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At 4:30 am on April 12, 1861, Confederate artillery in Charleston, South Carolina, opened fire on Fort Sumter, which was held by the United States Army. The bombardment set off a savage four-year war between two great geographic sections of the United States. One section was the North-23 Northern and Western states that supported the federal government. The other section was the South-11 Southern states that had seceded (withdrawn) from the Union and formed an independent government called the Confederate States of America. The struggle between these two combatants is generally known as the American Civil War, though it is also referred to as the War Between the States or the War of the Rebellion.

The Civil War came as a climax to a long series of quarrels between the North and South over the interpretation of the United States Constitution. In general, the North favored a loose interpretation that would grant the federal government expanded powers. The South wanted to reserve all undefined powers to the individual states.

This difference of opinion sprang primarily from economic considerations. The North, as well as the West, wanted internal improvements sponsored by the federal government-roads, railroads, and canals. The South, however, had little desire for these projects. Another source of conflict was the opening of public lands in the West. The distribution of such lands in small lots speeded the development of this section; but it was opposed in the South because it aided the free farmer rather than the slaveholding plantation owner. A similar quarrel developed over the tariff, a tax on goods imported from other countries. A high tariff protected the Northern manufacturers. The South wanted a low tariff in order to trade its cotton to Great Britain and other countries for cheap foreign goods.

One issue, however, overshadowed all others-the right of the federal government to prohibit slavery in the Western territories. Such legislation would severely limit the number of slave states in the Union. At the same time the number of free states would keep multiplying. Many Southerners feared that a government increasingly dominated by free states might eventually endanger existing slaveholdings. Thus the South strongly opposed all efforts to block the expansion of slavery. If the federal government did succeed in exercising this power, many Southern political leaders threatened secession as a means of protecting states' rights.

After the war, slavery became more and more unpopular. By 1804 seven of the northernmost states had abolished slavery, and emancipation (the freeing of enslaved people) was common even in Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware.

Just as slavery seemed to be dying out, it was revived by an agricultural rebirth in the South. A new demand for cotton and the introduction of improved machinery such as the cotton gin transformed the Southern states into the greatest cotton-growing region in the world. Cotton production jumped from 178,000 bales in 1810 to 3,841,000 bales in 1860. This tremendous increase in production required an army of new workers, chiefly enslaved Black people. Within 50 years the number of slaves rose from about 1,190,000 to almost 4,000,000.

At the same time that slavery became highly profitable in the South, a wave of democratic reform swept the North and West. There were demands for political equality and social and economic advances. The goals were free public education, rights for women, better wages and working conditions for laborers, and humane treatment for criminals and the insane.

This crusading ardor soon led to an all-out attack on the slavery system in the South, coupled with a strong opposition to its spread into new territories. It charged that such an institution nullified the greatest human right-that of being a free person. Reformers now called for the complete abolition of slavery.

The first abolitionist to gain national attention was William Lloyd Garrison of Boston, in 1831. Within a few years, orators were giving antislavery speeches throughout the North, and abolitionist newspapers and societies sprang up. Some of the abolitionists even denounced the federal Constitution because it legalized and condoned slavery. Such a radical was Wendell Phillips, one of New England's ablest orators. In 1836 he gave up his law practice because his conscience would not allow him to take the oath to support the Constitution.

Despite their noisy campaign, the abolitionists remained a small minority. They were generally condemned by their neighbors and were often the victims of ruthless persecution. Some antislavery printing offices were mobbed and burned. One abolitionist editor, Elijah Lovejoy of Alton, Illinois, was murdered.

White abolitionists, especially, had no firsthand knowledge of slavery, and their criticisms were often wide of the mark. Southerners who might have doubted the wisdom of slavery now began to defend it with great earnestness. They said it was not a necessary evil but a righteous and benevolent institution. They compared it with the "wage-slave" system of the North and claimed that the slaves were better cared for than the free factory workers. Southern preachers proclaimed that slavery was sanctioned in the Bible. Differences over the slavery issue prompted some Southern churches to break away from the parent group and form sectional denominations.

In the House of Representatives, Southerners fought back in 1836 by requiring all antislavery petitions to be tabled without reading or discussion. John Quincy Adams, the former president and now a member of the House, finally won repeal of the rule in 1844.

More and more Northerners became convinced that slavery should not be allowed to spread to new territories. At the same time Southerners were becoming equally determined to create new slave states. For 40 years this issue created an ever-widening breach between the South and the rest of the country. The slave states had long been a separate section economically. Now they began to regard themselves as a separate social and political unit as well.

The first clear evidence of political sectionalism came in 1819 when Missouri asked to be admitted to the Union as a slave state. Some Northerners in Congress objected to the expansion of slavery, and Congress could not come to an agreement. At the time, there were 22 states, half of them free states and half of them slave states. In the Senate, where each state had two members, the senators from slave and free states were equal in number. A way to break the deadlock finally came in late 1819, when Maine applied to become a state. After months of wrangling, Congress passed the Missouri Compromise of 1820. It allowed Missouri to become a slave state and Maine to become a free state, thereby preserving the balance of slave and free states and the balance of power in the Senate. The Missouri Compromise also banned slavery from any future territories or states north of Missouri's southern border.

The most disputed part of the agreement was the Fugitive Slave Act. Under the new law, Black people who were caught running away from slavery could not testify on their own behalf or have a trial by jury. Severe penalties were set for federal marshals who refused to enforce the law and for anyone who helped an enslaved person escape. Nevertheless, many antislavery advocates openly flouted this law. In fact, its harshness led many abolitionists to work harder to help enslaved people, including through the Underground Railroad. This organized system aided runaway enslaved people by providing places where they might hide and receive food and be directed to the next "stop" on the way to Canada and freedom. Some Northern states passed "personal liberty laws," in an effort to prevent enforcement of this fugitive slave act.

Meanwhile, a new political party, the Republican Party, had been formed in 1854 to combat the extension of slavery. This party gained strength so rapidly that Southern leaders threatened to secede from the Union if the "Black Republicans" came to power. When the new party did win the elections of 1860 and Lincoln was chosen president, the Southern states carried out their threat. They were led by South Carolina, which withdrew from the Union on December 20, 1860. By February 1861, six other states of the lower South- Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas-had seceded. The states that seceded set up a new government, the Confederate States of America, or the Confederacy, and made Jefferson Davis president.

Many efforts were made to preserve the Union and to prevent bloodshed. The outgoing president, James Buchanan, was devoted to the Union but believed that the Constitution forbade his taking any action against the South. For several weeks Lincoln also followed a wait-and-see course.

Political factions in Congress, however, sought a solution. A Senate committee, headed by John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, prepared an amendment to the Constitution. It provided that the Missouri Compromise line would be extended to the Pacific Ocean and that Congress would be prohibited from interfering with slavery in territories below this line of 36°30′. It also provided that the federal government would pay for enslaved people who escaped to the North. The proposal died, however, when President-elect Lincoln refused his support because it left open the way for the expansion of slavery.

Another effort for peace was made by the Virginia legislature, which called a conference of the states at Washington, D.C., on February 4, 1861. Seven slave and 14 free states sent representatives. The conference recommended various concessions to the South. Congress ignored these suggestions, however, and instead passed an amendment to the Constitution offered by Senator Douglas. This provided that Congress should never interfere with slavery in the states. It was not ratified by the necessary number of states and was forgotten when the fighting began.

When Lincoln became president, he took care to avoid all threats of force, but he promised to protect "the property and places" in the South belonging to the federal government. One of those places was Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Disregarding Lincoln's vow, Charleston land batteries opened fire on the fort on April 12, 1861. The small federal garrison surrendered the next day. The Civil War had begun.

Until the bombardment of Fort Sumter, many people in the North and South had been determined to prevent war. Some Northerners had argued to "let the erring sisters go in peace." Many Southerners had opposed secession, and in some of the rebelling states the decision to leave the Union was made only after a close popular vote. The attack on Fort Sumter, however, ended all hope of peace. Lincoln at once called upon the loyal states to furnish 75,000 state militia, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis asked for 100,000 volunteers from the Southern states. Both sections were eager for battle. Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas now joined the Confederacy. The four border states- Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri-stayed with the North. In Virginia some of the western counties broke away from the Old Dominion and set up a separate government that later joined the Union as West Virginia.

In the division of the country's resources, the North fared far better than the South. Only 11 states left the Union, and 23 (24 with West Virginia) remained loyal. The population of the loyal states was about 23 million; that of the seceding states, less than 10 million, of whom more than a third were enslaved people.

The wealth of the North was estimated at more than twice that of the South (excluding slave property). The North had every type of industry, including about 90 percent of the total manufacturing of the entire country and most of its mineral resources. The South was chiefly agricultural, with a heavy dependence upon cotton production.

The North had more than twice as many miles of railroads as the South. It also possessed the means of maintaining effective railroad operation, whereas the South did not. This was militarily important because the Civil War was the first major war in which railroads furnished the chief means of transportation of troops and supplies. On the seas the North retained most of the United States Navy and most of the privately owned merchant vessels. The two main assets of the South were its armies fought on interior lines, thus lessening transportation and communication problems; and it had expert military leaders, notably in the East.

In the beginning both sides tried to raise troops only on a volunteer basis, but they soon found it necessary to adopt a military draft. The South resorted to conscription in 1862, and the North did the following year. Both sides also had great difficulty in equipping their troops. It was many months before Northern factories were producing enough goods for the Union armies. The South, with few industrial resources, had to import much of its equipment from Europe, running it through the naval blockade imposed by Union vessels.

By the end of 1861 two major battlefronts had developed. One was in the East where Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania suffered the bulk of the fighting. The other front was in the West, at first along the Mississippi River.

On the Eastern front each side tried to capture the opposing capital. The Union capital was Washington, D.C., and the Confederate capital was Richmond, Virginia. General McClellan, the first Union commander there, was a great drillmaster but a timid warrior. He was repeatedly outmaneuvered by the Confederate commander, General Robert E. Lee, who proved to be one of the greatest military leaders of all time.

In the spring of 1862 McClellan brought his Army of the Potomac by water as far as Fortress Monroe, Virginia. He planned to take Richmond by moving up the narrow peninsula between the York and James rivers. McDowell's troops, held at Fredericksburg, Virginia, in defense of Washington, D.C., were to be kept in reserve. McClellan's Peninsular Campaign got off to a slow start. The Army of the Potomac was delayed a month besieging weakly held Yorktown, Virginia, and was halted again at the Battle of Fair Oaks (Seven Pines) on May 31 and June 1. When McClellan was almost ready to attack Richmond, McDowell was ordered away to the Shenandoah Valley.

In the Shenandoah Valley, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson had routed Northern troops in a lightning advance on Harpers Ferry. From this point his "foot cavalry" seemed to threaten Washington itself. Jackson then slipped away and hurried his men by train to Richmond. Here Lee had sent General J.E.B. ("Jeb") Stuart on a cavalry raid that brilliantly encircled McClellan's forces. Lee then took the offensive. He drove McClellan back in the Seven Days' Battles, ending at Malvern Hill on July 1, 1862.

Lee now crossed the Potomac River to invade Maryland. He wanted to transfer the fighting to Northern soil and at the same time to influence the coming Congressional elections against Lincoln. To protect his rear, Lee sent Jackson to capture Harpers Ferry. Meanwhile, McClellan, who had succeeded Pope, accidentally obtained a copy of Lee's general orders. He advanced to meet Lee along Antietam Creek at Sharpsburg. While McClellan hesitated for a whole day, Jackson with three divisions made a forced march up from Harpers Ferry. When the Union troops finally did attack on September 17, in the Battle of Antietam, they met most of Lee's reunited forces. Late that afternoon Confederate General A.P. Hill's division arrived from Harpers Ferry just in time to prevent a possible decisive Union victory. Nevertheless, Union troops halted the Confederate advance on Maryland.

