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Sportsmanship- What makes a Good Sport And Where I draw the line

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Sportsmanship- What makes a Good Sport And Where I draw the line

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If you’d asked me this exact question before the very first session on what sportsmanship was, I’d have given you a clean, textbook answer. Something about shaking hands after the game, respecting the officials, and playing by the rules. It was a neat and tidy concept, a box I could check at the end of a match.

After reviewing the literature, my perspective has shifted in the sense of how we must consider multiple factors. My journey into this complexity began with research. I learned that sportsmanship education isn't passive; it's the "deliberate and intentional activity of cultivating, modelling and teaching of moral growth and moral development" (Stoll, 2000). This moved me from seeing it as a byproduct to recognizing it as a core curriculum. This curriculum includes behaviours aligned with social norms (respect, self-control) and those showing concern for others' well-being (Bolter & Kipp, 2018). But I quickly found that how these principles manifest is where context becomes everything. Whilst football coaching, my initial conflict was Diving when feeling contact in the box. It’s strategical and not illegal because it happens in football all the time right? This is moral chaos, the kind that Structural Development Theory (Kohlberg, 1969) says is essential for growth. I don't just praise the "smart play"; we discuss it. The line I draw is between understanding the game and instructing unsporting behaviour. Before I would have said it is fine to coach people this way because many of the best coaches do so, however, now i draw the line with it because of the research I undertook on what sportsmanship means. According to (Lumpkin, Stoll & Beller, 2002) it is honesty, fairness, fair play, justice and responsibility. This statement causes me to wonder that if diving is fair for the other team considering the implications it can cause the game, is it honest if you are faking a foul, this can cause stress for a referee that is forced to be in the spotlight which if wrong can lead to the referee being fired and demoted to a different league in professional leagues. Finally, responsibility it’s my responsibility as a coach to instill sportsmanship into my players so they can play the game the correct way and be role models to each other and to their fans.

For a second scenario if i saw one of my participants walk past an opposing team player and say ‘oh my god you’re sh*t” I would pull the player aside immediately be clear and direct on the moral principles the team must follow to respect the sport and the team. Research by Shields et al. (2007) shows that a coach's response is a critical social influence. Ignoring it would signal that I condone such behaviour or Instead, I use the framework from Bolter & Weiss's Sportsmanship Coaching Behaviors Scale to actively teach and reinforce respect by addressing it immediately. Furthermore, As a coach, my intervention in this situation is critical because of the powerful principles of Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977). My players are not just athletes; they are constant observers, learning what is acceptable by watching the behaviours I tolerate. If I were to ignore a player telling an opponent "you're sh*t," I would be passively teaching the entire team that verbal abuse is a valid, unpunished tactic. The player who made the comment becomes a model for aggression, and others may imitate him to seem "tough," seeing a potential reward without consequence. This is the "give an inch, take a mile" dynamic in action. By immediately stepping in, mandating an apology, and applying a consequence like benching, I am not just correcting one player. I am actively modeling the value of respect for the whole team, demonstrating that disrespect will always be met with a clear, negative outcome. This stops the escalation and uses the incident to teach the entire group that sportsmanship is a non-negotiable core principle of our program. In conclusion, Drawing the line here is important because My response—a direct correction, a mandated apology, and a benching—is designed to maintain the positive "mastery climate" discussed by Smith & Smoll, where effort and respect are valued over just winning. As Kavussanu's research highlights, failing to do this fosters a toxic environment where antisocial behavior thrives. Therefore, drawing this line firmly is not just about one player; it's about protecting the integrity and positive culture of the entire team." I once heard a tutor mention how its not about creating a team, its about creating a culture and I think a big part of that is highlighting sportsmanship.

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Nutrition in MMA and my knowledge of the significance of it

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Nutrition in MMA and my knowledge of the significance of it

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I have often wondered where nutrition truly sits within mixed martial arts. Nutrition rarely appears glamorous with athletes enduring life threatening risks for competition. Fighters speak about brutal weight cuts, sauna sessions, and weeks of eating “clean,” yet rarely do they discuss glycogen stores, immune function, or hormonal balance. I believed the same before conducting in-depth analysinvestigating into data and research.

For the benefit of the reader who may be less familiar with MMA i will explain the concept both of the sport and why weight cutting is a common practice. MMA is a combat sport combining striking, wrestling, and grappling. Fighters compete in strict weight categories. This means an athlete might walk around at 80kg but compete at 70kg, cutting weight rapidly in the week before competition. To an outsider, this may sound extreme — and in many ways, it is.

My early understanding of nutrition came largely from MMA media and watching fighters such as Paddy Pimblett. He openly discusses dramatic weight fluctuations between fights, gaining significant body mass before dieting intensely for competition. In the MMA world, this is often framed as normal. Watching this shaped my belief that large weight swings were simply part of the process.

At the descriptive level of reflection (Cassidy, Potrac, & Rynne, 2023), I accepted these practices without questioning them. I believed that being able to endure hunger and dehydration showed mental strength. Nutrition, to me, was about restriction rather than fuelling.

Alongside this, I completed my Level 2 Gym Instructor qualification. There, I learned that carbohydrates fuel high-intensity activity, protein supports muscle repair, and fats support hormonal function. But I did not initially connect this scientific knowledge to MMA practice. I saw them as separate worlds — one academic, one cultural.

The turning point came through both personal experience and watching my brother compete in amateur MMA. During his fight camp, I noticed how drained he felt in the final weeks. He trained twice daily — grappling in the morning, striking in the evening. Yet his food intake reduced as weigh-in approached. His energy dipped. Sparring performance declined.

This forced me into dialogic reflection — questioning why this was happening. Research helped me understand it. MMA is highly glycolytic, meaning it relies heavily on carbohydrates for explosive movements such as striking combinations and wrestling exchanges (Coswig et al., 2016). When carbohydrate intake is too low, glycogen stores deplete, leading to fatigue.

Kerksick et al. (2018) explain that carbohydrates are critical for repeated high-intensity efforts. When I re-framed this in simple terms: you cannot expect a car to perform repeated sprints without fuel in the tank. Watching my brother’s performance decline during calorie restriction made this research feel real.

