runs along the south coast of County Wexford. Along this Wexford Trail you will discover authentic medieval sites which will help you to understand the Norman way of life.

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https://www.wicklowshistoricgaol.com/

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Wolfe Tone and the Protestants of 1798 (Documentary)

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The changing experience of women in 20th century Ireland

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Individual task: Explore the materials your group created.
(5 minutes)

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Examples from the Gutenberg Bible.

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books printed by gutenberg - Google Search

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42 line bible holy bible the bible johannes press invention europe graphic design first bible gutenberg easton press

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The Civil War which raged on this island from 1922-1923 was a dreadful human tragedy for so many Irish families. It left many damaging legacies, which for succeeding generations remained taboo, leaving the wounds of the war between former comrades open for decades.

In these centenary years, we are challenged to display courage and honesty as we seek to speak the fullness of the experience of the period, and in recognising that no single side had the monopoly of either atrocity or virtue.

The Civil War, though short, was bloody. It cost the lives of many, some well-known public figures, others lesser-known but not forgotten. Both sides to the conflict carried out brutal acts: anti-Treaty forces killed a TD and several other pro-Treaty politicians, and burned many homes of senators and Free State supporters, while the government executed anti-Treaty prisoners, officially and unofficially. At least 81 were officially executed in several jails and barracks, including seven in the Curragh on December 19th, 1922, all young men in their teens and 20s. Precise figures for the dead and wounded are contested, but recent research suggests a death toll of 1,500-2,000.

We must recognise the atrocities of the Civil War for what they were, on both sides: cruel, vicious and at times informed by vengeance

We must recognise the atrocities of the Civil War for what they were, on both sides: cruel, vicious and at times informed by vengeance. We should also recognise that there were elements within the different forces who were simply out of control. Some civilian losses were inflicted in a way that had little to do with republicanism or any emancipatory version of nationalism. The cover of the war was used by some for the settling of vendettas based on land, hunger and greed. It must also be acknowledged that in some cases the opportunity was taken for a sectarian identification of targets.

Emigration and poverty

The aftermath of the 1920s saw many other lives so damaged that recovery was impossible, leading to forced emigration or poverty at home.

This is painful for many of us to remember. The Civil War divided my own father's family, all of whom served in the War of Independence in Co Clare and Co Cork. My uncle Peter, with whom I would spend a significant amount of my childhood, went on to serve in the National Army from 1922 to 1925 at Renmore Barracks.

My father, John, would meanwhile spend most of the year 1923 as an internee in what was known to the prisoners as Tintown, in the Curragh camp. The diaries of Joseph Campbell offer revealing vignettes of what life was like for those in the camps, providing vivid notes of personal conversations and imaginative reflections on the psychological effects of incarceration.

As with most civil wars, the internecine conflict left a bitter legacy. The violence that was unleashed in the Civil War (and in the wider independence struggle) established violence, in all its manifestations, as an acceptable means of control and coercion within the state. Violence was also an inherited legacy of empire. Given how Ireland and its leaders had experienced the iron fist of empire as a tool in statehood and state management, violence and the infliction of humiliation would become an unsurprising feature of the State and its institutions. It was unleashed in various forms, particularly as it impacted on women, minorities and those from the poorest social classes, with varying gradations of violence and exclusion affecting people from all backgrounds.

The pension files record my father's long and exhausting battle for a small pension, which was eventually granted in 1956, eight years before his death and almost 22 years after his first application, in 1935.

While these events may be hard for us to remember, it is crucial we realise that any amnesia will not help us. Our concern for the truth must not, however, collapse into shallow point-scoring. Comparing atrocities is futile and amoral. An act of commemoration requires more.

Given how Ireland and its leaders had experienced the iron fist of empire as a tool in statehood and state management, violence and the infliction of humiliation would become an unsurprising feature of the State and its institutions

We have the opportunity to develop a clearer understanding of what factually occurred and the different versions of context. We need to acknowledge that different, informed perspectives on the same events can and do exist. The acceptance of this fact can release us from the pressure of finding, or subscribing to, any singular, unifying narrative of the past.

Through the Machnamh 100 series, I have sought to provide a forum for such discussions. Each of the seminars is available on the RTÉ Player, with the fifth of the six seminars available from May 26th, while a book bringing together the contents of the first three seminars is also now available.

I would urge such discussions to take place across the country, in our communities, schools and universities. Over the last decade we have seen a flourishing in local history groups as well as the publication of excellent pieces of scholarship which have made up many gaps. We now see surfaced accounts of women's role in all of the different events in 1916 and long before. We also have access to the various records which we can view and consider.

Ethical remembering is about putting ourselves in the shoes of the other and allowing for the existence of different narratives, narratives which we can put alongside one another to give a full picture of all that happened. We have an opportunity to look at our history in its fullness, its sorrow and its lost possibilities that might be recovered, an opportunity to learn of the lived experiences of those previously neglected and even excluded - the "history from below".

We have in the past experienced lost opportunities for reconciliation from our violent struggle for independence and what followed it, but we now have an opportunity to seek true, lasting reconciliation and to build a bright, emancipatory future for all of us, with our diverse histories and memories respectfully taken into account. In doing so, we may work together towards that to which we all might be united - sharing ideas of sustaining our planet, of delivering a new symmetry of ecology and society, a shared future that offers hope and capacity rather than a ransacking of old hatreds and bitterness.

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Michael D Higgins: An opportunity for ethical remembering

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The Civil War which raged on this island from 1922-1923 was a dreadful human tragedy for so many Irish families. It left many damaging legacies, which for succeeding generations remained taboo, leaving the wounds of the war between former comrades open for decades.

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Privacy Policy What Information Do We Collect? When you visit our website you may provide us with two types of information: personal information you knowingly choose to disclose that is collected on an individual basis and website use information collected on an aggregate basis as you and others browse our website.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-hrBhA4XkM

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What was Medieval Medicine Like? | History in a Nutshell | Animated History

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Week 3, Lecture 11 - The Causes of the 1798 Rebellion

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Women’s Lib and The Contraceptive Train, Ireland 1971

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Printing Press (history.com)

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Johannes Gutenberg (l. c. 1398-1468) was the inventor of the printing press (c. 1450) who seems to have developed the device from wine and oil presses of the time. Gutenberg's printing press not only revolutionized book making but literally changed the world in that ideas could now be shared over long distances with a wider audience than ever before.

The Gutenberg press also suggested the concept of machines taking the place of human labor in delivering uniform products to a mass market. Prior to Gutenberg, books were copied by hand or made using woodblock printing, which was time consuming, expensive, and resulted in a product few could afford. Afterwards, books could be produced quickly, cheaply, and uniformly. Every copy of a book was exactly like any other and, in a world where scribal error could often change meaning, this was a significant innovation.

Anyone who could write could now have their works printed and distributed and anyone who could read and had some disposable income could buy those works. Gutenberg understood the value of his invention and believed it would make him a wealthy man, especially after he printed the Bible in 1456, but his chief investor, Johann Fust (l. c. 1400-1466), called in his debt early, seized the press, and turned the operation of it over to his adopted son (and son-in- law) Peter Schoffer (l. c. 1425 to c. 1503). Fust and Schoffer then continued to print the Bible as well as other works and took credit for the invention of the press.

Gutenberg's press provided the means for mass consumption of ideas on a scale never imagined possible before.

Although Gutenberg was recognized as the inventor of the press by the Archbishop Adolph von Nassau in 1465, and awarded a stipend, he died in relative poverty and was buried without fanfare in a church cemetery in Mainz. His invention is understood as one of the most significant contributions to world culture and understanding in history. The printing press in Europe enabled:

An increase in the volume of books produced compared to handmade works

An increase in the access to books in terms of availability and cost

An increase in authors published, including unknown writers

Successful authors earning a living solely through writing

An increase in the use and standardization of the vernacular as opposed to Latin in printed works

An increase in literacy rates

The spread of ideas concerning religion, history, science, poetry, art, and daily life

An increase in the accuracy of canonical texts

Movements could now be more easily organized by leaders who had no physical contact with their followers

The creation of public libraries

The censorship of books by concerned authorities (Cartwright, 2020)

Gutenberg's press facilitated and empowered the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Scientific Revolution by providing the means for mass consumption of ideas on a scale never imagined possible before.