The Union victory at Antietam, slight though it was, gave President Lincoln the opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. This order decreed the freedom of all enslaved people in territory still in rebellion on January 1, 1863. The president took this momentous step to introduce a new moral aim in the war and to prevent foreign intervention.

Then Lincoln began a long search for a general to cope with the brilliant Lee. McClellan was relieved. He was replaced by General Ambrose Burnside, who led the Army of the Potomac to a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, on December 13, 1862.

It was not until more than a year later, however, that the Mississippi River was completely open. On July 4, 1863, as Lee was retreating from his defeat at Gettysburg, Vicksburg fell to General Grant after a desperate siege. Five days later Port Hudson, the last Confederate river fort, surrendered. With the Mississippi River now under Union control, the Confederacy was geographically divided into two parts.

To the East, Confederate General John H. Morgan led a raiding party into Kentucky in July 1862. The following summer he swept into Indiana and Ohio before his force was defeated and captured. Other raiders under General Nathan B. Forrest destroyed Federal stores and lines of communication in Tennessee. The Southern Army of Tennessee under General Braxton Bragg invaded Kentucky in September 1862 but was turned back by General D.C. Buell's Union army at Perryville on October 8.

General Bragg withdrew to central Tennessee, pursued by the Union army now commanded by General W.S. Rosecrans. At Murfreesboro, in the Battle of Stones River on December 31-January 2, Bragg was defeated again. He retreated to Chattanooga. Six months later General Bragg gave up Chattanooga without a struggle. He was then reinforced by Longstreet's corps from Virginia. At the Battle of Chickamauga Creek in Georgia on September 19-20, 1863, the combined Confederate forces lashed back at the Union troops. The battle might have been a major Federal disaster but for the firm stand taken by General George H. Thomas and his men.

In March 1864, Grant became commander in chief of all Federal armies and moved his headquarters to Virginia. Seeing that the long fighting had severely weakened Lee's forces, Grant began a relentless campaign of increased attrition. He forced bloody but inconclusive battles at the Wilderness, May 5-6; Spotsylvania, May 8-12; and Cold Harbor, June 1-3. He then circled Richmond and laid siege to the important railroad junction of Petersburg, Virginia.

In July 1864, Lee sent General Jubal Early raiding in Shenandoah Valley, hoping to repeat Jackson's successes of 1862. General Early, however, was routed by General Philip Sheridan 's cavalry, who then ravaged the valley, destroying Confederate food supplies.

In Georgia, Sherman's Army of the West captured Atlanta on September 2, 1864. The army then marched on to the sea, leaving behind a swath of waste and destruction 60 miles (100 kilometers) wide. Sherman reached Savannah on December 20. Meanwhile Confederate General Hood, attempting a counterattack in Tennessee, was decisively defeated at Franklin on November 30 and at Nashville on December 15-16.

From Savannah, Sherman turned northward to join forces with Grant. This pincer movement against Lee proved unnecessary, however. A Federal victory at Five Forks, Virginia, on April 1, 1865, forced Lee to abandon both Petersburg and Richmond and flee westward. Finally, with his army depleted and his supplies exhausted, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9. Sherman took the surrender of Joseph Johnston's army in North Carolina on April 26. On May 4 General Richard Taylor surrendered the Confederate forces in Mississippi and Alabama. Three weeks later General E. Kirby-Smith surrendered the trans-Mississippi forces in Texas. The American Civil War was over.

Early in the war, President Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of the entire Southern coastline and, by pressing all kinds of ships into use, severely curtailed Confederate shipping. Efforts to break the blockade were in vain. In the first battle between ironclad ships, the South's Merrimack ( Virginia) could get no better than a draw in its famous battle with the North's Monitor.

Several commerce destroyers were built in England for the Confederacy. They did much damage to Northern shipping, but they could not defeat the blockade. Gradually the Union tightened its grip on the seas by capturing the Southern ports through which blockade runners smuggled supplies. New Orleans fell first, in 1862. In 1864 Farragut's warships took Mobile harbor. The next year Fort Fisher, guarding Wilmington's harbor, was stormed by Commander David Dixon Porter's fleet, in cooperation with land forces under General Alfred H. Terry. A little more than a month later, Sherman's capture of Charleston sealed off the last major port.

At the beginning of the war the South counted heavily on foreign intervention. It believed that European countries must have Southern cotton for their industries and that if necessary they would fight the North to get it. In 1861 the Confederacy dispatched two agents to England and France, but Federal warships took them off a British ship as prisoners of war. This incident nearly involved the United States and Great Britain in war.

The Union protested to Great Britain about the commerce destroyers that the British government permitted to be built in local shipyards. The most famous of these vessels was the Alabama, commanded by Captain Raphael Semmes. Other difficulties arose from the enforcement of the Federal blockade. Fortunately neither Britain nor the United States wanted war. When British workingmen learned that the Union was fighting for the cause of free labor, their sympathies were all with the North. England found other sources of supply for cotton and profited from trade as a neutral.

One of the big problems on the home front was the large group of Northerners who opposed the war. These " Copperheads," as they were called, organized secret societies such as the Knights of the Golden Circle. They sought to embarrass the government by discouraging enlistments, opposing the draft, and even helping Confederate prisoners to escape. Copperheads became influential in the Democratic Party and in the elections of 1862 scored important victories in Illinois, Indiana, and Iowa.

President Lincoln served only six weeks of his second term. He was shot by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865, and died the following day.

The victory of the Federal forces established that no state could secede from the Union or even nullify a national law. The war paved the way for the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which forbade the use of slave labor in the United States. After the war the United States faced grave problems of readjustment and reconstruction. The economic, social, and political outgrowths of the war are discussed in the article covering the Reconstruction period. ( See also Black Americans.)

Although the Civil War preserved the Union, the physical, psychological, and economic costs were enormous. While there were some desertions on both sides, the personal valor and the very heavy casualties have not yet ceased to astound scholars and military historians. Based on the three-year standard of enlistment, about 1,556,000 soldiers served in the Federal armies. They suffered a total of 634,703 casualties, with 359,528 dead and 275,175 wounded. Probably about 800,000 men served in the Confederate forces. The South sustained approximately 483,000 casualties, with about 258,000 dead and perhaps 225,000 wounded. Many of the casualties on both sides died of disease.

It is often said that the American Civil War tragically pitted "brother against brother." This image works as a metaphor for the terrible divisiveness of the conflict, representing the country as a family. It was also literally true. In many American families-especially in the upper South, or border states-some family members openly sympathized with the South, while other members publicly sided with the North. In some cases, brothers or other family members actually fought on opposing sides in the war. President Lincoln himself had brothers-in-law who fought for the Confederacy.

The war was also very costly economically. Faced with a shortage of funds, both governments were obliged to print large amounts of paper money. As a result, both sides experienced runaway inflation. Inflation was much more drastic in the South, where, by the end of the war, flour sold at $1,000 a barrel. While separate Confederate figures are lacking, the war finally cost the United States more than $15 billion. The South, especially, where most of the war was fought and which lost its labor system, was physically and economically devastated. Some spiritual wounds caused by the war still have not been healed.

The American Civil War had a profound impact on the development of modern weapons and techniques. There were many innovations. It was the first war in history in which the telegraph and the railroad played significant roles. It was also the first war in which ironclad warships clashed. It was the first war in which machine guns were employed and the first in which rifled ordnance (equipment) and shell guns were used extensively. The American Civil War was also the first to have widespread newspaper coverage and the first to be recorded by photography. The medical care of troops was organized systematically for the first time. Land and water mines were used for the first time in a war. The American Civil War was the first to employ a submarine that could sink a warship. It was also the first war in which armies widely employed aerial reconnaissance (by means of observation balloons).

The first shots of the long-feared civil war were fired by the South on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. The fort was named for a Revolutionary War hero, Thomas Sumter. The federal government had begun building it on a small island in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, in 1829. The country was at peace, and construction lagged. The fort was still not finished when South Carolina seceded from the Union on December 20, 1860. South Carolina claimed that secession entitled it to all government property within its boundaries. President James Buchanan refused to give up forts in seceded states but promised not to send reinforcements.

When the dispute began, Fort Sumter was unoccupied. But Major Robert Anderson soon moved his small force into Sumter from Fort Moultrie, a weaker position on the north side of the harbor. Fort Sumter was besieged until the outbreak of the war. On April 11, 1861, General Pierre Beauregard, commanding the Confederate forces, demanded the surrender of the fort. Anderson refused. On April 12 the bombardment began. Faced with overwhelming odds, Anderson was forced to surrender on April 13. He sent the following dispatch to Washington:

Having defended Fort Sumter for 34 hours, until the quarters were entirely burned, the main gates destroyed, the powder-magazine surrounded by flames, and no provisions but port remaining, I accepted the terms of evacuation offered by General Beauregard, and marched out of the fort with colors flying and drums beating, saluting my flag with 50 guns.

People of the North who had calmly been saying, "Let the South go," were now aroused to fever heat. Many enlisted in response to Lincoln's call for 75,000 men. The North gained much in unity of action by the loss of Fort Sumter; the South gained only the fort. When the Confederate forces abandoned Charleston in 1865, Fort Sumter again passed to the North but as a battered ruin of no military value. It became a national monument in 1948.

Battles of Bull Run (Manassas)
Two battles of the Civil War were fought in northern Virginia near a small river called Bull Run and a town called Manassas Junction. First Bull Run was the first major battle of the war. Both the North and the South thought it might be the last.

First Battles of the Ironclads
On the afternoon of March 8, 1862, five vessels of the United States Navy lay at anchor in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Suddenly a strange-looking object moved through the water toward the U.S. vessel Cumberland from the Confederate stronghold in Norfolk, Virginia. It was a reconstructed U.S. ship, the Merrimack (renamed the Virginia). The vessel had been sunk when the Norfolk navy yard was abandoned at the beginning of the war. The Confederates had raised the vessel, cut off the sides, and covered what was left with iron plates. This was one of the earliest practical applications of armor to a warship.

The ironclad steered straight for the Cumberland. It was met by heavy fire, but, when it reached the Cumberland, its iron beak cut through the side of the wooden vessel "as a knife goes through cheese." The Merrimack next set fire to the Congress with red-hot shot from its guns. Then the vessel steamed away to prepare for its next victory.

By the next morning, however, the situation was entirely changed. When the Merrimack started toward the Minnesota, preparing to dispose of it as quickly as the two victims of the previous day, there suddenly appeared in the ironclad's path an odd object, about one-fourth the Merrimack's size and resembling a "cheese-box on a raft." This was the famous Monitor, a Union ironclad designed by John Ericsson, a Swedish engineer.

The fight between the two ships began at once and lasted for nearly four hours. The Monitor was more easily handled than the Merrimack, but its shots could not do much harm to the other's iron sides. On the other hand, the Monitor's single revolving turret offered a hopeless target for its opponent. Thousands of people stood on the shore and breathlessly watched the combat. The distance between the vessels varied from half a mile to a few yards. The Monitor's commander was wounded, and the Merrimack, badly damaged, steamed back to Norfolk.

This fight between the Merrimack and Monitor was one of the most important naval battles ever fought, for it made the warships of all the old navies useless. All countries had to discard their wooden vessels and to begin building ironclads. During the Civil War the Union was able to build more iron ships faster than the Confederacy could.