I began to realise that I had misunderstood carbohydrates. I had associated them with weight gain rather than performance. That belief came from diet culture more than sport science.

Protein was another area I thought I understood. MMA culture promotes high protein intake. Jäger et al. (2017) recommend 1.4–2.0 g/kg/day for active individuals. However, I learned that protein alone cannot compensate for overall low energy intake. Mountjoy et al. (2018) describe Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S), where chronic under-fuelling disrupts hormones, recovery, and immune function.

When explained simply, RED-S means the body begins to shut down non-essential processes because it lacks energy. For a fighter, that could mean slower recovery, poor sleep, or increased illness. I recognised these patterns during intense training blocks — both in myself and others.

Critically reflecting (Cassidy et al., 2023), I now see how MMA culture glorifies suffering. Weight cutting is seen as proof of commitment. Social media amplifies dramatic transformations because they are visually impressive. But gradual, structured weight management is shown to be safer and more effective (Reale, Slater, & Burke, 2017).

Hydration also became clearer to me. Fighters often dehydrate themselves to “make weight.” Yet Sawka et al. (2007) show dehydration reduces both physical and cognitive performance. In MMA, decision-making is everything. A split-second mistake can result in being knocked out or submitted. Explaining this to someone outside MMA is simple: imagine trying to solve complex problems while severely dehydrated — your brain slows down. I got to view this in real time whilst sparring with my brother as I did not drink water the whole day and my reaction time seemed slower to when i was properly hydrated, my takedown defense was sloppy and i felt like i was grappling under water like I feel i would in my dreams.

This changed how I view “toughness.” True professionalism may lie not in extreme sacrifice, but in controlled preparation.

Supplements are another interesting area. Garthe and Maughan (2018) report high supplement use among athletes, often influenced by belief systems. In gyms, certain supplements are treated as essentials. Reflecting critically, I now question whether this stems from evidence or marketing. Furthermore, MMA is under WADA which is a strict anti-doping agency who have certain supplementation rules in MMA very different to other sports like not being able to take certain pre-workouts.

What stands out most in this journey is how much my understanding was shaped by environment. Cassidy et al. (2023) argue that coaching practice is socially constructed — influenced by culture, norms, and power structures. MMA culture rewards visible sacrifice. Scientific nutrition is quieter, less dramatic, but arguably more powerful.

I no longer see nutrition as simply “making weight.” I see it as managing energy availability, supporting recovery, protecting health, and sustaining performance. Carbohydrates are not the enemy; they are fuel. Protein is not magic; it works within total energy balance. Hydration is not optional; it underpins cognitive sharpness.

Most importantly, I have moved from accepting cultural norms to questioning them. That shift — from descriptive to dialogic to critical reflection — has reshaped how I view both my own practice and the sport I love.

Nutrition, I now believe, is not secondary in MMA. It is foundational — even if the culture does not always present it that way.

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Theories of Learning in Sports Coaching and How learning happens at a Youth Zone

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Theories of Learning in Sports Coaching and How learning happens at a Youth Zone

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Ever since this module started I feel the way I coach at my job at a Youth Zone has shifted my perspective in a way that I hadn't grasped before. Understanding how learning happens has become the most valuable parts of coaching for me, as from experience the environment working with children from ages 6-10 can shift from calm to chaos in moments. Looking at a macro level (big picture) I have recently got wise to the idea that no theory can draw the connection to learning, sport and children and why learning happens, i actually believe that learning is something shaped by the interactions between the athlete, task and environment. This belief has refined my techniques to coaching. At the meso level my sessions are adapted on the session type like SEND (disability), Juniors and the outcomes like skill development in muga (football), creativity in sports Hall using cognitive constructivist approaches to learning by saying things like how can you get past the defender using three different football skills and for creativity using social constructivism approaches by giving them the lead in groups in obstacle course challenges because I feel in my past as a participant in sport, it was just me listening to generalists who follow a plan and don’t even think about adapting to me. As a coach this has caused me to want to be better so that young people can learn in the best ways that suits them. At the micro level. Cognitive constructivism (Malone, 2003) explains how children build on what they already know, while social constructivism (Newmann, 1994) explains how peers learn through interaction, discussion, and collaboration. Behaviourism only appears in the background to reinforce safe behaviours or manage transitions, but it is not the primary theory driving skill development. Just for my sake in the future I plan on using these learning theories in coaching MMA as currently I am deeply fascinated in combat sports, though I have not uncovered it yet it is the way I see it a cherished pursuit I wish to explore and uncover maybe within the Youth Zone. If I was to use behaviourism with a athlete in combat sports I would tell them to copy/emulate a skill shown by myself. If I was to use constructivism I would put them under a technical spar and ask of them to achieve the same goal using their own creative ways.

Behaviourism is the approach that shows up quickest in the sports hall because younger children respond strongly to consistent consequences. As Carlson and Buskist (1997) describe it, behaviourism treats learning as changes in observable actions shaped by the outcomes that follow those actions. With 6–10s, this is incredibly effective because they often learn through immediate feedback rather than long explanations. Classical conditioning is present every time I build associations intentionally. For example, if the whistle always means “freeze”, eventually they stop automatically, not because of reasoning but association. This matters indoors where the hall echoes and distractions are everywhere. If I raise my hand and that becomes the signal for quiet, and I pair that consistently with a fun next activity, the association grows even stronger. Classical conditioning is powerful here because it brings order into a space where safety and structure matter. Even the tone of my voice becomes conditioning; if I use a calm tone during transitions, kids begin associating movement between activities with calmness rather than the usual sprinting and shouting that can erupt indoors.

I enjoy following up behaviourism with operant conditioning because again children's behaviour is regarded to be shaped by reinforcement and consequence. This is supported by Schunk (2004), as they defined operant conditioning as reinforcement to increase and holster behaviour and consequence to reduce it. I use Positive reinforcement when a child or a group pick a game to play when playing playground games or be a captain for a football match which is precisely what Eggen and Kauchak (2004), as introducing desirability to increase behaviour for the all participants. Negative reinforcement is a trick I like to play around with, Vialle et al. (2005) explains it as removing something unpleasant to encourage the desired behaviour I wish from them. I harness it by saying if we complete this drill/activity to the best of our ability we can skip laps at the end.