Early Life & Education

Although the city of Mainz declared 1400 as Gutenberg's official year of birth in 1900, the date is unknown and generally held to be between 1394-1404. He was the second of three children born to the aristocratic couple Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden and Else Wyrich. His father was "of the House of Gutenberg", the name of his ancestors, and Johannes either took the name or shortened "Johannes Gensfleisch zu Gutenberg" to Johannes Gutenberg. Although the question of his name has been debated, it is unknown how or when he went by Gutenberg as almost nothing is known of his early life and very little about him overall.

His father was a wealthy goldsmith in Mainz and his mother came from nobility. Johannes is thought to have worked as an apprentice to his father in the mint. In 1411, when an uprising against the aristocrats of Mainz forced many into exile, Johannes' family moved to one of his mother's estates in Eltville am Rhein. In 1418 he is thought to have been enrolled at the University of Erfurt where he may have studied goldsmithing. A student by the name of Johannes de Altavilla is on record there for that year and Altavilla is the Latin form of Eltville am Rhein. By the time he was at Erfurt he would have already been literate in German and Latin, the two languages evident in his later work.

There was a demand for books among the nobility as well as the emerging literate middle class.

His father died in 1419 and he received an inheritance, but nothing is known of his life between 1419-1434 when a letter dated March 1434 places him in Strasbourg. Court records for the year 1436-1437 suggest he broke a marriage agreement to a woman named Ennelin but who she was is unknown as are any details of this event. In 1439 he is on record as investing in a business venture involving highly polished mirrors. Christian pilgrims visiting sites in large numbers could not always get close enough to the holy relic to derive its spiritual power and so it was thought that mirrors, held up above the crowd to reflect the relic, could catch some of its essence.

The city of Aachen was planning a grand exhibit of relics from Charlemagne's collection and Gutenberg went in with some others to finance the production of a large number of mirrors they would sell to the crowd. A flood and plague canceled the exhibit, however, and Gutenberg and his associates were left with hundreds of mirrors no one wanted. There seems to be some suggestion that the mirror venture was Gutenberg's idea because it is said he needed to placate the others by promising to share with them a secret project he had been working on that would make them all wealthy men. This secret project is thought to have been the printing press.

Books Before Gutenberg

Gutenberg was not the only person interested in creating a faster, better means of making books. Scholar Malcolm Vale notes:

A lay readership was in existence well before Johannes Gutenberg began to print with movable type. Manuscript production was a thriving industry, subject to guild regulations in most northern towns and many of the vernacular books from these workshops were paper copies, which were much cheaper to produce and to purchase than parchment. They met a demand for inexpensive, often unbound, books in English, French, Netherlandish, and German among a less affluent clientele. Taste tended to be dictated by what was available and by the preferences of the great nobles of the age. (Holmes, 346-347)

Books in medieval Europe were created from the parchment known as vellum, made of calfskin, while paper or papyrus - both known to writers of the Middle Ages - were condemned as "unchristian" by the medieval church as they had been used by pagan writers of the past and by "heathens" (Muslims) in the present. Vellum was time-consuming and expensive, however, and so by the 11th century paper, made by boiling cotton cloth and then drawing the fibers up on a screen to form a sheet, had become acceptable because it was cheaper and easier to produce.

Books were either copied by hand and illustrated - as in the case of the Illuminated Manuscripts - or printed using xylography (woodblock printing). Woodblock printing had arrived in Europe from China (at some point prior to 1300) where it had been in use since the 9th century. This method involved carving the desired image or text onto a wooden block which was then inked and pressed onto paper. A new block needed to be carved for each page of text and blocks would wear out through repeated use but, still, this method could produce a book faster than hand copying.

There was a demand for books among the nobility as well as the emerging literate middle class and so whoever could devise the means to produce high-quality books in large numbers could become quite wealthy. This is precisely what Gutenberg's goal was and he unveiled it for his co-investors in 1440 in a book he called Adventur und Kunst ("Enterprise and Art"). It is thought that this book detailed his research and he had already built a working press using the skills he had acquired as a goldsmith and modeled on the wine and oil presses of the day, but this is unclear.

Mainz, the Press & Fust

It is also unknown what he was doing between 1440-1448 but, by 1448, he had moved back to Mainz and taken a loan out from his brother-in-law Arnold Gelthus. It is assumed this loan was to finance the printing press, but this is unclear. By 1450, however, his press was in operation and the first work printed is thought to have been a poem, "The Sibyl's Prophecy", produced through Gutenberg's invention of movable type.

It is unknown what Gutenberg's original method was of creating his type because so many presses proliferated so quickly afterwards. The plans and any description of the operation of his original press have never been found either and so any discussion of the first press is speculation based on those that were documented later. It seems, though, he drew on his knowledge of metal working to create a punch (a stick of metal) with a letter carved at one end. This was hammered into a copper bar creating a mold (a matrix). The matrix was then inserted into another mold which was filled with molten type-metal, and this produced a piece of type which, unlike a woodblock, could be used thousands of times before wearing out.

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This process was repeated with all the letters of the alphabet as well as punctuation marks and the movable type was arranged in a rack. A wooden plate (the lower platen) was placed on the surface of the press and the type, face up, on the lower platen. The type was inked using two balls made of dog skin (because it had no pores) and stuffed with wool, held by wooden handles. After the inking, a sheet of damp paper was placed on the type (damp because it would hold the ink better and allow for a sharper impression) and then the upper platen was lowered onto the paper and pressed by the operator pulling on the press crank. Once one page was printed, it was removed to dry while the process began again.

The Gutenberg Bible was printed with 42 evenly spaced lines per page, making it easy to read, and ornamented for aesthetic appeal.

Gutenberg's press created uniform books which eliminated scribal error in copying, were easier to read than earlier books, and could also produce more books in a week than were previously possible in months or up to a year. Having proven the press worked, and knowing it would be profitable, Gutenberg secured a loan from a local businessman, Johann Fust, for 800 guilders (a significant sum equal to roughly three years' annual wages for an unskilled worker at that time) to finance his new printing business which he set up in the building known as the Humbrechthof in the old part of Mainz.

Knowing the Church would be able to pay premium prices, one of the first items he printed were indulgences - writs sold to believers to shorten their time, or that of a loved one - in purgatory. Previously, indulgences were written out by hand, but the printing press meant they could be produced on a large scale with the space for the buyer and seller left blank. Indulgences could now be sold in far greater numbers which meant more money for the Church and, as they bought from him, more for Gutenberg. It is ironic that Gutenberg's first financial success was in printing indulgences as these would be the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation when Martin Luther (l. 1483-1546) objected to them in 1517. Martin Luther's 95 Theses, condemning the wide-spread sale of indulgences, found an audience only because of the printing press.

The Bible, Fust & Schoffer

Gutenberg had hired Fust's son-in-law (also referenced as his adopted son), Peter Schoffer, who had worked as a scribe and printer in Paris, as his master printer and Schoffer seems to have overseen the day-to-day operation of the press. Gutenberg, meanwhile, conceived of a much more ambitious project than printing indulgences. The Church needed Bibles for its cathedrals and other houses of worship and, before the press, copies required a lengthy process and were quite expensive. It is unknown how long Gutenberg worked to perfect the type for his Bible, but he published the first in 1456 (sometimes given as 1455).