Battle of Shiloh
On a Sunday morning in southwestern Tennessee, on April 6, 1862, General Ulysses S. Grant sat enjoying a leisurely breakfast below Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River, while his army cooked breakfast in the camps grouped about Shiloh church not far away. Nobody expected trouble from the retreating Confederate forces under General Albert S. Johnston that were supposed to be camped at Corinth, Mississippi, 20 miles away. Grant had not kept cavalry watching the Confederates, nor had he posted outposts sufficiently far in front.

Suddenly the crack of rifles and roar of battle broke the calm. When Grant reached his troops, his situation looked disastrous. The Confederates in full force had burst from covering woods and were driving the desperately resisting bands of Union soldiers from their camps. All day the battle raged with terrific losses. Practically no control could be exercised by either commander over his raw troops. By night the Union troops had been driven almost to the river.

The situation changed overnight. General D.C. Buell arrived with 25,000 Union troops, and Johnston of the Confederates died of a wound he had suffered while leading a charge. His successor, General Beauregard, was driven from the field the next day and retired to Corinth. The Union armies of some 70,000 lost about 13,000 killed and wounded. The Confederate loss was 10,000 out of some 40,000.

Shiloh was the second great battle of the war and the most bitterly fought engagement of the whole struggle. Bitter criticism was heaped upon Grant for his heavy losses. But President Lincoln refused to remove him, and Grant soon justified the president's faith. The Confederates, on the other hand, lost almost as heavily and missed their chance to break up the Union advance in the west.

Battle of Antietam
For weeks the tide of the Civil War ran in favor of the Confederacy. The morale of the North had been lowered by General George B. McClellan's disastrous Peninsular Campaign in Virginia in 1862. As a result, President Lincoln was forced to postpone issuing his Emancipation Proclamation for fear of seeming to appeal to Blacks for aid in a losing cause. When he laid aside the proclamation, he vowed he would give it to the world after the first Union victory.

Instead of victory came more setbacks. General Lee crossed the Potomac River, carrying the war into the North and striking terror into the hearts of the people of Maryland and Pennsylvania. Finally, on September 17, 1862, his troops met the numerically superior forces of McClellan at the little creek of Antietam in Maryland. All day long the Battle of Antietam raged. The loss of men either killed or wounded on each side was about 11,000.

No decisive results were obtained from the fierce conflict of that day. On the next day, however, Lee felt that it was wiser to withdraw from the field. Thus the victory seemed to be left with McClellan. Lee had not obtained the aid from the people of Maryland that he had expected, and so he recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. McClellan made no attempt for a while to follow him, and so little military advantage was gained. Nevertheless, the people of the North were encouraged, and Lincoln had the opportunity to issue his Emancipation Proclamation. For these two reasons the Battle of Antietam was one of the important battles of the Civil War.

Battle of Fredericksburg
One of the costliest defeats suffered by the Union forces in the war was at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, on December 13, 1862. At that time Lee had retreated from the North as a result of his defeat at Antietam. With about 78,000 men he had established himself on the high bluffs of the Rappahannock River near Fredericksburg.

The Army of the Potomac, led by Union General Ambrose E. Burnside, held the north bank of the river at Falmouth. There were about 120,000 men under his command. With many difficulties he transported them across the river on pontoon bridges to attack the strongly entrenched Confederates.

After six assaults with great losses, Burnside was persuaded by his officers not to renew the attack. Two nights later, under the cover of a storm on December 15, the discouraged remainder of the Union army was brought back to Falmouth.

The Union army had lost about 12,500 men, while the Confederate loss was more than 5,000 men. As a result of his tragic defeat, Burnside was replaced a week later by General Joseph ("Fighting Joe") Hooker.

The gloom that this disaster brought to the people in the North was changed to rejoicing a few weeks later. Then news came of the Union victory in the Battle of Murfreesboro, or Stones River, Tennessee, fought from December 31 to January 2.

At Murfreesboro the Confederate forces under General Braxton Bragg were repulsed by the Union army under General William S. Rosecrans. This victory opened the way for the Union advance to Chattanooga and finally to "Atlanta and the sea."

Campaign for Vicksburg
A primary objective of the Union forces in the Civil War was to cut the Confederacy in two by winning control of the Mississippi River. To do this it was necessary to take the Confederate stronghold at Vicksburg, Mississippi. As long as Vicksburg was held by the South, Union vessels could not operate freely on the river. The city also served as an important transportation point for the Confederacy. Supplies, arms, and men from the southwestern states were assembled at Vicksburg and then transported eastward by rail.

On January 29, 1863, General Grant was put in command of the Army of the West, with orders to capture Vicksburg. It was a difficult assignment because the city, located east of the Mississippi, was on a high bluff overlooking a hairpin bend in the river. All earlier attacks against Vicksburg had failed. Grant now set his men to work with pick and shovel rather than with guns. They tried to dig a canal across the neck of land opposite the city and thus bypass Vicksburg by turning the river from its old bed. Despite their most strenuous efforts, Grant's troops failed to change the course of the river. Another way to reach the city had to be found. Grant saw that Vicksburg could be approached only from the south and east.

The west bank of the Mississippi became dry enough for the men to travel over, but how were they to recross to the east bank after getting below the city? This could be done in only one way: The Union fleet would have to face the Confederate batteries and go down the stream as the men marched along the west shore. One dark night the attempt was made. The Confederates learned of the plan and sent troops across the river in skiffs. They set fire to houses on the shore so that Confederate gunners might have light to see the Union ships. Nevertheless, all but one of the Union's vessels ran by the batteries in safety and transported Grant's men to the eastern bank.

This was all accomplished by the end of April 1863. Now began the task of pushing the Confederate troops back into the city. Seven times Grant met and defeated them before he reached Vicksburg. Failing to take the town by storm, he settled down to starve it into surrender. For seven weeks the town held out.

A Confederate woman who was shut up in the city gave this description of life during that time: "So constantly dropped the shells around the city that the inhabitants made preparations to live under the ground during the siege. We seized the opportunity one evening, when the gunners were probably at their supper, for we had a few moments of quiet, to take possession of our cave. Our dining, breakfasting, and supper hours were quite irregular. When the shells were falling fast, the servants came in for safety, and our meals waited; again they would fall slowly . . . and out would start the cooks to do their work."

Supplies ran low and were rationed. Horses and mules were killed for meat. Men died of disease and starvation. When General John Pemberton finally asked what terms would be given them, Grant replied: "Unconditional surrender." Pemberton was forced to accept these hard terms on July 4, 1863. Vicksburg had fallen; the Confederacy was divided.

Battle of Chancellorsville
Before the Union finally took over Vicksburg, the South won one of its greatest victories in the Civil War in May 1863 at Chancellorsville, Virginia. General Lee achieved perhaps his most brilliant success in this battle. At the start of the battle, Lee had about 60,000 men in a region east of Chancellorsville and south of Fredericksburg.

The newly appointed commander of the Army of the Potomac, General Hooker, had moved his forces during April to an area north of Chancellorsville and west of Fredericksburg. By April 30 the Union army of about 130,000 men was well entrenched. Hooker sent a detachment under General John Sedgwick to attack Fredericksburg. He then prepared to advance and engage Lee's army in a major battle.

Lee's cavalry leaders had told him of the movements of Hooker's troops, including some actions that were meant to be deceptive. Quickly Lee decided to attack.

On the morning of May 1 Lee sent a division under General Jubal Early to pin down Sedgwick's forces at Fredericksburg. With the remainder of his army Lee marched west to meet Hooker's advancing troops. By midafternoon the armies were in combat. Under heavy Confederate pressure the Union soldiers slowly withdrew to their strongly fortified defensive positions. Fighting came to a halt at nightfall.

During the night Lee decided to attempt an encircling movement. He ordered Stonewall Jackson to lead 30,000 men around the southern flank of the Union army. General Jackson began the long march after midnight. In the morning the Confederates were seen by the Federals guarding the southern flank of the Union army. The Federals attacked but did not seriously hamper Jackson's march.

Jackson moved west, then north. He entered the tangled forest called The Wilderness, and soon his forces were in the rear of the Union army. Jackson then turned eastward and attacked. His Confederates drove into the Union lines, which faltered and fell back. When the Federals reached their defenses near Chancellorsville, they held their ground.

During the night Jackson rode ahead of his lines to scout the situation around United States Ford. On returning he was mistaken for a Federal officer and was fired upon by a Confederate sentry. The wound proved to be mortal. He died eight days later.

On the morning of May 3 the Confederates seized Hazel Grove, a hill near Chancellorsville. They mounted 50 cannons on it. Fire from this artillery killed large numbers of Union men. Fierce fighting raged throughout the day, and losses were heavy on both sides. Hooker himself was a casualty of the day. A cannon shell wrecked the porch of the two-story brick house that was Hooker's headquarters. A falling pillar struck Hooker on the head. When the general regained consciousness he was dazed and in pain, yet refused to turn over full authority to the officer next in command. This decision has been blamed for much of the uncertainty and confusion that led to the defeat of the huge Union army.

At Fredericksburg, Sedgwick defeated Early and routed his troops. Sedgwick then marched westward to join the battle around Chancellorsville. He attacked Lee's rear guard, which was larger than he had expected. When darkness stopped the fighting on all fronts, Sedgwick had trenches dug and other defenses prepared.

In the afternoon of May 4 Lee attacked Sedgwick's well-entrenched corps. Its lines held firm for the most part, and Lee made little progress. Federal forces repelled attempts to take United States Ford and other key points. Sedgwick maintained his position throughout the day.

There were only unimportant skirmishes on May 5. That night Hooker decided on a total withdrawal. Early on May 6 the first Federal units began crossing the Rappahannock River at United States Ford. By the evening of May 6 most of the Union army was safely across the river. Lee, with his badly battered army, did not attempt to pursue the Federals. Meanwhile Sedgwick's detachment succeeded in crossing at Scott's Ford.

Union losses in killed, wounded, and missing amounted to some 17,000 men, or about 13 percent of the total force. The Confederates lost about 13,000 men, or more than 21 percent of the Army of Northern Virginia, and in Stonewall Jackson they lost an irreplaceable leader. The South's victory was its costliest as well as one of its greatest.

Battle of Gettysburg
The North won three of the most important battles of the Civil War in 1863. Two of these Union victories occurred in early July in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and, after a long siege, in Vicksburg, Mississippi. In the fall the third crucial engagement was staged in the area around Chattanooga, Tennessee.

The Battle of Gettysburg was a crushing defeat for the South. After the Confederate victory at Chancellorsville, Lee began his second invasion of the North on June 5, 1863. He hoped to further discourage the Union and to possibly get European countries to recognize the Confederacy. Lee's invasion army consisted of 75,000 troops organized into three corps, commanded by Generals James Longstreet, R.S. Ewell, and A.P. Hill. The advance elements moved down the Shenandoah Valley toward Harpers Ferry. Marching through Maryland into Pennsylvania, the Confederates reached Chambersburg and turned eastward. They occupied York and Carlisle and menaced Harrisburg. Meanwhile, the dashing Confederate cavalryman J.E.B. ("Jeb") Stuart set off on a questionable ride around the Federal army. He was unable to join Lee's main army until the second day of fighting at Gettysburg.

General Hooker moved his Union forces northward, keeping them between Lee's army and Washington, in order to protect the capital. When Hooker's request for additional men was denied, he resigned. General George G. Meade replaced him.