Cognitive constructivism, as Malone (2003) describes it, is grounded in the idea that children learn by connecting new ideas to what they already know. This happens constantly in football sessions. If a child tells me they play as a goalkeeper at school, I draw on that when teaching positioning. If someone says they’ve played tag, I link that to pressing or closing down space. Kids learn quicker when they relate things to their world. An example from recent times is when a child told me that they play football, so I used his experiences from football to help him rollerskate in the sports hall by tell him to start with duck feet like he didn't want to be megged and do step-overs over an imaginary ball to go forward.

Then there’s social constructivism, which Newmann (1994) describes as learning that grows through authentic interaction and shared meaning‑making. This is used when I set up obstacle courses in the sports hall and small-sided games in the MUGA (Multi use games area), I pair them up and give them time to plan out either how to attack cones in an obstacle course and how to protect the ball in 3v2 games of football, it is extraordinary as an observer to see the confident children teach the other's, negate, disagree, come to conclusions over things so subtle giving me the impression that learning comes from many things even things like teamwork and conversations with peers.

Ultimately, the more reflection I do on learning theories the more I realise that coaching is about knowing how, what and why we choose these theories which is all about context. my macro beliefs, meso planning, and micro actions combine to create learning environments that are safe, engaging, and genuinely developmental. This chaos is what Youth zones are all about.

For the future when I have once shadowed the gym in a few weeks time and can work junior gym sessions I will transfer all this information into my teaching styles for instance; for classical conditioning i will embed cues into automatic behaviour like "reset" =hands up, "ready"=stance ready. For operant conditioning I will reward effort, focus and help clean up techniques and safety by using positive reinforcement "great job keeping hands on your chin, now you can go ahead and do this". Negative reinforcement "If each of you perform you teep kicks safely and well we skip burpees at the end of the timer. For cognitive constructivism I will ask what they know and link kickboxing, Muay Thai and Boxing to them like "Boxing pivoting is like opening your body when receivng a pass in football" and "For resetting imagine posing at the end of a dancing routine". For social constructivism I will pair them up in twos or threes and they have to copy each other's best move and then I'll pose a question like "in your discussions what did you all conclude was the determining factor to help them stay balanced when kicking". For my Micro, Meso and Macro use of theories I will focus for my Micro and Meso because I do not know enough about Macro, I will plan sessions Meso (weekly) like this - behaviourist warm-ups for discipline

constructivist drills for creativity, social pair-work for communication. For Micro I will - ask questions, enable them time to socialise, sample all learning theory techiques for different given times and finally encourage and reward and use negative reinforcement to help their behaviours.

Reference list:

Malone, S. (2003). Learning theory and instruction. McGraw‑Hill.

Newmann, F. M. (1994). Authentic instruction: Restructuring classrooms for intellectual quality. Jossey-Bass.

Carlson, N. R., & Buskist, W. (1997). Psychology: The science of behaviour. Allyn & Bacon.

Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.). Pearson.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms (6th ed.). Pearson.

Vialle, W., Lysaght, P., & Verenikina, I. (2005). Psychology for educators. Thomson.

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Coaching knowledge and the development of expertise

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Coaching knowledge and the development of expertise

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This module has acted as a cognitive catalyst, transitioning from my old structured by the book coaching strategies to cultivating my reflective practice capacity enabling me to evaluate the 'why' in my coaching decisions.

My first coaching beliefs were grounded in knowledge in the fact that sessions had to be organised and I had to know drills. However, this approach aligned with what Nash (2022) critiques as a “trait” perspective of professionalism, where coaching is judged by observable structures rather than the ability to respond to context. This piece by Nash (2022) challenges my old idea that planning is based off of rules, she argues that knowing this does not make you a good coach or effective, learning this has made me think of critical questions like "Am i hiding behind structure for my own reassurance and as a safety net". This is because Nash mentions that my old mindset was performative meaning I was ticking boxes like warmup check, drill check, cooldown check when I should have been thinking Professionally so adaptive and justified like plan then observe if I am coaching the people not the session then adapting then reflecting. An example of me in a performative coaching manner is, I can recall at my coaching job within a Youth Zone in football is following a plan I thought looked technical and fun but didn't go well because I didn't respond to the environment and the context (age, attention span, just come from school so excited). An example of the good version that I can recall performing in a professional coaching manner is thinking before my plan what I want them to learn, during I think engagement, task difficulty and thinking what do I need now? In reflection I think, Would I run this the same again which helps me learn as a coach as something even for a minute went poorly.

This shift in how I now understand coaching links closely with the idea of “it depends” coaching discussed by Collins et al. (2022). Before engaging with this work, I saw phrases like “it depends” as vague and unhelpful, almost like avoiding giving a proper answer. However, Collins et al. argue that this way of thinking is actually central to coaching expertise, because coaching decisions are always shaped by context, people, and what is happening in the moment. This connects strongly with Nash’s (2022) critique of performative coaching, where coaches rely on structure and routines rather than judgement. Reflecting on my own practice, I can see that my early reliance on strict session plans was less about what my players needed and more about my own need for control and reassurance. As I develop, I am starting to recognise that adapting sessions, even when it feels messy or uncertain, is not a sign of poor preparation but a sign of learning to coach more professionally. Instead of asking “Did I follow my plan?”, I now find myself asking “Did what I do actually meet the needs of the players in front of me?”. This change captures my growing understanding that coaching expertise is about informed decision-making, not simply sticking to a plan. This has transformed the way I now think when planning sessions as of recent times I adapted the session in football inside a MUGA (multi-use games area) by looking at numbers, really acknowledging the brief before kids arrive on where some participants stand in terms of Easter Holidays so I plan high-impact/invasion games and treat them to new activities by creating fresh, quirky almost like a novelty so they can be excited to come and even enjoy coming down, socialising etc.