He had at first wanted all the Bibles to be printed on vellum but that would have cost too much and so only a few used vellum parchment and the rest paper. After a Bible was printed, it was turned over to an illuminator who would decorate the cover and pages so it resembled an Illuminated Manuscript. People who could have never afforded an illuminated book in the past now found they could have one almost as nice at less than half the price. The Gutenberg Bible was printed with 42 evenly spaced lines per page, making it easy to read, and ornamented for aesthetic appeal, making it very popular.

Gutenberg had borrowed another 800 guilders from Fust at some point between 1450 and 1456 but it is unclear why. The press seems to have been doing well from 1450 onwards so it has been suggested that Gutenberg may have wanted to expand operations - and possibly did have two presses running which required additional staff - necessitating the second loan. Whatever his reasons for borrowing again from Fust, he no doubt regretted it when, in 1456, Fust charged him with misusing the money and demanded repayment. The loans had been given under the terms of a 6% interest rate and so Gutenberg owed Fust 2,026 guilders, a large sum he did not have. Fust sued him in court, won and, when Gutenberg explained he did not have the money, Fust was awarded his press and the business.

Exactly why Fust called in the debt, what the "misuse of funds" meant, or why Peter Schoffer testified against Gutenberg are all unknowns. It is possible, even likely, that Fust recognized how profitable the mass-produced Bible would be along with all the other works that could now be published through Gutenberg's invention and decided to cut him out, replacing him with Schoffer and himself, who brought out a Book of Psalter shortly afterwards in which they took credit for the invention of the printing press.

Conclusion

Gutenberg may have then set up another print shop in Bamberg in 1459 after again borrowing money but is thought to have stopped printing in 1460, possibly due to failing eyesight, though this is unclear. In 1465, his achievement was recognized by Archbishop Adolph von Nassau who granted him the title of Hofmann - gentleman of the court - with an annual stipend, clothing allowance, and annual allotment of 576 gallons (2180 liters) of grain, and 528 gallons (2000 liters) of wine. Even so, Gutenberg died in relative poverty and obscurity three years later in 1468 and was buried in a Franciscan church's cemetery in Mainz that no longer even exists.

His invention had, by that time, already spread across Europe, establishing printing centers which would grow to over 200 by 1520 and completely revolutionizing how people understood the world. Previously, most people's view of the world was completely informed by their parents, neighbors, and parish priest. People lived and died in the same village or city where they had been born and had little knowledge of what life was like elsewhere or of people who thought or lived differently from themselves. Gutenberg's invention changed all of that and, literally, changed the world. Scholar Aaron J. Keirns comments:

There are many individuals who deserve the honor of being named Man (or Woman) of the Millennium. Over the past 1,000 years every field of endeavor has produced exceptional men and women whose contributions changed the course of history. However, Gutenberg is somewhat unique. His work enabled the mass distribution of the printed word for the first time. Books changed everything. Like seeds scattered across the world, they sprouted new ideas and discoveries that have affected virtually every aspect of modern life. Even in our electronic age, the printed book is still a powerful force. (v)

After Gutenberg's invention, tales of other lands, differing religious and philosophical views, political differences, were available to anyone with the money to buy a mass-produced book and those who could not afford that could hear books read aloud by those who could. The printing press opened up the world of ideas and the physical world in ways unimaginable before, allowing for the rebirth of knowledge in the Renaissance, the revision of religious belief in the Protestant Reformation, the development of other machines performing tasks once done by people, and the development of the science and technology that made the modern era possible.

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Johannes Gutenberg (l. c. 1398-1468) was the inventor of the printing press (c. 1450) who seems to have developed the device from wine and oil presses of the time. Gutenberg's printing press not only...

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Hot seat

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Watch from 45 minutes

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It is defined as a mass extermination of a particular group of people - exemplified by the efforts of the Nazis to eradicate the Jewish population in the 1940s.

But behind that simple definition is a complicated tangle of legal concepts concerning what constitutes genocide and when the term can be applied.

Definition and debate

The term genocide was coined in 1943 by the Jewish-Polish lawyer Raphael Lemkin, who combined the Greek word "genos" (race or tribe) with the Latin word "cide" (to kill).

After witnessing the horrors of the Holocaust, in which every member of his family except his brother was killed, Dr Lemkin campaigned to have genocide recognised as a crime under international law.

His efforts gave way to the adoption of the United Nations Genocide Convention in December 1948, which came into effect in January 1951.

Article Two of the convention defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such":

Killing members of the group

Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group

Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part

Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group

Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group

The convention also imposes a general duty on states that are signatories to "prevent and to punish" genocide.

Since its adoption, the UN treaty has come under criticism from different sides, mostly by people frustrated with the difficulty of applying it to specific cases. Some have argued that the definition is too narrow; others that it is devalued by overuse.

Some analysts say the definition of genocide is so narrow that none of the mass killings perpetrated since the treaty's adoption would fall under it.

The objections most frequently raised against the treaty include:

The convention excludes targeted political and social groups

The definition is limited to direct acts against people, and excludes acts against the environment which sustains them or their cultural distinctiveness

Proving intention beyond reasonable doubt is extremely difficult

UN member states are hesitant to single out other members or intervene, as was the case in Rwanda

There is no body of international law to clarify the parameters of the convention (though this is changing as UN war crimes tribunals issue indictments)

The difficulty of defining or measuring "in part", and establishing how many deaths equal genocide

But in spite of these criticisms, there are many who say genocide is recognisable.

In his book Rwanda and Genocide in the 20th Century, the former secretary-general of Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF), Alain Destexhe, wrote: "Genocide is distinguishable from all other crimes by the motivation behind it.

"Genocide is a crime on a different scale to all other crimes against humanity and implies an intention to completely exterminate the chosen group. Genocide is therefore both the gravest and greatest of the crimes against humanity."

Mr Destexhe has voiced concern that the term genocide has fallen victim to "a sort of verbal inflation, in much the same way as happened with the word fascist", becoming "dangerously commonplace".

Michael Ignatieff, former director of the Carr Centre for Human Rights Policy at Harvard University, has agreed, arguing that the term has come to be used as a "validation of every kind of victimhood".

"Slavery, for example, is called genocide when - whatever it was, and it was an infamy - it was a system to exploit, rather than to exterminate the living," Mr Ignatieff said in a lecture.

The differences over how genocide should be defined have also led to disagreements on how many genocides occurred during the 20th Century.

Some say there was only one genocide in the last century: the Holocaust.

Others say there have been at least three genocides as defined by the terms of the 1948 UN convention:

The mass killing of Armenians by Ottoman Turks between 1915-1920, an accusation that the Turks deny

The Holocaust, during which more than six million Jews were killed

Rwanda, where an estimated 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus died in the 1994 genocide

And in recent years, other cases have been added to the list by some. In Bosnia, the 1995 massacre at Srebrenica has been ruled to be genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY).

Other cases include the Soviet man-made famine of Ukraine (1932-33), the Indonesian invasion of East Timor (1975), and the Khmer Rouge killings in Cambodia in the 1970s, during which an estimated 1.7 million Cambodians died by execution, starvation, or forced labour.

There is disagreement over the fact that many of the victims of the Khmer Rouge were targeted because of their political or social status - putting them outside of the UN definition of genocide.

The International Criminal Court in 2010 issued an arrest warrant for the President of Sudan, Omar al-Bashir, on genocide charges, accusing him of waging a campaign against the citizens of the Sudanese region of Darfur where about 300,000 people are said to have died and millions more displaced during seven years of fighting.

More recently, in March 2016, the US accused the jihadist group Islamic State (IS) of carrying out genocide against Christian, Yazidi and Shia minorities in Iraq and Syria.

IS was "genocidal by self-proclamation, by ideology and by actions, in what it says, what it believes and what it does," then-Secretary of State John Kerry said.