Confederate and Union forces came together unexpectedly at the important crossroads town of Gettysburg. The resulting battle was the greatest ever fought in the Western Hemisphere. The Battle of Gettysburg began on July 1, 1863. About 28,000 Confederate troops attacked the advance Union cavalry, which was led by General John Buford. The cavalry was soon joined by Federal infantrymen under General John F. Reynolds. When he died, he was replaced by Major General Abner Doubleday. Doubleday ably handled the Federal troops, which at about 18,000 men were outnumbered. After nine hours of intense fighting, with heavy casualties on both sides, the Confederate forces finally prevailed. They forced the Union troops back through Gettysburg to strategic Cemetery Ridge south of town. Meade assembled the rest of his army there that night.

On the second day of battle, there were a great number of desperate attacks and counterattacks. The Confederates gained control of such locations as the Peach Orchard, Wheat Field, and Devil's Den. However, they failed to seize the vital Little Round Top and Cemetery Hill and could capture only a part of Culp's Hill. There were again heavy losses on both sides.

On July 3, the third and final day of the battle, Lee launched what has been called the greatest infantry charge in American history. He sent nearly 15,000 soldiers, led by General George Edward Pickett, to assault the center of Meade's lines on Cemetery Ridge. The ridge was held by about 10,000 Federal infantrymen. Despite heroic efforts, only several hundred Southerners temporarily cracked the center of the Federal lines. The rest of the Confederates were shot down by Federal cannoneers and musketrymen, captured, or thrown back; Pickett's men suffered casualties of almost 60 percent. With their formations hopelessly tangled, lacking reinforcement, and under savage attack from three sides, the Southerners retreated. However, Meade felt unable to counterattack, and Lee continued his retreat into Virginia.

The losses at Gettysburg were among the war's heaviest. Of 88,000 Northern troops, the casualties numbered about 23,000, with more than 3,100 killed. Of 75,000 Southerners, there were between 20,000 and 28,000 casualties, with more than 4,500 killed.

Lee's defeat stemmed from overconfidence in his troops, Ewell's inability to fill the boots of General Stonewall Jackson, and faulty reconnaissance. Though Meade has been criticized for not destroying the enemy by a vigorous pursuit, he had stopped the Confederate invasion and won a critical three-day battle. Never again was Lee able to mount a full-scale invasion of the North with his entire army.

Battle of Chattanooga
The campaign that led to the Battle of Chattanooga began on September 19, 1863. General Rosecrans's Union army at Chickamauga, Georgia, was routed by General Bragg 's Confederates. Rosecrans fell back to Chattanooga. Bragg occupied Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain. Confederate troops then cut off the Union army from its supply base at Bridgeport, Alabama, downstream on the Tennessee River.

To aid the trapped Federals, the government sent reinforcements to Chattanooga-General Sherman with an army from Vicksburg and General Hooker with 15,000 men from Virginia. General Grant was put in supreme command. He immediately replaced Rosecrans with General George H. Thomas.

On October 27 and 28 Grant's command cleared the Tennessee River of Confederates west of Lookout Mountain. This action reopened the road to Bridgeport. East of the city Union troops seized Orchard Knob on November 23. The next day Grant sent Hooker to attack Lookout Mountain. The attack seemed foolhardy because the mountain sides were steep and choked with vegetation. In addition, a thick fog had gathered, giving the conflict the name "battle above the clouds."

Hooker attacked vigorously. He had about 9,000 men against a defending force of less than 2,000. By afternoon the lower slopes had been taken. Bragg then abandoned Lookout Mountain to meet a new threat on his right flank-Sherman was attacking General William J. Hardee at the north end of Missionary Ridge.

Sherman was stopped and Hooker prevented from joining in the attack on General John C. Breckinridge. By the afternoon of November 25 the Union offensive had stalled completely. To help Sherman's attack from the north, Grant ordered Thomas to capture a line of rifle pits at the western foot of the ridge. Thomas's men won their objective. Then, instead of halting as ordered, they continued the attack up to the top of the ridge. The surprised Union generals could only follow, and the equally surprised Confederates on the crest broke ranks and fled. Soon Bragg's entire army was in headlong flight to the south. This victory gave the North control of the railroads centered in Chattanooga. The South now had only one east-west route-through Atlanta. During the series of battles the Union army, which consisted of 56,359 men, suffered 5,824 casualties. The Confederates, with 46,165 men, lost 6,667 killed, wounded, or missing.

Armstrong, Jennifer. Photo by Brady: A Picture of the Civil War (Atheneum, 2005).Beller, S.P. The Civil War (Benchmark, 2003).Burgan, Michael. North over South: Final Victory in the Civil War (Compass Point, 2011).Collier, Christopher, and Collier, J.L. Civil War (Benchmark, 2000).DeFord, D.H. African Americans During the Civil War (Chelsea House, 2006).Hakim, Joy. War, Terrible War, rev. 3rd ed. (Oxford Univ. Press, 2005).McGowen, Tom. The Surrender at Appomattox (Children's Press, 2004).Murray, A.R., ed. Civil War: Battles and Leaders, 1st American ed. (DK, 2004).Nardo, Don. From Bull Run to Gettysburg: Early Battles of the Civil War (Compass Point, 2011).Nardo, Don. A Nation Divided: The Long Road to the Civil War (Compass Point, 2011).Ojeda, Auriana, ed. The Civil War: 1850-1895 (Thomson/Gale, 2003).Sheinkin, Steve, and Robinson, Tim. Two Miserable Presidents: Everything Your Schoolbooks Didn't Tell You About the Civil War (Square Fish/Roaring Brook Press, 2012).Stanchak, J.E. Civil War, rev. ed. (DK, 2011).

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At 4:30 am on April 12, 1861, Confederate artillery in Charleston, South Carolina, opened fire on Fort Sumter, which was held by the United States Army. The bombardment set...

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In the 1860s the Northern and Southern parts of the United States fought against each other in the American Civil War. The war started after 11 Southern states separated...

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Ulysses S. Grant | Article

Library of Congress

Ulysses S Grant was the biggest hero of the Civil War. Johnny Clem might well have been the smallest. Ten years old when he ran away from home and joined the second Michigan Regiment, the drummer boy won fame at the battle of Shiloh, where he put down his drum, picked up a gun, and shot a Confederate colonel. All across the Union, Clem was celebrated as a hero. But Johnny Clem wasn't the only young person to be affected by the Civil War. In fact, it would be hard to find a kid that wasn't.

When war broke out in 1861, kids across the North and the South said goodbye to their fathers, brothers, uncles, and cousins -- or joined the military themselves. As many as 20% of Civil War soldiers were younger than 18. That was the minimum recruiting age for Union soldiers, but many people willingly overlooked the law. The Confederacy set no minimum age. Many young soldiers enlisted as musicians -- drummers, fifers, or buglers. In theory, musicians didn't fight. But once a battle began, these kids often armed themselves - to save their own lives or the lives of their friends.

It's hard to imagine the horrors teenage soldiers experienced. They charged through hailstorms of bullets while the bodies of their friends fell all around them. They listened as wounded men pleaded for their mothers, for a drink of water, or for death to come. They assisted surgeons, standing by as they sawed off mangled arms and legs - often without an anesthetic. They endured the horrors of Andersonville, a Confederate prison in which thousands of Union men died of starvation and disease. They were killed in battle or suffered physical and mental wounds that they would carry for the rest of their lives.

If the greatest horrors of the war occurred on the battlefields, civilians experienced their own shares of hardship. Families whose men went to war made up for their absence. Kids helped run family farms and businesses. They planted and harvested crops, chopped wood, and butchered animals for food. They drove horses, cooked, and cared for siblings. They wrote letters to their absent relatives, and prayed for them to come home safe. Many never did.

In the South, where most of the war's major battles were fought, civilian children endured even more misery. They huddled underground as bullets pierced the walls of their homes and artillery burst all around them. They stood by as their homes were turned into command posts or field hospitals. They tended wounded soldiers and watched them die. When the battles ended their homes and farms were often in ruins. Their fields and even their yards were littered with rotting corpses. Their animals and their food crops were destroyed or taken by soldiers. They faced disease and even starvation.

Yet for some Southern children - African American slaves - this brutal war meant freedom. Even before the war, enslaved children had escaped to the North with their families and on their own. As soon as the war began, African Americans began to slip behind Union lines and seek refuge. After President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, this stream of refugees turned into a flood.

Often, home for emancipated slaves was no more than a wooden packing crate in a primitive encampment. Food was scarce, and disease rampant. As many as half of all blacks in such encampments died of diseases such as malaria and typhoid. But still, there was hope. Sympathetic Northerners set up schools to teach blacks of all ages to read and write. And like young Northern whites, young African Americans joined the army and fought for the Union cause. They, too, experienced the horrors of war, at places such as Fort Wagner, South Carolina, and Saltville and Petersburg, both in Virginia.

Still, through all of the madness of war, children remained children. In schoolyards and farmyards, boys dressed as soldiers marched and played war. Girls imitated the nurses of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, which provided medical care to the soldiers. Kids read magazines such as Our Young Folks that contained stories of soldiers like Johnny Clem and encouraged kids to sacrifice for the war effort. And sacrifice they did, sending food packages, bandages, and clothing to soldiers in the field.

When the war ended in 1865, children felt both joy and sadness. Many soldiers returned home safe, but some came home wounded. Others didn't make it home at all. Almost every child in America had lost a relative in the war. While Northern children celebrated victory, young Southerners shared the humiliation of defeat. Many young African Americans enjoyed freedom for the first time. But that freedom would be limited by racism.

No matter who they were or where they lived, young people across America were glad that the bloodiest war in American history had ended at last. But for most kids who survived, the war would never quite be over. It had forced them to endure hardships and to grow up fast enough to take on adult responsibilities. It had shown them just how horrible the world could be. And they would never forget it.

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Kids in the Civil War | American Experience | PBS

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When war broke out in 1861, kids across the North and the South said goodbye to their fathers, brothers, uncles, and cousins - or joined the military themselves.

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History for kids - Free history network for kids

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Interesting Facts About Civil War

Civil War: The American Civil War was an armed conflict fought between two sections of US society. North was a group of 20 Free states and 5 Border States that were loyal to the union and South was a breakaway group of 11 rebel states that formed an independent Confederation. The war was fought from 1861 till 1865, when North eventually triumphed and union restored to its original shape. Civil war brought radical changes in American society and shaped the future course of American nation. Stated below are some interesting facts about the civil war.

Civil war is the bloodiest war ever fought in the history of United States. With an estimated 210,000 combat related deaths and 620,000 total casualties, civil war exceeds even Second World War in terms of American fatalities.

An average of 600 men died every day during the war.

During the war United States lost 2% of its total population. Confederate states alone lost 30% of their population aged between 18 and 40.

Interestingly, more men were lost to diseases than combat. Military camps on both sides were rife with diseases like malaria, chicken pox, small pox, diarrhea and measles.

Although there was an age limit of 18 years to join Union army, almost 10,000 soldiers were below the minimum age limit. The youngest soldier in the war was a nine year old boy in Confederate army from Mississippi. Due to the presence of a large number of young boys in the ranks, civil war is often called 'The Boy's War'.

17th September, 1862 is still the bloodiest day in American military history. A total of 5000 soldiers died on this day in Battle of Antietam. Battle of Gettysburg is the bloodiest battle in American Military History.

Of all the American states, Virginia saw most action during the civil war. A total of 2100 skirmishes took place inside Virginian territory during the war.

Robert E Lee, the famous Confederate General and commander of Army of Virginia was offered command of Union forces at the start of the war. He declined the offer as he did not want to fight against the people of his home state of Virginia, by then a part of confederation.