Reference List

Nash, C. (2022). Sport coaching professionalism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003139866

Collins, D., Taylor, J., Ashford, M., & Collins, L. (2022). It depends coaching – The most fundamental, simple and complex principle or a mere copout? Sports Coaching Review, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2022.2154189

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One of the biggest takeaways I’ve taken from reflecting on politics and power in coaching is that effectiveness is not just about what you know, but where you sit, who you are, and how you navigate relationships. In my current Youth Zone context, this is particularly clear which can feel frustrating at times. I work as a BANK sports youth worker, meaning I’m supply-based and often called in to cover sessions rather than holding a full‑time or permanent role. That positioning shapes the power I have, the power I don’t, and how I engage politically on a day‑to‑day basis.

Cassidy, Potrac, and Rynne (2023) suggest that coaching is inherently socio‑cultural, influenced by organisational structures, ideologies, and relationships. This research aligns with the thought of the Youth Zone which is a charity. I realise on a where I sit basis that I do not possess that much power with the many roles that coexist along mine like BANK staff (supplies) like me all over the board for different areas of the organisation like Art and Music, then the full time workers, engagement workers, session leaders. Beyond, all over this are the fundraisers and stakeholders and decision makers, making trust our requirement which is something we all share. Every role holds different forms of power which shapes what is possible in practice.

This links closely with Ball’s (1987) argument that organisations are filled with micro‑political activity and conflict, even when the work itself is values‑led. In reflection I know this research is correct as Ball is saying good intentions do not cancel out power, even though factually speaking the organisation is built on good values and supporting the youth micro-political issues emerge through role hierachies, decisions and access to facilities and equipment. A lived example of this is I feel my voice is negligible in debriefs because I feel that due to my trivial (low) position my takes aren't really going to be taken into consideration which I feel annoyed about because I would like to think i keep using participant's voices as ways of influencing how sport sessions are built as all of this work under education has led me to acting as a expert coach which is about making sessions the best I can. Another example of this that has to be in play and why politics and power is so important is where there are causes for concern where I know that someone above my pay grade and experience and lets just admit legitimate authority to take over the responsibility. This example also has ethical implications added to it.

Kelchtermans and Ballet (2002) suggest that micro‑politics emerges from individuals’ attempts to protect their professional identity, recognition, and relationships within organisational settings, with power operating largely through interpersonal relations rather than formal authority. This research I also agree with because these two researchers discuss the importance of understanding position and acting in your scope of your role. I feel this point I adhere to because I understand the ethical impacts of acting out of it and the risks that has so I do my best to act within my role as a BANK sports staff.

Despite this, I’ve learned that influence doesn’t only come from position. Groom et al. (2012) describe social power as the potential to influence others, which helps explain how I navigate my role. I rely most heavily on expert power (demonstrating coaching competence), informational power (sharing what I observe on sessions), and referent power (building trust with young people and staff), as outlined by French and Raven (1959; 1992). For example, I’ve fed back that young people are loving invasion games and obstacle‑course‑style activities, and that several girls have asked about football tournaments and starting teams across different sports. I don’t present these ideas as demands, but as observations grounded in participant voice.

This links with Purdy et al. (2013), who suggest that coaching success depends on gaining buy‑in from the people around you. In my role, this support doesn’t just come from managers but also from peers and session leads. A clear example of this is when colleagues agree with and take on ideas I suggest, such as touch American football, chain tag with bibs for engagement and fun and inclusive side, Boxercise activities and wheelchair Mario Kart races. When peers acknowledge and use these ideas in sessions, it shows how influence is built through relationships rather than authority. This reinforces that coaching politics is mainly relational, where the quality of interpersonal relationships really matters (Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2002b), especially given my position as a BANK worker.

The plot thickens in this context which creates political dynamics as I work alongside my older brother which makes me feel I should act more professional, this raises my knowledge and existence of cultural-ideological interests within my work place.

Examining the politics and power has enhanced my coaching strategy. I've solely stopped seeing micro-politics as something negative, but now as a productive and manageable part of the environment and its unavoidable part of the job. My job is not just about providing activities, but respecting protocols and roles, helping young people's ideas be seen and making them happy and using the power of my role responsibly.

Reference List:

Cassidy, T., Potrac, P., & Rynne, S. (2023). Understanding sports coaching: The pedagogical, social and cultural foundations of coaching practice (4th ed.). Routledge.

Ball, S. J. (1987). The micro‑politics of the school. Methuen.

Kelchtermans, G., & Ballet, K. (2002b). The social power of relationships in organisations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(1), 105–120.

Groom, R., Cushion, C., & Nelson, L. (2012). The delivery of coach education and social power. Sport, Education and Society, 17(2), 239–256.

French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp. 150–167). University of Michigan.

French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1992). The bases of social power. In D. McClelland (Ed.), Human motivation (pp. 247–261). Cambridge University Press.

Purdy, L., Jones, R., & Cassidy, T. (2013). Negotiation and capital in coaching practice. Sport, Education and Society, 18(3), 308–326.

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After several months of working in a youth zone it has brought home to me that skill acquisition is a lot more on teaching a skill through coaching qualifications because the youth zone setting is messy, mixed ability, varying motivations in little time. Through experience and lots of adapting through trials and errors I have shifted to implicit learning, contextual interference and constraints-led approaches in practice which I have found out the hard these are the ways that young people learn new skills.

In every session as of recently, I abstain from instructions as I mentioned already I have found out the hard way that instructing and telling children what do when they are highly aroused in the youth zone does not work. Instead I employ small games and challenges requiring participants to independently or working together create their own solutions which I tend to use consistently on session aligning this by the research from Jackson, 2013; Bandura 1997 who believe Coaches help athletes recognise their potential and develop self-belief, reawakening internal motivation and confidence. This also reflects the idea from Hodges & Williams, 2019 who highlight that skill emerges from the interaction between the performer, task and the environment rather than abiding with traditional techniques that by-the-book coaches believe in. A lived example, that I love to reflect on is an activity in the sports hall I created when playing a touch american football game where the space is tight, no instruction is given by myself and players learn that the limited space means that they need to adjust their body and passing angles which is fascinating to watch to see them learn in short time without any coaching needed, i highly recommend using these strategies its great not having to speak.