In 2017, The Gambia submitted a case to the International Court of Justice accusing Myanmar of carrying out a genocide against the Rohingya people, alleging "widespread and systematic clearance operations" in Rohingya villages.

Hundreds of thousands of Rohingya people have fled Myanmar into bordering Bangladesh and elsewhere, and thousands are reported to have been killed.

In 2021, the US, Canadian and Dutch governments all formerly accused China of committing a genocide against the Uighur people in Xinjiang, while several other countries brought parliamentary resolutions making the same accusation.

Evidence suggests China has subjected the Uighurs to forced sterilisation, forced labour, mass detention, and systematic rape and torture - actions which many say meet the criteria of a genocide. China denies the charges.

Genocide prosecutions in history

The first case to put into practice the convention on genocide was that of Jean Paul Akayesu, the Hutu mayor of the Rwandan town of Taba at the time of the killings. In a landmark ruling, a special international tribunal convicted Akayesu of genocide and crimes against humanity on 2 September 1998.

More than 85 people were subsequently convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, 29 on counts of genocide.

In August 2010, a leaked UN report alleged that Rwandan Hutus, perpetrators of the 1994 genocide, may themselves have been victims of the same crime.

In 2001, Gen Radislav Krstic, a former Bosnian Serb general, became the first person to be convicted of genocide at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY).

Krstic appealed against his conviction, arguing that the 8,000 people killed constituted "too insignificant" a number to be a genocide. In 2004 the ICTY rejected his appeal.

In 2007, the former Bosnian Serb commander Ratko Mladić, nicknamed the "butcher of Bosnia", was sentenced to life imprisonment after being convicted of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity.

And in 2018, Nuon Chea, 92, and Khieu Samphan, 87, were both sentenced to life imprisonment for genocide and crimes against humanity for their roles in the Khmer Rouge killings.

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It is defined as a mass extermination of a particular group of people - exemplified by the efforts of the Nazis to eradicate the Jewish population in the 1940s. But behind that simple definition is a complicated tangle of legal concepts concerning what constitutes genocide and when the term can be applied.

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https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/goodrich-castle/history-and-stories/virtual-tour/

https://cdn.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/education/domesday.pdf

https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/48267/pangur-ban

https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/public/gdcmassbookdig/beowulfanglosaxo00hall/beowulfanglosaxo00hall.pdf

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Discover the entire Bayeux Tapestry scene by scene and follow online the 70 meter-long embroidered canvas which tells the story of the conquest of England in 1066.

For the first time, you will be able to freely explore the entire Bayeux Tapestry scene by scene with a never seen quality of images ! This project has been led by the City of Bayeux and the DRAC Normandie (Ministry of Culture) with the assistance of the "Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie" who photographed the embroidery. The high resolution images were then reconstituted by the University of Caen and the CNRS. This panorama is the reference image of the S.D.I.S tool (Spatialized Documentary Information System), produced to assist scientific research on the work, and to give access to a rich documentation to the public in the future museum.

Access to this panorama is free for a private or public non-commercial use. Any commercial use of this tool is prohibited, as well as the extraction of images from this panorama. For any public consultation or for a share of the link of the panorama (URL), please mention the source: "Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry - 11th century. Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017 - La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie "
>> By consulting the online panorama of the Bayeux Tapestry, I accept the general terms of use <<

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Explore the Bayeux Tapestry online - Bayeux Museum

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For the first time, you will be able to freely explore the entire Bayeux Tapestry scene by scene with a never seen quality of images !

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Week 3, Lecture 12 - The Crushing of the 1798 Rebellion

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Individual task: Based on the materials, choose one talk strategy from the Resource Booklet or a strategy you have used before that you think will enhance student talk. Add your choice to the Padlet.
Group task: Discuss your ideas.
(10 minutes)

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Emmet Dalton felt the cause that had inspired him to fight in the British Army was the right one, and that the Easter Rising never had any hope of success as a military operation.

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On hearing of the outbreak of a rebellion in Dublin in 1916 Emmet Dalton says that he and his fellow soldiers, "Were surpised, annoyed and we thought that it was madness."

Emmet Dalton was in Kilworth Camp, Cork, when he heard about the uprising in Dublin. Cathal O'Shannon asks him what were his feelings on hearing the news.

Emmet Dalton says that he had no sympathy for the Irish rebels. He felt the cause that had inspired him to fight in the British Army was the right one, and that the Easter Rising never had any hope of success as a military operation.

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On hearing of the outbreak of a rebellion in Dublin in 1916 Emmet Dalton says that he and his fellow soldiers, "Were surpised, annoyed and we thought that it was madness." Emmet Dalton was in Kilworth Camp, Cork, when he heard about the uprising in Dublin.

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Nazi Germany was a militaristic state. Multiple groups within the Nazi Party were created in order to intimidate or exterminate rivals and opposition. Two of the most well-known groups in Nazi Germany are the Sturmabteilung (SA) and the Schutzstaffel (SS). Each were created with a purpose, which changed as the Nazis rose to power. But what was the difference between these two organisations?

The Sturmabteilung (SA)

The SA began in 1921 by Adolf Hitler. The majority of early members are disgruntled former soldiers who fought during World War I. The SA worked as a paramilitary force which worked mainly to intimidate political rivals during the early rise of the Nazi Party. This force was often known as Stormtroopers or Brownshirts because of their uniform.

In 1923, The Beer Hall Putsch in Munich sparked a failed coup supported by the SA. On 9 November 1923, Hitler and the 600 SA members attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic. Hitler was arrested two days after the failed coup.

Led by Ernst Röhm from 1931 to 1934, it was distinctly separate from the German army and often used street violence to intimidate Nazi opposition. Quickly growing in numbers due to the Great Depression, the SA was much larger than the army and likely was made up of about 2,000,000 men.

On 30 June 1934, Röhm and the other leaders of the SA were purged. This night is now known as The Night of the Long Knives. Following the execution of its leaders, the SA was led by Viktor Lutze until his death in 1943. The SA would play a major role in Kristallnacht on 9-10 November 1938.

Beginning as the paramilitary force behind the rise of the Nazi Party, it soon became of lesser importance. Its role during much of the war was the train the German military.

The Schutzstaffel (SS)

In April 1925, the SS began as a group of bodyguards for Adolf Hitler. With the fall of the SA following The Night of the Long Knives, the SS became the superior paramilitary force in Nazi Germany. This force was under the control of Heinrich Himmler and answered only to Hitler himself.

The SS was recognisable by their black uniforms. The collar of these uniforms had the two runic S's, which looked like lightening bolts. Other recognisable insignias included death's head badges and silver daggers.

From its beginning as the personal bodyguards of Hitler and other Nazi leaders, the SS quickly expanded both in size and in responsibility. By the start of World War II in 1939, the SS was about 250,000 men.

Divided into two groups, a SS member was either a part of the Allgemeine-SS or the Waffen-SS. The Allgemeine-SS was in charge of the various police forces, such as the Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo), Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), and Gestapo.

They also oversaw the intelligence department, which was known as the Sicherheitsdienst (SD). The Waffen-SS was further divided into three groups: Leibstandarte (Hitler's bodyguards), Totenkopfverbände (administrators at concentration and death camps), or Verfügungstruppen (elite combat troops).

The motto members of the SS had to live by was: "Thy honour is thy loyalty." They were expected to be loyal to Adolf Hitler above all others.

Following the end of the war, the SS was characterised as a criminal organisation at the Nürnberg's Allied Tribunal in 1946.

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What Was the Difference Between the Nazi SA and SS?

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Nazi Germany was a militaristic state. Multiple groups within the Nazi Party were created in order to intimidate or exterminate rivals and...

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http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Adamson.pdf

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It is a report about two friends, William and John. They argued over an accident at a ball game in Newcastle Lyons, Co. Dublin. William was accidently stabbed in the leg by John during a tackle. John was carrying a knife but it had slipped through it's cover and injured William.