Among the Civil War veterans were three future US presidents. They were Ulysses S Grant, Rutherford B Hayes and William McKinley.

During the war years (1861-65), the numbers of orphans in United States more than doubled.

Of all the able bodied military age men in North, about 1/3rd served during the war. However, almost 2/3rd of South's male population served in the military during the war.

Nearly 300,000 horses were killed during the conflict. 3000 horses perished in Gettysburg alone.

Only about 1% of soldiers in the civil war were regulars. Remaining were all volunteers.

South Carolina was the first state to announce secession on December 20, 1860.

Nearly 1/3rd of Union Army comprised of immigrants. The most numerous were Germans who were 10% of the total strength.

Union confiscated Robert E Lee's estate during the war and turned it into a cemetery. It is known today as Arlington National Cemetery.

Both Union and Confederate armies did not allow women to be recruited. However, 250 to 400 women fought the war 'disguised' as men.

By the time General Lee surrendered, Confederate currency had tremendously depreciated. It took 1200 Confederate dollars to buy 1 US dollar.

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Interesting Facts About Civil War - History for kids

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Civil War: The American Civil War was an armed conflict fought between two sections of US society. North was a group of 20 Free states and 5 Border States that were loyal to the union and South was a breakaway group of 11 rebel states that formed an independent Confederation.

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Causes and Effects of the American Civil War

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Causes and Effects of the American Civil War

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The Southern economy was based largely on plantation agriculture, and African American slaves did most of the work on the plantations. The Northern economy, on the other hand, relied more on manufacturing. By the 1850s abolitionism was growing in the North, causing the Southern states to fear that the federal government would attempt to end slavery.

The Southern states believed that the U.S. government did not have the right to decide whether slavery should be allowed in a state.

Abraham Lincoln, candidate of the explicitly antislavery Republican Party, won the 1860 presidential election.

Lincoln was intent on preserving the Union. When he became president, he took care to avoid threats of force, but he promised to protect "the property and places" in the South belonging to the federal government. One of those places was Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina.

Disregarding Lincoln's vow, Confederate forces opened fire on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. This marked the beginning of the American Civil War.

In September 1862 Lincoln called on the seceded states to return to the Union or have their slaves declared free. When no state returned, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. The edict provided moral inspiration for the North and discouraged European countries from supporting the South. It also had the practical effect of permitting recruitment of African Americans for the Union army.

Despite a string of early Confederate victories, the Union forces ultimately prevailed in the war. The triumph of the North, above and beyond its superior forces and industrial and financial resources, was partly due to the statesmanship of Lincoln. By 1864 he had become a masterful political and war leader.

The enormous casualties suffered on both sides during the American Civil War have never ceased to astound scholars and military historians. Roughly 2 percent of the 1860 population of the United States died in the war. The war remains the bloodiest conflict in American history.

The South was devastated by the war, but the Union was preserved, and the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

After the war the defeated states were gradually allowed back into the United States. The period after the war in which attempts were made to solve the political, social, and economic problems arising from the readmission to the Union of the former Confederate states is known as Reconstruction (1865-77).

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Lists covering some of the major causes and effects of the American Civil War, conflict between the United States and the 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union. The war, which arose out of disputes over the issues of slavery and states' rights, proved to be the deadliest conflict in American history.

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African Americans in the American Civil War Facts for Kids

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African Americans in the American Civil War Facts for Kids

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The history of African Americans in The American Civil War includes the over four million slaves and approximately 500,000 free African Americans who were living in the United States at the beginning of the war. Altogether they made up 14% of the population of the country. Many served as soldiers in the Union Army.

Background

Slavery began in the English colony of Jamestown in 1619. It started with the purchase of 20 Africans-not as reported by John Rolfe from a Dutch ship-but rather from an English warship named the White Lyon. The Colonists in the Virginia Colony bought the contracts of the Africans as indentured servants. Not long after this it became a custom to hold slaves for life in the colonies. During the 17th and 18th centuries, slaves were used to raise crops of tobacco and food crops. After the invention of the cotton gin in 1793, cotton became the most important crop. At this point slavery became a critical part of the South's economy. With westward expansion, the question of slavery in the new territories became a subject of great debate. It polarized the nation between the interests of the Northern industrial economy and the South's agricultural economy.

This led to the American Civil War. Millions of slaves were brought to America between the 17th and 19th centuries. Slavery was one of the main issues that led to the outbreak of the Civil War.

Union forces

The United States Navy, during the Civil War termed the Union Navy, had separate traditions regarding African Americans. The Militia Acts of 1792 excluded black men from serving in the United States Army. This policy remained in place until the second year of the Civil War. The Navy, however, never had such a policy. In the 1840s they limited the number of blacks serving to 5 percent of the enlisted force. But before and after, black and white men served together often performing the same duties. Up to the start of the Civil War, several hundred black men were serving in the Navy. After Fort Sumter was captured by Confederates, a large number of men enlisted in the Navy. The percentage of black men in the Navy rapidly increased. In 1861, they made up about 6 percent of the force. By the summer of 1862 they made up about 15% of the enlisted men.

Many of the African Americans who joined the Navy were from the East Coast of the United States. Many were experienced sailors. Others had worked on the docks and in other related jobs in the shipping industry. The largest number came from Maryland and the Chesapeake Bay area. Also, a large number were transferred from the Army to the Navy in 1864.

African Americans fought in every major campaign and naval battle of the Civil War. They served in the blockading squadrons on the South and Gulf Coasts and in the brown-water navy in the tributaries in the South. African American women served also, most as nurses aboard the USS Red Rover (1859), a hospital ship on the Mississippi River. African Americans served in the Navy with great distinction and eight were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor, the nation's highest honor.

Once let the black man get upon his person the brass letter, U.S., let him get an eagle on his button, and a musket on his shoulder and bullets in his pocket, there is no power on earth that can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship- Frederick Douglass.

Unfortunately, this was exactly what President Abraham Lincoln did not want at the time. He was afraid that if he armed African Americans, especially escaped or former slaves, the border states would secede. This would only make the situation worse for the Union than it already was. But after two years of war, Lincoln began to reconsider the idea. The war was not going well for the North and they badly needed soldiers.

The Militia Act of 1862 allowed the army to use African Americans as laborers and soldiers for the first time since 1792. It did not invite blacks to join the Army but it did cause some blacks to form private militia units. In New Orleans three all-black Louisiana Native Guard units were formed (they later became the 73rd, 74th and 75th U.S. Colored Infantry). In Kansas the First Kansas Colored Infantry was formed (later officially becoming the 79th U.S. Colored Infantry). They fought in a skirmish at Island Mound, Missouri in November 1862. The First South Carolina Infantry, African Descent, fought for the first time in November 1862 (later becoming the 33rd U.S. Colored Infantry). In January 1863, these unofficial units were allowed to become part of the Union Army.

Probably the most famous unit was the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment. In February 1863, Massachusetts governor John Albion Andrew, issued the first call for black soldiers in the North. Over 1,000 men joined, many from as far away as Canada and even the Caribbean. To lead them the governor chose Robert Gould Shaw, a young white officer. On July 18, 1863, they attacked Fort Wagner guarding the southern approach to Charleston Harbor. The 54th lost 600 men in the attack including Colonel Shaw-nearly half of the regiment. The fort was defended by 1,700 Confederates.

Pay and treatment

Black soldiers did not receive equal pay to the white soldiers. They also did not receive the same treatment. Their pay was $10 a month, less $3 for uniforms. White soldiers received $13 a month and had no deductions for uniforms. This was changed in June 1864 when Congress voted to grant black soldiers equal pay and made the change retroactive. While black soldiers were allowed to fight for their country, they were not treated as equals to white soldiers. Their units were racially segregated and were commanded by white officers. Some of their officers had very low opinions of black soldiers and did not train them well.

Captured black Union soldiers were a problem for the Confederacy. They could not treat them the same as captured white soldiers or they would be legitimizing them as being equal. It would also imply they accepted Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which they did not. Three days before the Emancipation Proclamation was to take effect, Jefferson Davis stated: "All negro slaves captured in arms be at once delivered over to the executive authorities of the respective States to which they belong." The Congress of the Confederate States decided to take it a step further. They later adopted a resolution that any negroes taken in arms would be put on trial for "inciting servile insurrection" and would be punished by the death penalty.

Lincoln declared that "the law of nations ... permit no distinction as to color in the treatment of prisoners of war." He stated that if the Confederacy executed any Union soldier, the Union would do the same to a Confederate soldier. If the Confederacy enslaved a Union soldier, a Confederate soldier would be put to hard labor. While Davis publicly denounced Lincoln's order, it did have the desired effect on black prisoners of war. No more were executed or sent into slavery. But, afterwards it depended on the commander of the Confederate units as to what to do about taking black prisoners. Many simply did not take prisoners of war but shot them as they were surrendering. This happened at the Battle of Poison Spring, the Battle of Fort Pillow and at the Siege of Petersburg.

Confederate forces

African Americans did serve with the Confederacy. Some went with their masters or were used as labor behind the front lines. They also worked as teamsters and cooks. But for most of the war black men were not allowed to serve as soldiers.

There are, however, nine known photographs of African American men dressed in Confederate uniforms. But the photos do not come with explanations. Of the men in the photos, four are known by name and were slaves who went with their masters to the front lines.

Near the end of the war the idea of using black soldiers was debated. In 1864, General Patrick Cleburne suggested enlisting black slaves into the army. The idea was considered, but it raised the question by at least one Southern politician: "What did we go to war for, if not to protect our property?" Another said: "If slaves will make good soldiers, our whole theory of slavery is wrong." General Robert E. Lee knew he needed soldiers. He stated: "We must decide whether slavery shall be extinguished by our enemies and the slaves be used against us, or use them ourselves." Lee suggested the slaves be freed in exchange for their service as soldiers. But that condition was not in the bill that was approved by the Confederate Congress on March 13, 1865. Only a few thousand blacks enlisted before the war ended. By that time over 200,000 African Americans had served with the Union army.

Quick facts about African Americans in the Civil War

Slavery began in the United States in the English colony of Jamestown in 1619. It became customary for people to own slaves in the South.

Slavery was one of the main issues that led to the outbreak of the Civil War. The two sides that fought were the Union (North) and the Confederates (South).

The United States Navy, which was named the Union Navy during the Civil War, never had traditions that prevented black men from serving.

After Fort Sumter was captured by the Confederates, more black men joined the Union Navy. By the summer of 1862, black men made up about 15% of the Navy.

Most of the African Americans who joined the Navy were from Maryland and the Chesapeake Bay area.

African-American men were not the only ones to serve in the Civil War. African-American women served as nurses on the hospital ship USS Red Rover.

At first, President Lincoln was not in favor of black men earning their citizenship, but after two years of war, Lincoln began to reconsider the idea of arming black men and allowing them to serve in the Union Army.

The Militia Act of 1862 allowed the Army to use African Americans as laborers and soldiers (not to officially join the Army). They were allowed to form private militia units.

Black soldiers did not receive the same pay or treatment as white soldiers. They made less money, were racially segregated, and were not trained as well as white soldiers.

The Confederacy did not want to capture black Union soldiers because it would mean that they had to treat them as if they were white. That would show that they accepted Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, and they did not.

The Confederate forces did use black men in the Civil War, but most times they were not used as soldiers.

Robert E. Lee suggested that if slaves serve as soldiers in the Confederacy, they should be paid by being given their freedom.

Images for kids

This recruitment poster was issued under a July 1863 presidential order with the promise of freedom, protection and pay.

