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Nucleus is the center of a cell where all the chromosomes are located. According to The National human genome institute, "A nucleus, as related to genomics, is the membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell that contains the chromosomes".

Source: Nucleus. (2023, November 22). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved November 24, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Nucleus#:~:text=Definition,and%20out%20of%20the%20nucleus.

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DNA is the molecule that carries all our genetic information. All living organisms have DNA since it is like an instruction manual for our bodies, which allows us to have different traits.

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, November 22). DNA. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/DNA

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mRNA (messenger RNA) is a molecule that carries information from the DNA which is inside the nucleus, to where the protein is being created, which is located outside of the nucleus in the cytoplasm (ribosomes).

Source: Rogers, K. (2023, November 22). Messenger RNA. Britannica. Retrieved November
24, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/messenger-RNA

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t RNA (transfer RNA), is a small molecule that has a significant role in the process of the creation of protein. In this process, it serves as a connector between the mRNA and the chain of amino acids being formed. t RNA also has the role of adding its matched sequence onto the mRNA molecule each time a new amino acid is added to the growing chain.

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The process in which DNA is transformed into mRNA (messenger RNA) through transcription. The transcription process begins when the mRNA splits the the Spiraled DNA and then the tRNA goes through it creating a brand new code with the bases A, C, G, and U. With this, an amino acid chain is created, it leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm as the chain crumbles up together and creates the protein. This allows the instruction to be carried to a different part of the cell.

Source: Transcription, Translation and Replication. (n.d.). ATDBio. Retrieved November
26, 2023, from https://atdbio.com/nucleic-acids-book/
Transcription-Translation-and-Replication

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Translation takes place in the cells cytoplasm where the mRNA is read by the ribosome which reads each codon 3 by 3, then the tRNA attaches itself creating the chain of amino acids which them creates the protein.

Source: Transcription, Translation and Replication. (n.d.). ATDBio. Retrieved November
26, 2023, from https://atdbio.com/nucleic-acids-book/
Transcription-Translation-and-Replication

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Web Page

Koshland, D., & Haurowitz, F. (2023, November 11). Protein. Britannica.
Retrieved November 26, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/
protein

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Bases are molecules that make up the nucleotides. Bases are arranged in pairs when we look at the DNA structure and each base has a set pair that cannot be changed for another. Each base is defined by its letter, in total we have: A, T, C, G. A always goes with T, T always goes with A, C always goes with G, G always goes with C. For the RNA, there is no T, so A would always go with U during the process in which the protein is made.

Source - Base pair. (2023, November 22). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved November 24, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Base-Pair

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Deletion is a type of mutation where one or more nucleotide is deleted from the DNA sequence, which is one of the more harmful types of mutations. The only way to minimize the impact of a deletion is to have an addition mutation in the same sequence, which will return the balance of quantity between the nucleotides.

Source: Deletion. (2023, November 22). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved November 26, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Deletion#:~:text=A%20deletion%2C%20as%20related%20to,entire%20piece%20of%20a%20ch
romosome.

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Substitution is a type of mutation where a nucleotide in the DNA sequence is substituted for another. For example if in the original sequence it was G, then after substitution it became A or any other base other than G. In substitution, the amino acid produced can either be the same or different, depending on what was changed in the DNA sequence.

Source: Substitution. (2023, November 22). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved November 26, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Substitution#:~:text=Substitution%2C%20as%20related%20to%20genomics,with%20a%20di
fferent%20amino%20acid.

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A silent mutation is when a mutation occurs in the DNA sequence but the nucleotide changed has no visible affect on the amino acid created, therefore the protein will be the same, as if there were no mutations.

Source: Mutation. (2023, November 22). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved November 26, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Mutation#:~:text=A%20mutation%20is%20a%20change,mutagens%20or%20a%20viral%20infec
tion.

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Insertion is a type of mutation where one or more nucleotide is added somewhere in the DNA sequence. The affect of an insertion mutation can be none at all, or cause a new amino acid to appear in the chain, which can disrupt the protein being created and in some cases its function as well.