Another technique I utilise religiously to develop spacial awareness and enhance precise decision making in many invasion sports is contextual interference, I do this by stealing what a lecturer taught me in a practical which is a scanning task. While players focus on a skill like dribbling, passing or whatever sport specific skill I get myself or another participant to walk around and hold cones, or fingers up which the participant must call out or to make it even harder remember for the end. What is so fascinating is the performance outcome drops during the session but when transferred into game related activity it becomes observably apparent that participants scan and make effective decisions inadvertently becoming a second nature for them which proves the research from Shea and Morgan’s (1979) work on contextual interference, showing that variable and cognitively demanding practice leads to better retention even when practice looks less successful.

To show my understanding and knowledge better allow me to explain another technique I use in the MUGA (multi-use games area). I create diversibility in football games by playing games like Football Bingo or simply just switching the conditions (constraints) of the conditioned games. A game might change by me saying one touch, can only pass forwards, everyone touch the ball or even create moments of chaos by being the contextual interference by walking across the space. I purposefully do not explain the reason for it and enable the players to adapt accordingly. This reflects Coker and Fischman’s (2009) suggestion that problem‑solving should be central to learning rather than constant coach intervention. I tell my players that struggle is good because it gives the opportunity to learn, "there is no losing, only learning".

This idea is supported by research on error detection, which suggests performers naturally recognise mismatches between intention and outcome and adjust without external feedback (Rabbitt, 1966, 1967). In my football sessions primary for junior sessions if players repeatedly get dispossessed i avoid stepping in for a reason I will explain with research later but another reason being disrupting the flow of the game. As time passes and learning occurs participants adapt their decision making on their own which may not sound like it but its a job well done for me, a lived example is a lad called Bobby who likes to play striker in the MUGA.

In MUGA football sessions, I place strong emphasis on representative learning environments. An example I frequently use is positioning floaters or neutral players along the barrier lines who walk across the pitch during play, which funnily enough I learnt in a pracital seminar/training day at Sir Tom Finney Football club when I coached there for a few months. These moving obstacles/interferences add unpredictable pressure to simple dribbling and passing tasks. Players must adjust their movement and timing without being explicitly coached. This form of “productive chaos” reflects findings that variable practice improves learning in sport‑specific skills (Goode & Magill, 1986). More Research from (Hall et al., 1994) shows that contextual interference benefits associative and autonomous learners as well as novices.

Another constrain I like to give specifically to the more developed performers in all kinds of sports are prompts/cues like weak side only, have to perform a skill shot to earn the point which I like to use from requests not even by choice because a performer called Jacob loves coming to me before a game or a drill and asking for a challenge and I oblige and give them one, I mix it up sometimes making them play in different roles. What's important to understand here is that they constantly have room to learn and adapt as another university lecturer once said "if I had to coach Messi I would constantly adapt the session so they can improve on their weaknesses" and the player can stay engaged which I have mentioned before is what my mission is- to keep them engaged and sell them sports. These challenges I set also aligns with research from Lee et al. 1994, who highlighted the tool of effort processing in developing learning. The example this research aligns with is the scanning tasks I mentioned a few moments ago.

In conclusion, Players who have learned skills implicitly tend to cope better in these situations, supporting findings that skills learned without explicit rules are more robust under stress (Maxwell et al., 2001). The slick tool of manipulating space, rules, and player roles rather than giving enforcing set rules, players sort themselves out and employ effective solutions (Davids et al., 2008). Reflecting on my practice has allowed me to realise how important implicit learning is for my context in Youth Zone coaching and engagement in sessions in both the MUGA and the Sport Hall and soon hopefully the gym, implicit learning I have learned through time enables adaptability, effective decision making and my opinion a better time for everyone because what is better than getting better in one of your favourite sports and also learning something new in your sport and even yourself and to go one further increase confidence and problem solving skills. All of this allows participants to take responsibility, be authoritative in the session and take accountability in their mistakes which all in all a I think you and I can agree is expert level coaching.

Reference list:

Coker, C., & Fischman, G. (2009). Motor skill learning for effective coaching and performance. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 41–60). McGraw‑Hill.

Davids, K., Button, C., & Bennett, S. (2008). Dynamics of skill acquisition: A constraints‑led approach. Human Kinetics.

Goode, S., & Magill, R. A. (1986). Contextual interference effects in learning three badminton serves. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57(4), 308–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1986.10605391

Hall, K. G., Domingues, D. A., & Cavazos, R. (1994). Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 835–841. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1994.78.3.835

Hodges, N. J., & Williams, A. M. (Eds.). (2019). Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice. Routledge.

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Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W., Kerr, E., & Weedon, E. (2001). The implicit benefit of learning without errors. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A(4), 1049–1068. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980143000073

Rabbitt, P. M. A. (1966). Errors and error correction in choice‑response tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71, 264–272. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022853

Rabbitt, P. M. A. (1967). Time to detect errors as a function of factors affecting choice‑reaction time. Acta Psychologica, 27, 131–142.

Shea, J. B., & Morgan, R. L. (1979). Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5(2), 179–187.

Williams, A. M., & Hodges, N. J. (2005). Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: Challenging tradition. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(6), 637–650.

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Contemporary Issue in Sport Coaching- Athlete centred in theory, but performance in practice in Youth Coaching

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Contemporary Issue in Sport Coaching- Athlete centred in theory, but performance in practice in Youth Coaching

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A contemporary issue I experience in my coaching practice is the tension with athlete centred coaching and performance driven expectations. The tension did not stem from a lack of improvement, but from how improvement was defined within different coaching philosophies. Just so I can understand further in my coaching development and for the readers understanding I accept the fact that slower performance outcomes and better players may do less, but the context is being met by my coaching duty. You may think that I am excluding the better players out which is what I already though of, that is why I acted quickly in session and quoted "less is more" "make every interaction with the ball count" "I know you are an excellent footballer but I am giving more opportunity for the rest of the team to develop like you, you are the standard" all of this is being said to the early developers in the team. All of this is intentional to balance inclusion with challenge so I maintain the athlete-centred approach, they then have a target for the game or training session.