African-American Federal troops participating in the Inauguration Day parade at Lincoln's second Inauguration, March 1865.

Marlboro Jones, an African-American servant to a white Confederate soldier. African Americans performed forced labor under Confederate military unit direction.

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African Americans in the American Civil War Facts for Kids

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Learn African Americans in the American Civil War facts for kids

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DK Learning: Make every lesson your best yet

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DK's uniquely visual approach engages students, enhancing their learning experience

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For almost six years from 1939 to 1945 Britain fought the toughest war it had ever experienced. World War II was total war - every person, every business, every service was involved.

Britain did not fight alone, the war also involved many countries. World War II involved 61 countries with 1.7 billion people (three quarters of the world's population).

Fifty million people lost their lives and hundreds of millions people were injured.

How did the Second World War start?

After World War One ended in 1918, Germany had to give up land and was banned from having armed forces.

In 1933 the German people voted for a leader named Adolf Hitler, who led a political party in Germany called the National Socialists or Nazis. Hitler promised to make his country great again and quickly began to arm Germany again and to seize land from other countries.

Shortly before 5am on Friday 1st September, 1939, German forces stormed the Polish frontier. Tanks and motorised troops raced into the country over ground, supported by Stuka dive bombers overhead. A total of 1.25 million Germans soldiers swept into Poland

When did World War Two begin?

World War Two in Europe began on 3rd September 1939, when the Prime Minister of Britain, Neville Chamberlain, declared war on Germany. It involved many of the world's countries.

Click on the play button below to hear Chamberlain's speech (now the full speech)

Why did the Second World War start?

The Second World War was started by Germany in an unprovoked attack on Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany after Hitler had refused to abort his invasion of Poland.

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For almost six years from 1939 to 1945 Britain fought the toughest war it had ever experienced. World War II was total war - every person, every business, every service was involved. Britain did not fight alone, the war also involved many countries.

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Anne's first years

Anne Frank was born in the German city of Frankfurt am Main in 1929. Anne's sister Margot was three years her senior. Unemployment was high and poverty was severe in Germany, and it was the period in which Adolf Hitler and his party were gaining more and more supporters. Hitler hated the Jews and blamed them for the problems in the country. He took advantage of the rampant antisemitic sentiments in Germany. The hatred of Jews and the poor economic situation made Anne's parents, Otto and Edith Frank, decide to move to Amsterdam. There, Otto founded a company that traded in pectin, a gelling agent for making jam.

Nazi Germany invades the Netherlands

Before long, Anne felt right at home in the Netherlands. She learned the language, made new friends and went to a Dutch school near her home. Her father worked hard to get his business off the ground, but it was not easy. Otto also tried to set up a company in England, but the plan fell through. Things looked up when he started selling herbs and spices in addition to the pectin.

On 1 September 1939, when Anne was 10 years old, Nazi Germany invaded Poland, and so the Second World War began. Not long after, on 10 May 1940, the Nazis also invaded the Netherlands. Five days later, the Dutch army surrendered. Slowly but surely, the Nazis introduced more and more laws and regulations that made the lives of Jews more difficult. For instance, Jews could no longer visit parks, cinemas, or non-Jewish shops. The rules meant that more and more places became off-limits to Anne. Her father lost his company, since Jews were no longer allowed to run their own businesses. All Jewish children, including Anne, had to go to separate Jewish schools.

Anne has to go into hiding in the Secret Annex

The Nazis took things further, one step at the time. Jews had to start wearing a Star of David on their clothes and there were rumours that all Jews would have to leave the Netherlands. When Margot received a call-up to report for a so-called 'labour camp' in Nazi Germany on 5 July 1942, her parents were suspicious. They did not believe the call-up was about work and decided to go into hiding the next day in order to escape persecution.

In the spring of 1942, Anne's father had started furnishing a hiding place in the annex of his business premises at Prinsengracht 263. He received help from his former colleagues. Before long, they were joined by four more people. The hiding place was cramped. Anne had to keep very quiet and was often afraid.

Anne keeps a diary

On her thirteenth birthday, just before they went into hiding, Anne was presented with a diary. During the two years in hiding, Anne wrote about events in the Secret Annex, but also about her feelings and thoughts. In addition, she wrote short stories, started on a novel and copied passages from the books she read in her Book of Beautiful Sentences. Writing helped her pass the time.

When the Minister of Education of the Dutch government in England made an appeal on Radio Orange to hold on to war diaries and documents, Anne was inspired to rewrite her individual diaries into one running story, titled Het Achterhuis ( The Secret Annex).

The hiding place is discovered

Anne started rewriting her diary, but before she was done, she and the other people in hiding were discovered and arrested by police officers on 4 August 1944. The police also arrested two of the helpers. To this day, we do not know the reason for the police raid.

Despite the raid, part of Anne's writing was preserved: two other helpers took the documents before the Secret Annex was emptied by order of the Nazis.

Anne is deported to Auschwitz

Via the offices of the Sicherheitsdienst (the German security police), a prison in Amsterdam, and the Westerbork transit camp, the people from the Secret Annex were put on transport to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp. The train journey took three days, during which Anne and over a thousand others were packed closely together in cattle wagons. There was little food and water and only a barrel for a toilet.

Upon arrival at Auschwitz, Nazi doctors checked to see who would and who would not be able to do heavy forced labour. Around 350 people from Anne's transport were immediately taken to the gas chambers and murdered. Anne, Margot and their mother were sent to the labour camp for women. Otto ended up in a camp for men.

Anne dies from exhaustion in Bergen-Belsen

In early November 1944, Anne was put on transport again. She was deported to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp with Margot. Their parents stayed behind in Auschwitz. The conditions in Bergen-Belsen were horrible too. There was a lack of food, it was cold, wet and there were contagious diseases. Anne and Margot contracted typhus. In February 1945 they both died owing to its effects, Margot first, Anne shortly afterwards.

Anne's father Otto was the only one of the people from the Secret Annex to survive the war. He was liberated from Auschwitz by the Russians and during his long journey back to the Netherlands he learned that his wife Edith had died. Once in the Netherlands, he heard that Anne and Margot were no longer alive either.

Anne's diary becomes world famous

Anne's writing made a deep impression on Otto. He read that Anne had wanted to become a writer or a journalist and that she had intended to publish her stories about life in the Secret Annex. Friends convinced Otto to publish the diary and in June 1947, 3,000 copies of Het Achterhuis ( The Secret Annex) were printed.

And that was not all: the book was later translated into around 70 languages and adapted for stage and screen. People all over the world were introduced to Anne's story and in 1960 the hiding place became a museum: the Anne Frank House. Until his death in 1980, Otto remained closely involved with the Anne Frank House and the museum: he hoped that readers of the diary would become aware of the dangers of discrimination, racism, and hatred of Jews.

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The life of Anne Frank in brief. Watch the video and read more about her diary and her life in hiding in the Secret Annex.

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Anne Frank

Anne Frank is famous for her diary which details her life while she was hiding from the Germans during World War II. It gives insight into not only conditions in Germany but also what people went through in an attempt to avoid capture.

Early Years

Anne Frank was born on June 12, 1929, in Frankfurt, Germany. Her father was a German officer during World War I. She lived in a community made up of both Jewish and non-Jewish citizens. The family were not very devout although they observed many Jewish customs.When the Nazis came to power in 1933, anti-Semitism feeling grew and the family began to worry about their fate if they stayed in Germany. Anne's mother, Edith, and the all the children moved to Aachen while their father, Otto, remained in Frankfurt. When Otto was offered a new job in Amsterdam, he quickly moved and began to make arrangements for the family to join him. The rest of the family arrived in Amsterdam by February 1934.

Otto opened a new business with Hermann van Pels in 1938. Pels had also fled Germany when the Nazis came to power.

In May 1940, Germany invaded and conquered the Netherlands. The new Nazi government put a number of restrictions on Jews. Jews now had to wear a yellow star and Jewish children could only attend Jewish schools. Jews were not allowed to own businesses, so Otto transferred his business to a friend and resigned his position. Jews also had curfews and could not use public transportation or the telephone.

When Anne turned thirteen years old, she was given a diary for her birthday. She began to write about her life in Amsterdam. Her early entries in the diary were about her life (school, family, friends, and boys) but she also wrote about some of the new requirements she had to deal with because of being a Jew. Anne started each entry with the words "Dear Kitty", an imaginary friend.

Into Hiding

In July 1942, the Nazis began moving Jews to the work and extermination camps that were located in Eastern Europe. On July 5, 1942, Anne's sister, Margot, was ordered to show up at the Central Office of Jewish Emigration in order to be sent to a labour camp. As a result, the family had to put their plan into action quicker than anticipated. The next day, the family started hiding in a back part of the building which housed Otto's business. This area is commonly referred to as a secret annex.

The annex was three stories high. The first floor contained two small rooms, a bathroom, and a toilet. The second floor consisted of a large open room and one smaller room. The smaller room had a ladder that could be used to get to the attic. The door to the annex was covered by a bookshelf that would swing out just like a door.

Anne did not know of the plan to go into hiding in advance and was only told about it when they were ready to go into hiding. The Franks along with Otto's business partner Hermann van Pels, Pels's wife, Auguste, and their son Peter hid in the annex. An eighth person, a dentist by the name of Fritz Pfeffer, began hiding in the annex on November 16.
When the decision was made to move into their hiding place, the family needed to cover their tracks so people would not suspect they were still in the city. They left their apartment in a mess so that people would think they left suddenly. They also had to leave behind Anne's cat.

Since they could not use public transportation (Jews were not allowed), they had to walk several kilometers from their apartment to their hiding place. They couldn't carry any luggage so they had to wear several layers of clothing in order to have enough clothes during their time in hiding.

Only four people knew that there were people hiding in the back of the office building- Victor Kugler, Johannes Kleiman, Miep Gies, and Bep Voskuijl. These four people worked for Otto's company and helped bring food and other necessities as well as information about the outside world to the families. The four knew that if they were caught they would be executed for helping Jews, but they did it anyway.

The families spent twenty-five months hiding in this secret annex, without once stepping outside.

Life in Hiding

It was difficult to spend so much time confined with so many people. They families had to deal not only with the fear of being caught but also with each other's differing personalities. Although Anne liked having other people around to talk to, everyone soon had to deal with conflicts among the group. Anne shared her room with Pfeffer, the dentist, and couldn't stand him. Anne fought with Auguste van Pels, who she considered to be foolish, as well as with her own mother. She also argued with her sister, Margot, at times but they also developed a close bond while hiding.

Anne was closest to her father and even became the girlfriend of Peter van Pels, although, she initially thought he was shy and awkward.

To help occupy herself, both Margot and Anne studied and wrote diaries about their time hiding, although, Margot's diary has never been found. Anne wrote about her feelings, beliefs, and ambitions. Later on, she began to write about her ideas around God and human nature.

As time went on, it became more and more difficult to bring food in to the hiding group. At times, no food could be delivered so they had to go without for the day. This began to occur more and more as time went on. One time, Bep Voskuijl was almost arrested when she attempted to bring food to the group. A policeman stopped her and then followed her which meant she could not go to the annex to deliver the food.

Arrested

Acting on a tip from an informant, the German Security Police searched the building on August 4, 1944 and found the hidden annex. The informant has never been identified.

Everyone hiding in the annex was taken away for interrogation. Victor Kugler and Johannes Kleiman were also arrested and put into prison. Miep Gies and Bep Voskuijl were allowed to leave. They both returned later and searched the annex. They gathered together Anne's papers as well as various photographs of the family. They hoped they would be able to return them to the family after the war.