Source: Insertion. (2023, November 22). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved November 26, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Insertion

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Mutation is when a genes structure changes slightly, which will then be passed on to the next generations, such as being born with red hair. Mutation is also the alteration, rearrangement, addition, or deletion of a single base unit in DNA. There are various types of mutations, for example insertion and deletion. An insertion mutation is when there is an addition of one or more nucleotides into the segment of the DNA. Deletion is the opposite of insertion, meaning that one or more nucleotides are deleted from the sequence.

Source: Mutation. (2023, November 22). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved November 26, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Mutation#:~:text=A%20mutation%20is%20a%20change,mutagens%20or%20a%20viral%20infec
tion.

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As the center of the cell, many process take place in the nucleus. Such as transcription, RNA processing, and DNA replication, leaving translation to happen outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm.

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All the base pairs are connected through hydrogen bonds, which are what form the ladder like shape that holds the double helix of the DNA structure together. The base pairs are also what contains the information in the DNA.

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all type of mutation (insertion, deletion, substitution) happen through the bases and having some type of change in their sequence in the DNA structure.

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Deletion is one of the type of mutation where a nucleotide base is deleted.

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Substitution is one type of mutation where a nucleotide base is substituted for another.

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Connection: Mutation and Silent Mutation

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Connection: Mutation and Silent Mutation

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Silent mutation is when a mutation occurs in the |DNA sequence but does not have any significant affect on the amino acids being produced.

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Insertion is a type of mutation where a nucleotide base is added to the DNA sequence.

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mRNA is what we can call the translated form of DNA (after it goes through translation) which is used to assemble a chain of amino acids that will become protein through the process of transcription.

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the DNA is transformed to RNA during transcription, which is then used to produce the protein outside in nucleus in the cytoplasm.

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Transcription is the process where DNA is transcribed in the mRNA

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Transcription is the process that comes first, which is responsible for transcribing DNA into mRNA (messenger RNA), which then takes information for the protein out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm where the mRNA is read by the ribosome which reads each codon during the translation process which will then create the chain of amino acids that will bunch up together and for the protein.

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tRNA is responsible for adding a matching base to the sequence of mRNA each time a new amino acid is formed

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A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that make up part of a chromosome. genes are made up of DNA, there are two pairs of each, one from each parent which is why we are physically a mixture of both.

Source: What is a gene? (2021, March 22). MedlinePlus. Retrieved November 30, 2023, from
https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/gene/

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Alleles are forms of the same gene but with small differences in the bases that create them which is what makes each allele code for a different kind of trait.

Source: What is a gene? (2021, March 22). MedlinePlus. Retrieved November 30, 2023, from
https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/gene/

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A recessive gene is one that can be covered if one of the two parents has a dominant gene, this means that in order to have a trait that is carried by a recessive trait, both parents would need to have that gene.

Source: Recessive Traits and Alleles. (2023, December 4). National Human Genome Research
Institute. Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/
genetics-glossary/Recessive-Traits-Alleles

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A dominant gene is when it is more powerful that a recessive one, which means that if one of the parents have it it is more likely to appear in offspring. for example brown eyes is a dominant gene while blue eyes is a recessive gene, which means that a baby would most likely result in having brown eyes and not blue.

Source: Dominant. (2023, December 4). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Dominant

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Specific information that a certain segment in the genome codes for in terms of traits.

Source: Adams, D. (Ed.). (2023, December 4). Genotype. National Human Genome Research
Institute. Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/
genetics-glossary/genotype

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Phenotype refers to an individuals physical traits and characteristics that are visible.

Source: Phenotype. (2023, December 4). National Human Genome Research Institute.
Retrieved December 11, 2023, from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/
Phenotype#:~:text=Phenotype%20refers%20to%20an%20individual's,(genotype)%20and%20
environmental%20factors.

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Inheritance refers to the genetic information that we get from each parent which gives us the traits we are born with.