In the Youth Zone football environment, my coaching decisions are shaped more by the inclusive values of the context than by traditional performance expectations. During matches, this often means rotating more experienced players to ensure that less confident or developing players are given meaningful game time as I genuinely feel that it is just as important to make sure they enjoy themselves and build the confidence and make them see they are capable to do it. While this can reduce performance in the games, I view this approach as athlete‑centred within this context, as it prioritises enjoyment, confidence and continued participation, which are central to youth development (Kidman, 2005). I have noticed that players who might otherwise withdraw or disengage remain involved when they feel valued through inclusion rather than judged on ability. Similarly, during training sessions, I initially attempted to use structured drills; however, these often led to frustration and disengagement among some participants who struggled to cope with the demands of the tasks which I observed in their demeanour. In response, I adapted my approach towards game‑based activities and small‑sided matches, allowing players of varying abilities to engage more naturally through play. This decision of mine is backed by Coutinho et al (2023), as they agree that increasing frequency of ball retention with ball control and passing sequences helps. Although this sometimes limited immediate technical development, it aligned more closely with developmental models that emphasise enjoyment, exploration and long‑term engagement in sport (Côté et al., 2014; Griffin & Butler, 2005). This experience highlights the ongoing tension within contemporary youth coaching between idealised athlete‑centred principles and the realities of inclusive practice.

In conclusion, this scenario has supported me to better understand the complexity of applying athlete‑centred coaching within youth football environments. While inclusive, game‑based approaches may not always produce immediate or visible performance improvements, they can play a crucial role in developing confidence, enjoyment, and continued engagement for young players which I wear as a badge of honour because I want to sell the idea of sport participation to each player. Accepting this has required me to adapt and overcome traditional ideas of what progress should look like and to become more comfortable with uneven development across a group which I have learnt over my 2 year coaching career that learning is non-linear. Moving forward, this reflection has encouraged me to be more intentional in my coaching decisions, ensuring they align with the needs and values of the context rather than solely with performance outcomes.

Reference List:

Côté, J., Turnnidge, J., & Evans, M. B. (2014). The dynamic process of development through sport. Kinesiology Review, 3(1), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2013-0027

Griffin, L. L., & Butler, J. (2005). Teaching games for understanding: Theory, research, and practice. Human Kinetics.

Coutinho, D., Kelly, A. L., Santos, S., Figueiredo, P., Pizarro, D., & Travassos, B. (2023). Exploring the effects of tasks with different decision‑making levels on ball control, passing performance, and external load in youth football.

Kidman, L. (2005). Athlete-centred coaching: Developing inspired and inspiring people.

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3 grids showing kids happy, sad and coach

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This is the part I have been waiting for, the action plan for myself on my development as a coach. During this module I have critiqued myself on my understanding of multiple topics in coaching and this has helped me map out the good and the band of my coaching practice. This reflection considers my weaknesses as learning opportunities by my coaching context, experience level and my coaching identity being a young developing coach. This blog dives into the areas of my weaknesses in knowledge of nutrition, skill development for associative and authoritative learners, behaviour management in terms of higher arousal and misbehaviour and my unfortunate tendency to fall back into following structure to look good instead of doing good for the moments while attacking how my action plan will address these limitations in knowledge.

One of my key weaknesses I feel have the most problems with is my knowledge of nutrition and my tentativeness to give out advice. This hesitation is appropriate to an extent, as research highlights that coaches are not nutrition experts and should avoid providing prescriptive or potentially harmful advice without adequate training (Garthe & Maughan, 2018). However, as Mountjoy et al. (2018) emphasise, coaches still hold a duty of care and play a significant role in shaping athlete behaviours through modelling and environmental expectations. So My action plan therefore focuses on introducing nutrition in safe, appropriate ways, such as normalising hydration breaks, encouraging water bottle routines, not drinking fizzy drinks and eating one of the five a days using general but useful attempts to instill good nutrition and signposting to credible sources rather than attempting to act as an expert. This approach aligns with Nash’s (2022) concept of professional coaching boundaries, where knowing what not to do is as important as technical competence. My lack of nutrition confidence is also reflective of my short time in coaching and limited exposure to interdisciplinary support, which literature suggests is common among early‑career coaches (Cassidy et al., 2023).

The second weakness I wish to plan for is my skill development within my sessions as although it not being pivotal for my context it is not an excuse for how slow it is as any coach's intention should be improving the athletes they coach because that is what we are trained for, however I am conflicted because if I go off research by Côté et al. (2014) they argue that early sport environments prioritising fun and engagement are essential for long‑term participation, even if technical progression occurs more gradually. My reflection on this deepens my understanding that my context may constrain normal skill development and performance outcomes but I am a perfectionist and I like being a needle mover so to address this contemporary issue in my context I will modify tasks in sessions and cater to each and every unique person by using constraints‑led theory, which suggests that modifying task demands can allow individual learning without excluding others (Davids et al., 2008). This method which I have mentioned in another blog I have done before and will begin to expand on for the future as it balances play for everyone and hits everyone's needs in my coaching practice.

Another key area that trumps all weaknesses because it is something really difficult to overcome and I still have little idea of what to do is my knowledge of managing and sustaining engagement when participants may be all or either over-aroused, disruptive and distracted. One positive I have found about it is this is still an issue for skilled coaches in elite environments and even in my workplace as, Developmental psychology highlights that children in this age group have limited emotional regulation, shorter attention spans, and high sensitivity to stimulation (Eggen & Kauchak, 2004; Vialle et al., 2005). My plan to overcome this is by speaking less and more concise, increasing movement in learning and embedding little but fun routines where if kids are stressed that is eliminated stepping into my room by looking at a card outside my room asking for free hugs, free high fives etc. This helps for myself because if I show stress like I have done in the past that really influences the same so if I could be positive from the get go and to the very end then I could eliminate it.