The eight prisoners were sent to a prison called the House of Detention (Huis van Bewaring). They spent two days here before being transferred to Westerbork in the Netherlands. Westerbork was a transit camp where prisoners would be gathered before being sent off to other concentration camps. The two families were sent to the Punishment Barracks and given hard labour because they were considered criminals. Anyone who was found hiding was considered to be a criminal by the Nazis.

On September 3, 1944, the eight prisoners were sent to Auschwitz-a concentration camp in Poland. Once they arrived at the camp, they were separated based on gender. This was the last time that the men and women were to ever see each other.

Every one under the age of fifteen were immediately sent to the gas chambers. Anne had just turned fifteen three months before being captured so she was spared. No one from the group was selected for execution but Anne believed that her father had been killed.

The women, including Anne, were then forced to strip naked and be disinfected. Everyone's head was shaved and they were all tattooed on the arm with an identification number. The women were used as forced labour during the day and had to sleep in crowded, freezing barracks at night. The camp was filled with disease and Anne soon came down with a skin infection (scabies).

Bergen-Belsen

On October 28, Anne, her sister Margo, and Auguste van Pels were selected for transport to Bergen-Belsen, another concentration camp. The girls' mother was left behind.

The prisoners had to sleep in tents at Bergen-Belsen and disease killed a number of the prisoners. Anne met two old friends in the camp, Hanneli Goslar and Nanette Blitz. Blitz stated that Anne was bald, emaciated, and shivering when she saw her at the camp.

Anne and Margo were still in Bergen-Belsen in March 1945. At this time, a typhus epidemic spread through the camp, killing approximately 17,000 prisoners. Both Margo and Anne died as a result of this disease. Margo died first and then a few days later, Anne died as well-she was sixteen years old.

Otto Frank was the only one of the eight to survive the camps. He returned to Amsterdam after the war and found out that his wife had died at Auschwitz and that his daughters had been sent to Bergen-Belsen. He hoped they had survived but on July 1945, he was informed that they had died.

The Diary

Anne's diary was saved by Miep Gies and she gave it to Otto after the war. Remembering Anne's desire to be an author, he decided to try and have it published. At first he had trouble attracting interest but after an article by Jan Romein entitled "Kinderstem" ("A Child's Voice") in which he discusses the diary, publishers became interested and the diary was published in 1947.

The diary is still popular today and has been translated into a number of different languages. It is often studied at school and is one of the most widely read books today.

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Anne Frank is famous for her diary which details her life while she was hiding from the Germans during World War II. It gives insight into not only conditions in Germany but also what people went through in an attempt to avoid capture.

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History for kids - Free history network for kids

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Hiroshima and Nagasaki - History for kids

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Atomic Bomb Background Before the war, many scientists had been investigating the possibility of generating energy and even weapons from the atom, the building block of the universe and everything that surrounds us. The famous scientist Albert Einstein represented these leading thinkers by writing to the American president Franklin Roosevelt in August 1939. He told

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While Germany had surrendered, the continued. One of the most significant events of World War Two happened in 1945. This was the dropping of on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by American forces.

The decision to drop the atom bomb was taken by President Harry S. Truman, who had replaced Franklin Roosevelt following his death in April 1945. On 6 August 1945, Truman ordered an atom bomb to be dropped on the city of Hiroshima. It was dropped by a bomber plane named the Enola Gay. It is thought that at least 140,000 people were killed, of a total population of around 350,000.

When the atom bomb was dropped:

The temperature at the centre of the explosion reached 3000ºC - 4000ºC - three times hotter than volcanic lava.

Everything within a mile of the centre of the blast was flattened.

Fires spread and around 67 per cent of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed.

Three days after the atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, a second one was dropped on the city of Nagasaki by a bomber plane called Bockscar. A further 74,000 people, at least, were killed. The Japanese Emperor, Hirohito, announced that Japan would surrender on 15 August. They formally signed a surrender agreement on 2 September.

This brought World War Two to an end.

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Find out about World War Two with BBC Bitesize History. For students between the ages of 11 and 14.

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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Visit DK Find Out! to learn about dinosaurs, space, animals, nature & more. Fun learning activities for kids with videos, quizzes & galleries at DKFindOut.com

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The Physical Devastation of the Bomb-WW2 

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The Physical Devastation of the Bomb-WW2 

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The unspeakable second's explosive sequence

0.0 second: Temperature at burst point reaches several million degrees F within one-millionth of a second following detonation. All bomb material becomes ionized gas & gamma rays.

0.1 second: Bomb explodes and fireball forms. In addition to heat and blast force, radiation was 3% of total energy, of which gamma rays & neutrons damaged living organisms, soil and ground structures.

0.15 second: Shock wave expands rapidly, heating air to luminous condition. Fireball visible for following 10 seconds.

0.2 second: Thermal energy, especially infrared wave-lengths, causes most of thermal burns to humans.

1.0 second: Fireball reaches maximum diameter of 200-300 meters.

Blast (50% of energy) is now complete. Overpressure at hypocenter (or "ground zero," directly below the burst point) in Hiroshima reaches an estimated 4.5-6.7 tons per square meter, and moves through the air and across the ground at the approximate speed of sound. Maximum pressure at Nagasaki's hypocenter may have been as high as 10 tons per square meter.

Recent research has found that in the initial "non-instant" (0.0 sec.) a powerful neutron burst struck a mile-wide area directly below burst point before the bomb casing exploded. This pre-explosion burst was caused by the initial impact of the uranium bullet with the core of uranium 235. This finding resolved a long-perplexing question of a young man near ground zero who died (Sept. 3) with symptoms of severe internal bleeding but no surface burns.

Suddenly there was a brilliant flash, like a photographer's magnesium flash. Then came a blast with a deafening bang, and I felt as though I had been kicked in the guts....The world was all black.- F.J.Johnson. Australian prisoner of war, Nagasaki.

Physical Devastation

The Hiroshima bomb was exploded over the city center, which was crowded with large public buildings and countless wood-frame residences and shops. Beneath the huge column of smoke that arose from the explosion, tens of thousands were already dead or dying. As fires raced out of control, destruction of wooden structures and reinforced concrete buildings alike was virtually complete within 2 km (1.2 mi.) of ground zero.

In Nagasaki, the more powerful bomb destroyed an estimated 12,000 buildings by blast and burning. Virtually nothing was left standing of the valley's homes, schools and factories. Worshippers in shrines, temples, and churches perished as they prayed.

In both cities, fires generated by the explosions' intense heat, and fed by broken gas and electrical lines, raged out of control. Fire stations and equipment had been destroyed, fire fighters were dead or injured, and water pipes were ruptured.

Many corpses were found at places where there was some water-rivers, old wells, fire-safety cisterns, ponds, and the like. People who did not die instantly had, it appears, exerted themselves to the limit just to find some water.- Marina Transport Rescue Team member, Hiroshima.

Hiroshima's gigantic firestorm leveled 13 square kilometers (5 sq. mi.), destroying some 92% of the city's structures. Nagasaki's firestorm, hemmed in by the valley, consumed some 22.7% of the entire city's structures. The bodies of many people who were close to ground zero in the two cities were shattered by blast or burned beyond recognition in the firestorms.

Houses and trees were leveled as far as the eye could see, and fires began breaking out in the ruins. At the roadside I saw the corpse of a man who had been leading a horse cart, still on his feet, with his hair standing on end like wire.... The river was filled with the dead and half-dead; burned children were screaming, 'Mommy! Mommy!' and mothers searched for their children, calling their names in faltering voices.- Ms. Hide Kurokawa, Nagasaki

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0.0 second: Temperature at burst point reaches several million degrees F within one-millionth of a second following detonation. All bomb material becomes ionized gas & gamma rays. 0.1 second: Bomb explodes and fireball forms. In addition to heat and blast force, radiation was 3% of total energy, of which gamma rays & neutrons damaged living organisms, soil and ground structures.

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Major population groupings

1. Persons present in Hiroshima or Nagasaki at bombing time. Of the regular resident population, many children and older persons had been previously evacuated, while certain outsiders were working in the cities on their specific bombing days. Overall, the estimated "physically present" population of Hiroshima on August 6 was 340,000-350,000. Nagasaki's estimated "physically present" population on August 9 was 90,000-120,000.

2. Early entrants into both cities following the bombings, mainly soldiers, firefighters, medical workers, and other helping personnel.

3. Persons who suffered radiation injuries in the areas surrounding the two bombed cities.

Almost all persons in the above groupings, young or old, also fell into one of the following groups: (1) broken families; (2) A-bomb orphans; (3) orphaned elderly.

Hiroshima

Of the city's 298 medical doctors, 270 (90%) became A-bomb victims. Casualty rates among pharmacists, nurses, and other medical professionals ranged between 80% and 93%. Eighteen emergency hospitals and 32 first-aid clinics were destroyed, and most of the workers needed to restore these health facilities were killed or injured. Nearby army medical facilities were also mostly destroyed.

In sum, approximately 90% of all medical personnel were dead or disabled, and remaining medical facilities were thrown into great disrepair and confusion.
All citizens faced desperate conditions; the young and old, all the more so.

Nagasaki

In the 2-km zone of total destruction around ground zero in Nagasaki's Urakami valley, the city's chief medical facilities were destroyed. These included Nagasaki Medical University and its related hospital, the Urakami branch of Mitsubishi Hospital, Urakami First Hospital, and some other smaller health care institutions.

Of the 70 or so doctors in private practice in the city, twenty were dead and twenty more seriously wounded; only 30 were available to help the mass of A-bomb victims.

As a major port city, Nagasaki was surrounded by various naval installations. Medical personnel from several naval hospitals (Isahaya, Sasebo, Omura, and other places) came with support personnel to give assistance, making the overall situation somewhat better than in Hiroshima.

Even so, food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies in Nagasaki were, as in Hiroshima, extremely scarce. Moreover, heavy rains hit both cities in September, making the struggle to survive desperately difficult and miserable.

Local ability to mobilize health care personnel and restore medical facilities was severely hampered by the overall loss of non-military economic wealth (65 billion yen nationwide). Of this total, Hiroshima (884 million yen) and Nagasaki (380 million yen) together suffered over 2% of the national total.

Political restraints on recovery

On top of the enormous physical, medical, and social damages imposed on Japan by the two atomic bombings, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Occupation (SCAP) imposed another onerous handicap: censorship. Formally termed the Press Code, officially issued by the Occupation GHQ on September 19, 1945, it prohibited the publication of all reports and studies of A-bomb damages, including medical and scientific studies of all injuries and losses suffered by A-bomb victims in both Hiroshima and Nagasaki, whether in newspapers, magazines, scholarly journals, books, or other public means. Thus the A-bombed citizens struggled with ignorance of the many medical and social aspects of the decimated lives.

There were minor exceptions. The Hiroshima-based magazine, Chugoku Bunka, devoted its initial issue (March 10, 1946) to A-bomb damages. A Manhattan Project team published its report, The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on June 29, 1946. And the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey Team completed its report, The Effects of the Air Attack on the Cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki the following day. These official documents, however, were printed in English and, in any case, did not touch deeply on the sufferings of the two A-bombed cities.

Most importantly, serious research on the extent and gravity of A-bomb damages and injuries could not be publicly printed and distributed by any Japanese persons or organizations, thus handicapping the surviving medical personnel trying to heal and assuage the thousands of A-bomb victims. The most revealing item, perhaps, is that the Japanese characters for "atomic bomb" ( genshi bakudan, or the short form, genbaku) could not even be used in public print. This applied to all forms: newspapers, magazines, books, public bulletins, and of course, movies.