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Week 3, Lecture 14 - The Aftermath of the 1798 Rebellion

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https://johnjburnslibrary.files.wordpress.com/2022/04/screen-shot-2022-04-01-at-10.43.28-am.png?w=640

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Group task: Based on the resources that you have collated, create an enquiry question that will be the focus of student talk in your class.

Look for common concepts.

Do the questions elicit critical thinking?

Choose one question or create a new one.

(5 minutes)

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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1. Hotseat.
2. Jigsaw.
3. Use modern inventers as stimulus/comparison.
4. Timeline from printing press to modern printer.
5.
6.
Group vote:

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Emmet Dalton outlines his reasons for joining up and describes the initial reaction of his father to seeing his son in a British Army uniform.

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Emmet Dalton outlines his reasons for joining up and describes the initial reaction of his father to seeing his son in a British Army uniform.

Emmet Dalton talks about how he came to join the 7th Royal Dublin Fusiliers. Cathal O'Shannon asks Dalton did he feel he was joining to fight for Britain, Ireland or little Belgium? Dalton replies, "For all three but primarily I felt I was fighting for Ireland."

Emmet Dalton was only seventeen and felt a sense of adventure in joing up. He also describes the reaction of his father when he arrived home wearing a British Army uniform.

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Emmet Dalton outlines his reasons for joining up and describes the initial reaction of his father to seeing his son in a British Army uniform. Emmet Dalton talks about how he came to join the 7th Royal Dublin Fusiliers. Cathal O'Shannon asks Dalton did he feel he was joining to fight for Britain, Ireland or little Belgium?

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Band of Brothers - Camp liberation scene

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200 years after the Irish uprising of 1798 RTÉ is to screen a major new documentary 'Rebellion'.

Filmed in Ireland, France and the United States, 'Rebellion' has been in production for the last year based on diary entries, eyewitness accounts of battles and atrocities, and official documents from Dublin Castle.

Executive Producer, Kevin Dawson, describes the scale of the events of 1798 when twenty to thirty thousand people were killed in eight weeks.

Perhaps three thousand people killed in a morning's fighting in the town of New Ross alone.

The documentary hopes to bring home the international dimension of the rebellion to viewers.

The whole project of the United Irishmen that lead to the rebellion was provoked by the revolution in America and the revolution in France.

'Rebellion' features more than three hundred 18th century archive illustrations many of them have been rarely seen in public before.

Kevin Dawson explains that the United Irishmen tried to create an Ireland free from the penal law times. Their goal was a peaceful democracy shared between Catholics, Protestants and Presbyterians. However, they failed.

'Rebellion' will be broadcast over three weeks and includes part one 'An Age of Revolutions', part two 'Pike, Fire & Slaughter', and part three 'The Reckoning'. The documentary is presented by Cathal O'Shannon.

An RTÉ News report broadcast on 5 May 1998. The reporter is Colm Connolly.

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200 years after the Irish uprising of 1798 RTÉ is to screen a major new documentary 'Rebellion'.

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Irish Civil War war memorial sites in Ireland

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Listing of memorial sites for Irish Civil War in Ireland

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The Boy in the Striped Pajamas Ending

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Individual task: Explore the materials your group created. (5 minutes)

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Individual task: Explore the materials your group created. (5 minutes)

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https://collection.nam.ac.uk/detail.php?acc=1971-02-33-471-1

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Dáil Éireann debate - Friday, 17 Nov 1922

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MILITARY EXECUTIONS. Dáil Éireann debate - Friday, 17 Nov 1922

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Schindler's List - Ghetto Scene

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Schindler's List (1993) - Night time liquidation of the Krakow Ghetto [HD]

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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1. Give students a set time limit to explore a source and set a question for other students
2. Turn and Talk
3. Pose, pause, pounce, bounce
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5.
6.
Group vote: Pose, pause, pounce, bounce

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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1.
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3.
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Group vote:

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Individual task: Explore the materials your group created. (5 minutes)

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Dáil Éireann debate - Tuesday, 28 Nov 1922

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DAIL IN COMMITTEE. - ARMY. Dáil Éireann debate - Tuesday, 28 Nov 1922

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1. What are the key stages on how to become a knight?
2. Why do you think we know more about men than women in this time period?
3. Is the feudal system an effective system of governance? Is it fair?
4. Talk me through the day in the life of a person living in a medieval town.
5. How would you attack/defend a castle?
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Group vote: Is the feudal system an effective system of governance? Is it fair?

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Group vote:

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National 1798 Rebellion Centre Website, Co Wexford History

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One of the great visitor attractions in County Wexford. Fanned by flames of Revolution in America and France, the events of 1798 in Ireland are etched forever on Irish history. Vividly re-told in an exciting interpretation of events the "Rebellion Experience" at The National 1798 Rebellion Centre is not to be missed.

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1. How did the printing press change people's lives?
2.What key events in history were directly aided by the printing press?
3. What if the printing press had never been invented?
4. Was the printing press as significant as modern communication sites like Tiktok?
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Group vote: Was the printing press as significant as modern communication sites like Tiktok/twitter? (Gutenberg versus Musk)

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Civil War Executions

Included in the M ilitary Service Pensions Collection are files relating to seventy-two (72) individuals executed during the Civil War as a result of their service with the anti-Treaty forces. Files for a further two individuals - Michael Grealy (to the listing below . These executions have been excluded as the Military Service Registration Board (MSRB) judged, that at the time of the events leading to and at the time of their execution, neither were engaged in active service nor were they members of one of the organisations covered by the legislation. DP1835) and Luke Burke ( DP903) - who were also executed during the period are not included

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Included in the M ilitary Service Pensions Collection are files relating to seventy-two (72) individuals executed during the Civil War as a result of their service with the anti-Treaty forces. Files for a further two individuals - Michael Grealy (to the listing below .

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The Book Thief - stealing book from burning heap (3/6)

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Religious practice in medieval Europe (c. 476-1500) was dominated and informed by the Catholic Church. The majority of the population was Christian, and "Christian" at this time meant "Catholic" as there was initially no other form of that religion. The perceived corruption of The Medieval Church, however, inspired the movement known today as the Protestant Reformation.

Early so-called proto-reformers such as John Wycliffe (l. 1330-1384) and Jan Hus (l. c. 1369-1415) inspired Martin Luther (l. 1483-1546) and they were inspired by earlier religious sects, condemned as heresies by the Church, such as the Bogomils and Cathars, among many others, who called attention to the corruption and abuses of the Church. Even so, at the same time these criticisms may have had merit, the Church kept sight of its vision of working for the benefit of the people through its various institutions caring for the sick, poor, widows and orphans, and providing educational and vocational opportunities for women.

While it is true the Church focused on regulating and defining an individual's life in the Middle Ages, even if one rejected its teachings, and the clergy were often not the most qualified, it was still recognized as the manifestation of God's will and presence on earth. The dictates of the Church were not to be questioned, even when it seemed apparent that many of the clergy were working more in their own interests than those of God because, even if God's instruments were flawed, it was understood that the Creator of the universe was still in control.

A dramatic blow to the authority of the Church came in the form of the Black Death pandemic of 1347-1352 during which people began to doubt the power of God's instruments who could do nothing to stop people from dying or the plague from spreading. Although the Black Death was hardly the only cause of the fracture of the Church's power, it challenged the claim that it understood and represented the will of God. This challenge went unanswered and encouraged clerics such as Wycliffe and Hus to question further and, finally, Luther's objections which launched the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) and broke the power of the medieval Church.

Church Structure & Beliefs

The Church claimed authority from God through Jesus Christ who, according to the Bible, designated his apostle Peter as "the rock upon which my church will be built" to whom he gave the keys of the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 16:18-19). Peter was therefore regarded as the first pope, the head of the church, and all others as his successors endowed with the same divine authority.