On the other side of the coin is the issue of my other weakness of my unfortunate tendency to fall back on session structures that do not meet the context or moment when things do not go right and mostly when disengagement occurs because of disruptive and distracted behaviour. This contradicts my plan on following research from Nash (2022) about adaptive nature that is professional. Collins et al. (2022) describe this reliance as common among less experienced coaches, who often and rightly so as do I plan safe sessions instead of sessions that are correct and effective for the moment key word there is moment.

As a young coach with little experience coach in my current environment, my practice reflects novice tendencies such as rule‑based thinking, reliance on structure, and cautious decision‑making (Berliner, 1994). As i continue coaching I will continue reflection that is the key thing I have learnt from this module.

Reference List:

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

Berliner, D. C. (1994). Expertise: The wonder of exemplary performances. In J. N. Mangieri & C. C. Block (Eds.), Creating powerful thinking in teachers and students (pp. 141–186). Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Cassidy, T., Potrac, P., & Rynne, S. (2023). Understanding sports coaching (4th ed.). Routledge.

Collins, D., Taylor, J., Ashford, M., & Collins, L. (2022). It depends coaching. Sports Coaching Review. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2022.2154189

Côté, J., Turnnidge, J., & Evans, M. B. (2014). The dynamic process of development through sport. Kinesiology Review, 3(1), 14–26.

Davids, K., Button, C., & Bennett, S. (2008). Dynamics of skill acquisition. Human Kinetics.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Educational psychology (6th ed.). Pearson.

Garthe, I., & Maughan, R. J. (2018). Athletes and supplements. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(2), 126–138.

Griffin, L. L., & Butler, J. (2005). Teaching games for understanding. Human Kinetics.

Mountjoy, M., et al. (2018). IOC consensus statement on RED‑S. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(11), 687–697.

Nash, C. (2022). Sport coaching professionalism. Routledge.

Vialle, W., Lysaght, P., & Verenikina, I. (2005). Psychology for educators. Thomson.

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Response to Adil Khan's work on Nutrition

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Response to Adil Khan's work on Nutrition

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It was enlightening to read your blog on Nutrition and how it applies to you as a football coach. We both humbly admit that our knowledge in Nutrition is something we lack in our coaching practice. However, we both realise and understand that Nutrition plays a pivotal role in assisting performance, recovery and overall athlete health by Collins et al (2012). We both also agree that carbohydrates play a huge role in performance as in my blog I discussed carbohydrates in my context in mixed martial arts and how Coswig et al., (2016) discuss low carbohydrates intake is too low, leading to fatigue which I believe that is what you are leaning into when talking about witnessing dehydration amongst your sessions. I concur, as we have before that dehydration caused us to have epiphanies because we directly encountered how the absence of water and a healthy diet can affect performance. I feel that you are clued up on the food standpoint as you give the best sources for each macro-nutrient but did not specify the timing of consumption which would inform me well in my context as it would for you in yours, I mentioned in my blog something I feel you missed but trying to imply that Mountjoy et al. (2018) describe Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S), where chronic under-fuelling disrupts hormones, recovery, and immune function. Because I feel if you mention this to your athletes they are then well-informed and then so are you because when you physically see it then you can explain to the athlete why they should fuel correctly.

Recognising gaps in knowledge is a crucial step in coach development which i applaud you for showing me that Adil has really critically analysed his knowledge on Nutrition, this has prompted me to reflect on myself and think have I done the same? You have clearly gone about coaching in a more holistic way․ My action plan is likewise to incorporate nutrition and hydration education along with technical improvements, as I believe we have a great power and position to politic and inform them about education even to the parents. Furthermore‚ players arriving well-fed and well-hydrated help to promote a culture of professionalism‚ and develop good habits‚ which can lead to better and more consistent performances in the long run․

Adil highlights the importance of nutrition and hydration to performance in football coaching‚ an area customarily underappreciated in the sport․

Adil you may also benefit from further structure within his training․ In-session reminders were effective‚ but greater use of discussion prompts‚ visual aids‚ or parent communication regarding the promotion of practice in non-training settings may be helpful․ Burke and Peeling (2018) consider the long term consistency of the diet to be more important to performance than the use of supplements․

Overall‚ Adil's reflection shows meaningful learning and development‚ where he is aware of his short-comings‚ willing to adjust his training structure‚ and prioritises the well-being of his players which is commendable showing that he truly does care about coaching and the player's development․ Like my experience‚ this blog shows that coaching goes beyond the drills and the tactics․ By identifying nutrition and hydration as performance factors‚ coaches can create the conditions for learning and performance‚ and support athletes in achieving their potential on and off the field․

Reference List:

Burke, L. M., & Peeling, P. (2018). Methodologies for investigating performance changes with supplement use. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(2), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0309

Collins, J., Maughan, R. J., Gleeson, M., Bilsborough, J., Jeukendrup, A., Morton, J. P., Phillips, S. M., Armstrong, N., Burke, L. M., Close, G. L., Parr, E. B., & Meyer, T. (2012). UEFA expert group statement on nutrition in football. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 46(8), 565–570. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2011-090927

Coswig, V. S., Neves, A. H., Del Vecchio, F. B., & Martins, F. M. (2016). Effects of carbohydrate intake on performance in combat sports: A systematic review. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 13, Article 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-016-0156-0

Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Burke, L., Ackerman, K. E., Blauwet, C., Constantini, N., Lebrun, C., Lundy, B., Melin, A. K., Meyer, N. L., Sherman, R. T., Tenforde, A. S., & Torstveit, M. K. (2018). IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(11), 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099193

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Response to Charlotte Robinson's Blog on Politics and Power

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Response to Charlotte Robinson's Blog on Politics and Power

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Your reflection offers a grounded and honest portrayal of how politics operates within everyday coaching practice. What is particularly effective and admirable is how you move beyond seeing politics as something organisational, and instead show how it is embedded in routine decisions such as team selection, attendance expectations, and interactions with parents. Which is something I haven't considered but experience every coaching session as there are multiple participants at the Youth zone where I work that claim biasedness because I without thought allow participants to play even though they hadn't signed up for the session because I like giving opportunities to play but it is a rule at the youth zone that isn't necessarily strict but to the kids it is. This aligns strongly with Leftwich’s (2004) argument that politics is not limited to formal systems of government but is instead woven into all social settings where power and resources are contested and in our cases in coaching in our contexts.