Source: Trent, R. (2012). Inheritance (genetics). ScienceDirect. Retrieved December 11,
2023, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/
agricultural-and-biological-sciences/inheritance-genetics

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Codominance is when both alleles are expressed in Heterozygote which means that both alleles will be different.

Source: Multiple alleles, incomplete dominance, and codominance. (n.d.). Khan Academy.
Retrieved December 11, 2023, from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/
biology/classical-genetics/variations-on-mendelian-genetics/a/
multiple-alleles-incomplete-dominance-and-codominance

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UV rays, refers to a kind of radiation that is not visible to the human eye. It is produced by temperature reflecting high temperatures, such as the sun. However the UV radiation that we know come from the sun, is mostly absorbed by oxygen, so what actually goes past the earths atmosphere is mostly UVA, but it is still harmful to our eyes and skin.

Source: Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, November 9). ultraviolet
radiation. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/
ultraviolet-radiation

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Melanin is the amount of pigment in an individuals skin, eyes, and hair. The darker these features are the darker they will be. For example if we were to consider someones skin color, the darker it is the more melanin this person has. Someones amount of melanin can be caused by many different factors, such as heredity, geographical location, sun exposure, and other everyday habits such as diet.

Source: Melanin. (2022, March 29). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved December 11, 2023, from
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/22615-melanin

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Skin color, is the result of the total amount of melanin in the skin. Throughout the world, there are various different combinations of skin color, such as dark, tan, white, pale, olive, black, and many others in between.

Source: Jablonski, N. G. (2020). Skin color and race. American Journal of Physical
Anthropology, 175(2), 437-447. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24200

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Diversity is the many differences we all posses that make each human different from one another. Diversity can be directed at a certain difference, for example religion, gender, race, ethnicity, and many more, which would mostly be classified as genetic and biological diversity.

Source: Diversity. (n.d.). Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved December 11, 2023, from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pt/dicionario/ingles/diversity

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genes are made up of DNA.

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Alleles are copies of the same gene but each with a slight difference in the composition of the bases which is hat makes them different from each other.

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Codominance relates to a type of heredity where the two alleles are expressed differently, in other words they are expressed in Heterozygote.

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All three of these terms refer to how powerful a certain trait is depending on which parent has it, this means that if we were to put certain situations into punnet squares to calculate the different possibilities for offspring, some would always take over other traits. For example we know that dominant, is a more powerful gene than a recessive one, but that still does not exclude it from possibility.

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As Genotype refers to specific DNA sequence that is unique in each individual and codes for different traits, the phenotype is what translates those sequences into a physical trait in someones appearance

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Connection: Dominant Allele and Phenotype

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Connection: Dominant Allele and Phenotype

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A Dominant allele is the one most likely to be an offsprings final trait if one or both parents posses it, therefore it will be their Phenotype.

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genes someone inherits from both their parents can either be dominant, codominant, or recessive, each can help predict the phenotype of offspring, which means the traits that they inherit from each parent.

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every single aspect of us that includes features is inherited from our parents, which means that skin color is one of them. Even though our skins pigment can be modified by sunlight exposure, parents skin color does have a sever impact on the offsprings skin tone as well.

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Our skin color, is determined by the pigmentation present in it, which we already know is inherited from both parents. However the skin pigment is made up of different quantities of melanin. for example the darker the skin, the more melanin is present in it, and the lighter the skin, the less melanin present.

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Skin color is one of the many aspects that make each human being unique and one society has the most difficulty accepting that no matter someones skin color, as we are all equal. Skin color can often be linked to race and where someone originates from geographically, which is also an aspect of diversity.

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Even if the amount of melanin in someone skin is initially impacted by heredity, further along in an individuals life other aspects can cause the amount of melanin to change in their skin depending on habits and exposure to the sun, which reflects UV rays. UV rays can be extremely harmful to our skin cells, which is why the amount of melanin increses when in contact with large amounts of it to serve the perpose of protection. This is because the darker a skin is pigmented, the more protected it is from UV rays.