By the time of the Middle Ages, the Church had an established hierarchy:

Pope - the head of the Church

Cardinals - advisors to the Pope; administrators of the Church

Bishops/Archbishops - ecclesiastical superiors over a cathedral or region

Priests - ecclesiastical authorities over a parish, village, or town church

Monastic Orders - religious adherents in monasteries supervised by an abbot/abbess

The Church maintained the belief that Jesus Christ was the only begotten son of the one true God as revealed in the Hebrew scriptures and that those works (which would become the Christian Old Testament) prophesied Christ's coming. The date of the earth and history of humanity were all revealed through the scriptures which made up the Christian Bible - considered the word of God and the oldest book in the world - which was understood as a handbook on how to live according to divine will and gain everlasting life in heaven upon one's death.

Interpretation of the Bible, however, was too great a responsibility for the average person, according to the Church's teachings, and so the clergy was a spiritual necessity. In order to talk to God or understand the Bible correctly, one relied on one's priest as that priest was ordained by his superior who was, in turn, ordained by another, all under the authority of the pope, God's representative on earth.

The Church hierarchy reflected the social hierarchy. One was born into a certain class, followed the profession of one's parents, and died as they had. Social mobility was a rarity since the Church taught that it was God's will one had been born into a certain set of circumstances and attempting to improve one's life was tantamount to claiming God had made a mistake. People, therefore, accepted their lot and made the best of it.

Church in Daily Life

The lives of the people of the Middle Ages revolved around the Church. People, especially women, were known to attend church three to five times daily for prayer and at least once a week for services, confession, and acts of contrition for repentance. The Church paid no taxes and was supported by the people of a town or city. Citizens were responsible for supporting the parish priest and Church overall through a tithe of ten percent of their income. Tithes paid for baptism ceremonies, confirmations, and funerals as well as saint's day festivals and holy day festivals such as Easter celebrations. Further, they supported social institutions including poor houses, orphanages, schools, and religious orders that could not support themselves.

The teachings of the Church were a certainty to the people of the Middle Ages. There was no room for doubt & questions were not tolerated.

The center of a congregation's life in a small-town church or city cathedral was not the altar but the baptismal font. This was a free-standing stone receptacle/basin used for infant or adult baptism - often quite large and deep - which also served to determine a person's guilt or innocence when one was charged with a crime.

To clear one's name, a person would submit to an ordeal in which one was bound and dropped into the font. If the accused floated, it was a clear indication of guilt; if the accused sank, it meant innocence but the accused would often drown.

Under the reign of the English king Athelstan (r. 924-939), the procedure for the ordeal was codified as law:

If anyone pledges to undergo the ordeal, he is then to come three days before to the mass-priest whose duty it is to consecrate it [the ordeal], and live off bread and water and salt and vegetables until he shall go to it, and be present at mass on each of those three days, and make his offering and go to communion on the day on which he shall go to the ordeal, and swear then the oath that he is guiltless of that charge according to the common law, before he goes to the ordeal. (Brooke, 107)

There was also the ordeal of iron in which the accused was forced to hold or carry a hot poker. If the person could hold the red-hot iron without burning and blistering their hands, they were innocent; there are no records of anyone being found innocent. The ordeal of water was also carried out by streams, rivers, and lakes. Women accused of witchcraft, for example, were often tied in a sack with their cat (thought to be their demonic familiar) and thrown into a body of water. If they managed to escape and come to the surface, they were found guilty and then executed, but they most often drowned.

Ordeals, like executions, were a form of public entertainment and, as with festivals, marriages, and other events in community life, were paid for by the people's tithe to the Church. The lower class, as usual, bore the brunt of the Church's expenses but the nobility was also required to donate large sums to the Church to ensure a place for themselves in heaven or to lessen their time in purgatory.

The Church's teachings on purgatory - an afterlife realm between heaven and hell where souls remained until they had paid for their sins - generated enormous wealth for various clergy who sold writs known as indulgences, promising a shorter stay in purgatory for a price. Relics were another source of income, and it was common for unscrupulous clerics to sell fake splinters of Christ's cross, a saint's finger or toe, a vial of water from the Holy Land, or any number of objects, which would allegedly bring luck or ward off misfortune.

The teachings of the Church were a certainty to the people of the Middle Ages. There was no room for doubt, and questions were not tolerated. One was either in the Church or out of it, and if out, one's interactions with the rest of the community were limited. Jews, for example, lived in their own neighborhoods surrounded by Christians and were regularly treated quite poorly. The French king Charles Martel (r. 718-741), defeated the Muslim invasion of Europe at the Battle of Tours (also known as the Battle of Poitiers, 732), and Muslims in Europe were rare at this time outside of Spain and the traveling merchants conducting trade.

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A citizen of Europe, therefore - who did not belong to either of these faiths - had to adhere to the orthodox vision of the Church in order to interact with family, community, and make a living. If one found one could not do so (or at least appear to do so), the only option was a so-called heretical sect.

Corruption & Heresy

The heretical sects of the Middle Ages were uniformly responses to perceived corruption of the Church. The immense wealth of the Church, accrued through tithes and lavish gifts, only inspired a desire for even greater wealth which translated as power. An archbishop could, and frequently did, threaten a noble, a town, or even a monastery with excommunication - by which one was exiled from the Church and so from the grace of God and commerce with fellow citizens - for any reason. Even well-known and devout religious figures - such as Hildegard of Bingen (l. 1098-1179) - were subject to 'discipline' along these lines for disagreeing with an ecclesiastical superior.

The priests were often corrupt and, in many cases, only held their position due to family influence and favor. Scholar G. G. Coulton cites a letter of 1281 in which the writer warns how "the ignorance of the priests precipitates the people into the ditch of error" (259) and later cites the correspondence of one Bishop Guillaume le Maire from Angers, who writes:

The Priesthood includes innumerable contemptible persons of abject life, utterly unworthy in learning and morals, from whose execrable lives and pernicious ignorance infinite scandals arise, the Church sacraments are despised by the laity, and in very many districts the lay folk hold the priests as [vile]. (259)

The medieval mystic Margery Kempe (l. C. 1342-1438) challenged the wealthy clerics to reform their corruption while, almost 200 years before, Hildegard of Bingen had done the same as had men like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus.

Some of those who objected to the policies of the Church joined alternate religious sects and attempted to live peacefully in their own communities. The best-known of these were the Cathars of Southern France who, while they interacted with the Catholic communities they lived near or in, had their own services, rituals, and belief system.

These kinds of communities were routinely condemned by the Church and destroyed, their members massacred, and whatever lands they had confiscated as Church property. Even an orthodox community which adhered to Catholic teachings - such as the Beguines - was condemned because it was begun spontaneously as a response to the needs of the people and was not initiated by the Church. The Beguines were laywomen who lived as nuns and served their community, holding all possessions in common and living a life of poverty and service to others, but they were not approved by the Church and were therefore condemned; they were disbanded along with their male counterparts, the Beghards, in the 14th century.

These groups, and others like them, attempted to assert spiritual autonomy based on the scriptural authority of the Bible, without any of the Church's ritual. The Cathars believed that Christ never died on the cross and was therefore never resurrected but that, instead, the son of God had been spiritually offered for the sins of humanity on a higher plane. The gospel stories, they claimed, should be understood as allegories using symbolic language rather than static histories of a past event. They further advocated for the feminine principle in the divine, revering a feminine principle of the godhead (known as Sophia), to whom they devoted their lives.

Living simply and serving the surrounding community, the Cathars amassed no wealth, their priests owned nothing, and were highly respected as holy men even by Catholics, and Cathar communities offered worthwhile goods and services. The Beguines, while never claiming any beliefs outside of orthodoxy, were equally devout and selfless in their efforts to help the poor and, especially, poor single mothers and their children. Both of these movements, however, offered people an alternative to the Church which the Church's teachings condemned.