The sentences you highlight how overlooking can become a political choice. Initially overlooking the player’s attendance, while understandable, created conditions where perceptions of fairness began to erode. As Carron et al. (2002) suggest, cohesion is highly sensitive to perceived equity, particularly when effort and commitment are not rewarded consistently. This reinforces my perspective that everything we do and decide on session is looked up to in close proximity from the participants as everything we do, and say communicates values and what should be done and acted for instance, I was once caught with my phone in my pocket in the muga at the youth zone, when the kids clocked on when they were playing football they questioned why I was allowed mine and they wasn't allowed there's, in this instance I like you I overlooked the situation because as a coach I realise that I need to be thinking ahead and constantly, this is what I discussed in my past blogs around consistency.

I really like how you implemented French & Raven (1959) rewarding power through selection and I liked how you understood that it was an afterthought and through experience you have learned and really implemented to your coaching practice which is excellent reflection on your part, similarly I have encountered situations where reward power was effective in my practice, there are many times I like to use it an easy one I fall back on to increase engagement is calling out and giving positive reinforcement to those who listen and are doing the right thing, I may go further and give them player of the match or points for doing so to increase consistency amongst the rest.

The most compelling aspect of your reflection is the micro‑political tension created by the relationship between the parent and the chairman. This directly reflects the findings of Thompson et al. (2013) and Purdy et al. (2013), who highlight how informal influence often challenges formal authority in sporting environments. Your recognition that awareness of this relationship delayed earlier intervention demonstrates reflexivity and emotional intelligence, both of which are essential in navigating complex coaching contexts.

In conclusion, your reflection has played a significant impact on shifting my perspective as in some cases when working in my context more specifically, and through analysing your context also, coaching decisions that we make may not please the children but they protect our values. This ultimately protects us and helps us build our coaching identity which you Charlotte have taught me and should build credibility amongst everyone even if kids do not agree with it.

Reference List:

Carron, A. V., Bray, S. R., & Eys, M. A. (2002). Team cohesion and team success in sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(2), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404102317200828

French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp. 150–167). University of Michigan.

Leftwich, A. (2004). What is politics?: The activity and its study. Polity Press.

Purdy, L., Potrac, P., & Jones, R. (2013). The micro‑political workings of coaching. Sport, Education and Society, 18(5), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2011.608945

Thompson, A., Potrac, P., & Jones, R. (2013). “I found out the hard way”: Micro‑political workings in professional football. Sport, Education and Society, 20(8), 976–994. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2013.862786

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My Response to Jess Fowell's Blog on Contemporary Issue in Coaching

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My Response to Jess Fowell's Blog on Contemporary Issue in Coaching

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I found your insights on Contemporary issue of pressure in elite sports illuminating as I believe you frame the tension of fitness vs focus extremely well as another peer I responded talked about overlooking things as coaches and more importantly what you talked about the undervalue of psychological pressure with anxiety and giving real life examples of Simone Biles and Naomi Osaka shows me that you ground the discussion in lived scenarios instead of theories demonstrating your deep knowledge in this topic.

A strength I admire in your work is the challenging of the assumption that mental toughness is ignoring mental health when in fact you highlighted that knowing that it is becoming too much you can step back and focus on yourself which an example to better my understanding is Francis Ngannouu in mma and Boxing. This reflects growing evidence that wellbeing is foundational to sustainable performance, not a barrier to it (Reardon et al., 2019).

Your topic title why strong athletes struggle mentally — highlights an untapped misconception within sport. As the International Olympic Committee (2019) heeds, elite athletes face unique stresses, including public scrutiny, identity foreclosure, and relentless performance pressure. These factors can surges vulnerability instead of resilience.

Your blog really resonated with me overall especially what you wrote about burnout as a past athlete, gym goer and recreational footballer I experienced it thinking it was just physical but in fact looking back after deep reflection it was in fact mentally draining and me needing mental recovery, just like many coaches but as an athlete I neglected and overlooked this. Furthermore, the part about stepping away from sport and public scrutiny I witnessed this on a personal level, after my brother lost his mma debut he experienced backlash from whom he thought were friends that clearly don't understand the complexity of defeat has on us mentally. In addition, in my coaching context I have observed closely how children poke fun out of novice players who struggle to perform in games at my youth zone, children see it as harmless banter which your blog has educated me it isn't its just psychological trauma for the recipients. Your blog has shifted my perspective in how I will coach for the future as Bauman (2016) discusses how coaches often operate on edge, constantly balancing performance, behaviour, and wellbeing. When i work on SEND sessions where safeguarding mental health is just as important as delivering structured sessions. This responsibility becomes even more prominent during SEND sessions, where sport is often used as a tool to build confidence and encourage social interaction rather than purely physical development.

Putting what I have learnt to action for the future on Sundays on SEND sessions at my youth zone I will use open dialogue giving them freedom and safety to express themselves which without thought I have done well in the past with a shy young man called Freddy who was essentially nonverbal, me talking to him about what he likes and coaching effective sessions that he enjoys has given him confidence to express himself and talk to others resorting on him earning member of the session multiple weeks in a row which is earned through behaviour but most importantly on a Sunday progress which is what I have assisted him with. Your reaffirmation of me about what good coaching looks like has made me a better coach and will definitely be used for the rest of my coaching practice in and outside of my job.

Reference List:

Bauman, N. J. (2016). The stigma of mental health in athletes: Are mental toughness and mental health seen as contradictory in elite sport? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(3), 135–136.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2015-095570

International Olympic Committee. (2019). Mental health in elite athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(11), 667–699.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-100715

Reardon, C. L., Bindra, A., Blauwet, C., Budgett, R., Campriani, N., Currie, A., Gouttebarge, V., McDuff, D., Mountjoy, M., Purcell, R., Putukian, M., Rice, S., & Hainline, B. (2019). Mental health in elite athletes: International Olympic Committee consensus statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(11), 667–699.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-100715