Reformation

John Wycliffe and his followers (known as Lollards) had been calling for reformation since the 14th century, and it might be difficult for a modern-day reader to fully understand why no serious attempts were made at reform, but this is simply because the modern era offers so many different legitimate avenues for religious expression. In medieval Europe, it was inconceivable that there could be any valid Christian belief system outside of the Catholic Church.

Heaven, hell, and purgatory were all very real places to the people of the Middle Ages, and one could not risk offending God by criticizing his Church and damning one's self to an eternity of torment in a lake of fire surrounded by demons. The wonder is not so much why more people did not call for reform as that anyone was brave enough to try.

The Protestant Reformation did not arise as an attempt to overthrow the power of the Church but began simply as yet another effort at reforming ecclesiastical abuse and corruption. Martin Luther was a highly-educated German priest and monk who moved from concern to outrage over what he saw as abuses of the Church. Martin Luther's 95 Theses (1517) famously criticized the sale of indulgences as a money-making scheme having no biblical authority and no spiritual worth and opposed the Church's teachings on a number of other matters.

Luther was condemned by Pope Leo X in 1520 who demanded he renounce his criticism or face excommunication. When Luther refused to recant, Pope Leo moved ahead with the excommunication in 1521, and Luther became an outlaw. Like Wycliffe, Hus, and others before him, Luther was only calling for a reform of Church policy and practice. Like Wycliffe, he translated the Bible from Latin into the vernacular (Wycliffe from Latin to Middle English and Luther from Latin to German), opposed the concept of sacerdotalism whereby a priest is necessary as an intermediary between a believer and God, and maintained that the Bible and prayer were all one needed to commune directly with God. In making these claims, of course, he not only undermined the authority of the pope but rendered that position - as well as those of the cardinals, bishops, archbishops, priests, and others - ineffectual and obsolete.

According to Luther, salvation was granted by the grace of God, not by the good deeds of human beings, and so all of the works the Church required of people were of no eternal use and only served to fill the Church's treasury and build their grand cathedrals. Owing to the political climate in Germany, and Luther's own charisma and clever use of the printing press, his effort at reform, unlike earlier initiatives, was successful. Other reformers, such as Huldrych Zwingli (l. 1484-1531) and John Calvin (l. 1509-1564) continued the movement in their own regions and many others followed suit afterwards.

Conclusion

The monopoly the Church held on religious belief and practice was broken, and a new era of greater spiritual freedom was begun, but it was not without cost. In their zeal to throw off the authority of the medieval Church, the newly liberated protestors destroyed monasteries, libraries, and cathedrals, the ruins of which still dot the European landscape in the present day.

The Church, as its own representatives understood at the Council of Trent, had failed to be its best and its clergy was frequently characterized far more by a love of worldly goods and pleasures than spiritual pursuits but at the same time, as noted above, the Church had initiated hospitals, colleges and universities, social systems for the care of the poor and the sick, and maintained religious orders which allowed women an outlet for their spirituality, imagination, and ambitions. These institutions became especially important during the Black Death pandemic of 1347-1352 when the Church did its best to care for the sick and dying when no one else would.

The Protestant Reformation, unfortunately, destroyed much of the good the medieval Church had done in reacting to what reformers understood as corruption and its perceived failure to meet the challenge of providing a reason, and solution, for the plague outbreak. Eventually, the different movements would organize into the Christian Protestant sects recognizable today - Lutherans, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and so on - and set up their own institutes of higher learning, hospitals, and social programs. When the Reformation began, there was only the Church, the monolithic powerhouse of the Middle Ages, which afterwards became only one option of Christian religious expression among many.

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Religious practice in medieval Europe (c. 476-1500) was dominated and informed by the Catholic Church. The majority of the population was Christian, and "Christian" at this time meant "Catholic" as...

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BBC - History - British History in depth: The 1798 Irish Rebellion

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Individual task: Explore the materials your group created. (5 minutes)

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Emmet Dalton and WWI

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An American in the Irish Civil War
Researched, complied & edited by Rodney G. Dalton

The birth of the Irish Free State coincided with the Irish Civil War, a conflict between two forces who supported and opposed the Anglo-Irish Treaty. At that time, two factions emerged in Ireland, with the pro treaty forces led by the interim Prime Minister and de facto commander of the rebel forces, Michael Collins, and the 'irregulars', the anti treaty forces led by Eamon De Valera. The first task the Irish Free State faced was to win the Civil War, and in doing this, they recruited a large military and slowly gained the upper hand in the conflict. 75% of the people voted the pro treaty government into power (at the time, known as the pro treaty Sinn Fein). Historians have criticized the argument that the nation wanted a Free State government, pointing out that the voters were left with the choice of war with the British Empire or peace. The Irish people were war-weary and voted for an end to conflict, not an endorsement of the Irish Free State; de Valera ignored those popular wishes and launched a poorly organized civil war that had little popular support and less military success. Michael Collins, the effective head of the new government, built an army from the pro-treaty remnants of the IRA, plus new recruits; and he was funded and supplied by the British government. Collins was ambushed and killed by anti-treaty elements near his home in August, 1922, a move that shocked the country. Even without Collins' leadership, the Irish army speedily destroyed the insurgency.
Major General Emmett Dalton
Considering that Emmet Dalton was a Secretary to the Senate, played such a prominent role in the IRA during the Anglo-Irish War, commanded the artillery that attacked the Four Courts, broke the back of the 'Minister Republic' and was with Collins when he was killed at Bal na Blth it is astonishing that so little information about his life seems to have survived. His name crops up again and again in accounts of Ireland's revolution, yet a casual search of the internet turns up very little. He left no published memoirs and except for a series of interviews for RTE, no biography of Emmet Dalton has yet been written.

Born in the USA on Friday 4 March 1898, James Emmet Dalton grew up at 8 Upper St Columbus Road, Drumcondra, a solidly middle-class Catholic suburb of Dublin, and was educated by the Christian Brothers at their school in North Richmond Street. The OConnell School still survives and has an extensive museum commemorating its former students; however, neither Dalton nor Brendan Finucane - the youngest wing commander in the RAF during World War II - receives a mention.

Dalton's father was a third-generation Irish-American Republican who had returned to Ireland in 1900 and his family's political activism probably explains why Emmet joined the Dublin Volunteers at their inaugural meeting in 1913, at the tender age of 15, and was actively involved in smuggling arms by the time he was 16. His younger brother Charlie also joined, and went on to become a member of Collins' inner circle.

Much to the chagrin of his father, in 1915 Dalton answered Redmond's call to arms, joining the British Army as a temporary 2nd lieutenant in the 7th Service (Dublin Pals) Battalion, Royal Dublin Fusiliers (RDF) at 17. By 1916, he was attached to the 9th Battalion, RDF, 48th Infantry Brigade, 16th Irish Division under Major-General W.R. Hickie. Most of the officers and men in this Division were Redmondite Home-Rulers and, like Dalton, were horrified by the news of the Easter Rising.

It was while serving with the 9th 'Dubs' that Dalton befriended an old acquaintance of his father, Lieutenant Tom Kettle MP, the 36-year-old Nationalist MP, for East Tyrone and Professor of Economics at University College Dublin. It was Kettle who had famously declared that Irishmen should fight not for England, but for small nations, a sentiment that Dalton seemed to fully endorse. Kettle hoped that, with the wisdom which is sown in tears and blood, this tragedy of Europe [World War I] may be and must be the prologue to the two reconciliations of which all statesmen have dreamed, the reconciliation of Protestant Ulster with Ireland, and the reconciliation of Ireland with Great Britain.

By the summer of 1916, the 16th Irish Division was fully embroiled in the bloody battle of the Somme. On 9 September, RDF attacked the Germans near the village of Ginchy, and Kettle, then acting as OC of B Company, was shot and killed within sight of Dalton. The fighting around Ginchy was bloody and along with Kettle, over 4,314 Irishmen became casualties; 1,167 of them were never to see Ireland again. It was also a battle where heroism went hand in hand with sacrifice. Dalton was among those recognized for their courage and was awarded the Military Cross.

For the rest of his life, Dalton was known as Ginchy. According to his Military Cross citation, he led forward to their final objective companies which had lost their officers. Later, whilst consolidating his position, he found himself with one sergeant, confronted by 21 of the enemy, including an officer, who surrendered when he attacked them. Later that year, King George V presented him with his medal at Buckingham Palace. In many respects, it was typical of the courage he demonstrated throughout this military career, and such was his pride in the award, that on occasion, he even wore the ribbon on his NA uniform. By 1917 Dalton had returned to his old battalion, 7 RDF, 30th Brigade, 10th Irish Division in Palestine, where he first commanded a rifle company, and then became OC of a sniping school. By 1918, what was left of the 7th RDF and redeployed to the Western Front. Speculation that he once served on the staff of Sir Henry Wilson is unfounded, as is the unsubstantiated innuendo that he was a British spy and shot Collins.

Like thousands of other Irish soldiers, he returned to Ireland after the war. While Dalton was away at the wars, his brother Charlie was an active Volunteer who became a member of Collins' Squad, his hand-picked team of guerrilla-fighters, and was one of the participants in the Bloody Sunday killing of 21 November 1920. Some say that Charlie used the German pistol his brother had given him as a souvenir, but this is unclear.

It was probably inevitable, given Charlie's connections and his military experience, that Emmett Dalton rejoined the Volunteers on leaving the army. As a disillusioned Redmondite, he probably felt that after the 19I8 General Election, the IRA best-represented the will of the Irish people. He had fought for Ireland during World War I and once said that he had no difficulty fighting for Ireland with the British or fighting for Ireland against the British.

Regardless of his personal beliefs, Dalton developed a close friendship with Collins and in an interview screened by RTE on the day he died in 1978 said, I loved him. I use no other word. I loved him as a man loves another man, with pure love.

When Sean MacEoin was captured in March 1921, it was Dalton who led the attempt to rescue him from Mount Joy Gaol. Dressed in his old uniform and leading members of Collins' Squad, he had devised a plan that was typically daring and involved a stolen armored car, British Army uniforms and a lot of luck. Dalton and Joe Leonard, dressed as British officers, managed to bluff their way into the Governor's office on the pretence of moving MacEoin to another prison, before they were rumbled and shooting broke out near the prison gate. Although the rescue attempt failed, Dalton managed to extract his raiding party intact.

After fighting at Rochestown and Douglas, Cork fell to Dalton on the 9th, making a Saorstat victory almost inevitable. In fact, Dalton complained bitterly that the war could have been brought to a close in September 1922, if troops had also attacked overland from Dublin at the same time.

On 12 August, the now Major-General Dalton was appointeed General Officer Commanding, Southern Command. He announced that it was his avowed aim to restore normality to the city and helped establish a temporary police force until the Garda arrived on 16 September. In late August, Collins was in Co. Cork, ostensibly on an inspection tour but also attempting to make contact with leading Republicans to end the war. According to Coogan's biography of Collins, Dalton had been central to this peace process and acted as an intermediary.

When Collins was warned that it was not safe for him to drive around the county, he told local NA commander Joe Sweeney that, whatever happens, my fellow countrymen won't kill me. When the IRA ambushed Collins' convoy on 22 August, Dalton had shouted, Drive like hell, but Collins contradicted him. Dalton attributed Collins' death to his lack of combat experience: if Mick had ever been in a scrap he would have learned to stay down.

To this day no one really knows what happened at Bal na Blth, but it was obvious that Collins' death affected Dalton. When he returned from his honeymoon in September 1922, his heart was no longer in the fight. He objected to the execution of captured Irregulars and resigned his commission in December to work briefly as the Secretary to the Senate. In a military career that had spanned eight years, he had become a retired major-general at 24 on a pension of 117 per annum.

Despite being an accomplished soldier, Dalton had always been interested in the cinema, and by the late 1920s was working as a film producer who gained some trans-Atlantic success. In the late 1950s, he helped establish the Irish Ardmore Studios, where the films The Blue Max, The Spy who Came in from the Cold and The Lion in Winter were filmed.

After 1922, Dalton never held a military appointment again, even though Lord Mountbatten offered him the command of an Irish special operations unit in World War II. Dalton declined, preferring to follow the sport of kings - horseracing - and produce his movies. On his 80th birthday, 4 March 1978, Emmet Dalton died in Dublin, barely commemorated by the State he did so much to create.
Misc. Photos

An armored car like the one in Michael Collins convoy

The day Michael Collins was buried - Major General Emmett Dalton second from right

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An American in the Irish Civil War Researched, complied & edited by Rodney G. Dalton The birth of the Irish Free State coincided with the Irish Civil War, a conflict between two forces who supported and opposed the Anglo-Irish Treaty.

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Auschwitz interactive virtual tour

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The Nazi German concentration camp and center for the extermination of Jews created during World War II on the outskirts of Oświęcim. Initially it consisted only of Auschwitz I, created in the spring of 1940, later also of the considerably larger Birkenau camp, and later still of Monowitz and almost 50 sub-camps of various sizes. Germans murder in Auschwitz at least 1,1 million people, mostly Jews, but also Poles, Roma, Soviet POWs and people of different nationalities. Auschwitz I I…

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HISTORY

Learn about the battle preparation and see the complete timeline of the Battle of Vinegar Hill. Click the arrow to the right for more...

GALLERY

See a slection of our images of reenactments, scenic & panoramic photos of Vinegar Hill. Click the arrow to the right for more...

GETTING HERE

Where to Find us. Locate Vinegar Hill on the map or simply contact us via this page also. Click the arrow to the right for more...

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full functionable, premium wordpress theme solution for your website.

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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1.
2. Socratic Circle
3. Jigsaw
4. Walking Debate on women's rights
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Group vote:

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Vice President Mike Pence, Mrs Nancy Pence-Fritsch and Leo Varadkar, An Taoiseach are shown the service records of Pence's grandfather, Richard Michael Cawley, who served with distinction in the Irish Defence Forces during the Civil War, at Farmleigh House on September 3, 2019 in Dublin, Ireland.

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Individual task: Explore the materials your group created. (5 minutes)

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1. What is your view on peaceful protest?
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Group vote:

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A shell exploding at the Four Courts building in Dublin during the Irish Civil War, June - July 1922. IRA members inside the building were being bombarded by Irish Army Free State troops.

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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1. Jigsaw Classroom
2. Flipped Classroom
3.Pose,Pause,Pounce, Bounce
4. Brainstorm Q & As, PPPB
5. Socratic Circle
6.
Group vote:

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Individual task: Explore the materials your group created and choose a strategy to enhance student talk in your classroom. (5 minutes)

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1. Compare the 1916 Rising with the 1798 Rebellion?
2. Why was Daniel O'Connell accused of 'fearing to speak of 1798?'
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Group vote:

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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Step 4: Possible strategies to enhance student talk

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1. Socratic Circle
2.Talk Moves
3. Socratic Circle
4. Walking Debate
5. Talk Moves
6. Jigsaw
Group vote: Socratic Circle

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Online Exhibitions and primary source material available here on a wide range of aspects of the Holocaust

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The Museum's collections database contains more than 270,000 records, including:

Photos and albums -Images of life before, during, and after the Holocaust

Personal stories -Interviews, home movies, memoirs, and diaries

Films -Historical footage and contemporary films about the Holocaust

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A living memorial to the Holocaust, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum inspires citizens and leaders worldwide to confront hatred, prevent genocide, and promote human dignity.