Cameramen of the Japanese movie firm Nippon Eiga-sha were arrested by American MPs in Nagasaki on October 17, 1945, and two days later the photographing of A-bomb scenes was prohibited. A formal prohibition was issued by GHQ on December 12. It would be almost seven years later until, after the Occupation ended, the weekly magazine Asahi Gurafu ( Asahi Graph) filled an entire issue with heretofore unpublicized photographs of A-bomb damages and victims-the first A-bomb-related photos to be published in the postwar era.

One of the most moving instances of resistance to the Press Code was a small volume of tanka (a Japanese verse form of 31 syllables), penned by a hibakusha poet named Shinoe Shoda in Hiroshima. Titled Sange, it decried the cruelty of the bomb. As publication of all A-bomb-related materials was strictly banned, she took her manuscript to Tadao Nakamura, a clerk in the printing shop of a Hiroshima prison, who mimeographed 150 copies in December 1947. Shoda distributed copies to other hibakusha, all at her own expense and, of course, without SCAP permission. A hand-written copy of Sange was later donated to the Hiroshima Peace Cultural Foundation.

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Persons present in Hiroshima or Nagasaki at bombing time. Of the regular resident population, many children and older persons had been previously evacuated, while certain outsiders were working in the cities on their specific bombing days. Overall, the estimated "physically present" population of Hiroshima on August 6 was 340,000-350,000.

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Learn interesting information about the concentration camps for kids. Improve your knowledge on holocaust concentration camps and World War II with DK Find Out.

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A concentration camp (or internment camp) is a place where a government forces many people to live. Usually, those people belong to groups that the government does not like. The government may think these people are its enemies. In the past, governments have also put people in concentration camps because they belonged to a certain religion, race, or ethnic group.

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Table of Contents

1. Child Labor in the United States

2. Industrial Revolution

3. Immigration and Child Labor

4. National Child Labor Committee

5. Depression-Era Child Labor

6. Automatization and Education

7. Does Child Labor Exist Today?

Child labor, or the use of children as workers, servants and apprentices, has been practiced throughout most of human history, but reached its zenith during the Industrial Revolution. Miserable working conditions including crowded and unclean factories, a lack of safety codes and long hours were the norm. Children could be paid less and were less likely to organize into unions. Working children were typically unable to attend school, creating a cycle of poverty that was difficult to break. Nineteenth century reformers and labor organizers sought to restrict child labor and improve working conditions to uplift the masses, but it took the Great Depression-a time when Americans were desperate for employment-to shake long-held practices of child labor in the United States.

Child Labor in the United States

The Puritan work ethic of the 13 colonies and their founders valued hard work over idleness, and this ethos applied to children as well. Through the first half of the 1800s, child labor was an essential part of the agricultural and handicraft economy of the United States. Children worked on family farms and as indentured servants for others. To learn a trade, boys often began their apprenticeships between the ages of ten and fourteen.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution saw the rise of factories and mines in need of workers. Children were ideal employees because they could be paid less, were often of smaller size so could attend to tasks in tight spaces and were less likely to organize and strike against their pitiable working conditions.

Before the Civil War, women and children played a critical role in American manufacturing, though it was still a relatively small part of the economy. Advances in manufacturing techniques after the war increased the number of jobs-and therefore increased the number of child laborers.

Did you know? In 1900, 18 percent of all American workers were under the age of 16.

Immigration and Child Labor

Immigration to the United States coincidentally peaked during the Industrial Revolution and led to a new source of labor-and child labor. When the Irish Potato Famine struck in the 1840s, Irish immigrants moved to fill lower-level factory jobs.

In the 1880s, groups from southern and eastern Europe arrived, provided a new pool of child workers. The trend continues today, as many immigrant children work in agriculture, which is exempt from certain labor laws.

National Child Labor Committee

Educational reformers of the mid-nineteenth century attempted to convince the public that a primary school education was a necessity if the nation were to advance as a whole. Several states established a minimum wage for labor and requirements for school attendance-though many of these laws were full of loopholes that were readily exploited by employers hungry for cheap labor.

Beginning in 1900, efforts to regulate or eliminate child labor became central to social reform in the United States. The National Child Labor Committee, organized in 1904, and state child labor committees led the charge.

These organizations employed flexible methods in the face of slow progress. They pioneered tactics like investigations by experts; the use of photographs of child laborers to spark outrage at the poor conditions of children at work, and persuasive lobbying efforts. They used written pamphlets, leaflets and mass mailings to reach the public.

From 1902 to 1915, child labor committees emphasized reform through state legislatures. Many laws restricting child labor were passed as part of the Progressive Era reform movement. But many Southern states resisted, leading to the decision to work for a federal child labor law. While Congress passed such laws in 1916 and 1918, the Supreme Court declared them unconstitutional.

The supporters of child labor laws sought a constitutional amendment authorizing federal child labor legislation and it passed in 1924, though states were not keen to ratify it; the conservative political climate of the 1920s, together with opposition from farm and church organizations fearing increased federal power over children, acted as roadblocks.

Depression-Era Child Labor

The Great Depression left thousands of Americans without jobs and led to sweeping reforms under the New Deal programs of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These focused on increasing federal oversight of the workplace and giving out-of-work adults jobs-thereby creating a powerful motive to remove children from the workforce.

Almost all of the codes developed under the National Industrial Recovery Act served to reduce child labor. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set a national minimum wage for the first time, a maximum number of hour for workers in interstate commerce-and placed limitations on child labor. In effect, the employment of children under sixteen years of age was prohibited in manufacturing and mining.

Automatization and Education

Changing attitudes toward work and social reform weren't the only factors reducing child labor; the invention of improved machinery that mechanized many of the repetitive tasks previously given to children led to a decrease of children in the workforce. Semiskilled adults took their place for more complex tasks.

Education underwent reforms, too. Many states increasing the number of years of schooling required to hold certain jobs, lengthened the school year and began to more strictly enforce truancy laws. In 1949, Congress amended the child labor law to include businesses not covered in 1938 like transportation, communications and public utilities.

Does Child Labor Exist Today?

Although child labor has been significantly stalled in the United States, it lingers in certain areas of the economy like agriculture, where migrant workers are more difficult to regulate. Since 1938, federal laws have excluded child farm workers from labor protections provided to other working children. For example, children 12 and younger can legally work in farm fields, despite the risks posed by exposure to pesticides and farm machinery.

Employers in the garment industry have turned to the children of illegal immigrants in an effort to compete with imports from low-wage nations. Despite laws limiting the number of hours of work for children and teens still attending school, the increasing cost of education means many are working longer hours to make ends meet. State-by-state enforcement of child labor laws varies to this day.

Sources

Child Labor in U.S. History. The University of Iowa.
History of Child Labor in the United States. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Children in the Fields. National Farm Worker Ministry.

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Child Labor: Laws & Definition - HISTORY

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Child labor, the use of children and teens in often-unsafe working conditions, peaked during the Industrial Revolution but is now regulated by child labor laws.

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Awareness of child labor and its health and mental consequences to children has resulted in the decreased number of child laborers - but we still have a long way to go.

Child labor has declined by 1/3 since the year 2000. The International Labor Organization estimates that from 246 million, the number went down to 168 million children. Half of that number, around 85 million are working in hazardous conditions.

Agriculture remains the highest employers of child labor. This is due to poverty in rural areas of developing countries. Parents put their children to work at a very young age and even sell them to plantation owners to add to the family's income. Child laborers can also be found in industries such as factories, mining and construction, and in services such as prostitution.

Hard labor at such a young age...

Working conditions that are deemed safe for adults may not be safe for children who have smaller statures and frailer bodies. Each year, an estimated 2.7 million of healthy years are lost because of hazardous child labor working conditions. Aside from the health risks, child labor stunts the social and educational development of our children.

More: Facts About Child Slavery

In agriculture, studies have shown that more children suffer physical injuries, health issues and even deaths. Several factors can contribute to their hazardous working conditions:

1. Lack of experience with machineries and sharp tools

2. Exposure to chemicals such as pesticides

3. Lack of sanitary facilities such as toilets

4. Working at a very young age (5 to 7 years old)

Worldwide, the ILO estimates that at least 22,000 children die at work each year.

Other hazardous work conditions and their health risks are:

1. Heavy load bearing in construction industries

2. Exposure to radiation in nuclear power plants

3. Inhaling of solvents and glues in the leather industry

4. Lead poisoning in the glassworks industry

5. Mercury poisoning in the mining industry

6. Deep diving without wet suits in the fishing industry

More: Child Labor Facts and Statistics

Child labor remains one of the most controversial challenges facing our world today. How can we stop it? The global effort has made some progress in stopping the exploitation of children, but the numbers show that we need to be more aggressive in eliminating this abhorrent practice.

Stop Child Labour!

How can you help?

Employers who hire child laborers have businesses and they want to make a large profit. This is one of the reasons why coffee plantations and clothing industries hire young children, for cheap labor. You, as a consumer have the power to choose which products you buy.

If you hear that a company is employing child labor, boycott their products. Once the profit margins of companies are affected negatively, they will be forced to change their ways. Choose Fair Trade products instead. Let's reward companies who are trying to change their business practices.

Find Green Companies and Fair Trade Products at Firmhugger.

There is hope for our children yet. They might still have a chance at a better future, if we act now.

Know more about the challenges we are facing globally. See where you can make a difference. Go to The World Counts: Stories.

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Awareness of child labor and its health and mental consequences to children has resulted in the decreased number of child laborers - but we still have a long way to go. Child labor has declined by 1/3 since the year 2000. The International Labor Organization estimates that from 246 million, the number went down to 168 million children.

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Big name Companies STILL using Child labor

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Big name Companies STILL using Child labor

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Despite global efforts and petitions from humanitarian groups, there are still many major companies around the world that employ child labour - knowingly or otherwise - in order to make a profit. As business rely on increasingly globalised supply chains, the ethical and legal practices of the contractors and subcontractors that they use can become murky, and while many of the organisations on this list make the right noises about ending such practices, the reality is that they need to take a lot more responsibility for how their products are sourced and manufactured.

We, as consumers, also have a responsibility, too. Although it might be easy to turn a blind eye to the world of child labour, it is something that continues to deserve our scrutiny and concern. These companies might be doing great things in their field, but by using work crews that include children, they are enabling the growth of an illicit and miserable industry. Drawing public attention to their activity - or lack of, in many cases - might be our best hope of making a real and lasting change.

With this in mind, here are 10 companies that use child labour.

1. Nestlé

Despite signing an industry agreement in 2001 to eradicate child labour from their Ghana and Ivory Coast-based cocoa farms, Nestlé - one of the largest and most recognisable consumer brands in the world - continues to receive criticism for the ongoing employment abuses in their supply chain. In 2005, a lawsuit bought against the company by former child workers lead to a damning investigation by the Fair Labor Association (FLA), and although the confectionary giant subsequently introduced new measures to tackle the problem, clearly they have not worked.

Terry Collingsworth, the human rights lawyer who filed the original lawsuit, alleged in October 2018 that Nestlé has since failed to meet its own eradication targets, with the US appeals court allowing his longstanding legal challenge to proceed; the Swiss-based food producer are now also facing a separate class-action lawsuit from US human rights activist Dannell Tomasella, who claims that the company are lying to consumers by failing to disclose their ongoing involvement in child labour. For their part, Nestlé acknowledges that the 'risk of child labour' in its supply chain cannot be 'fully removed' but that they are 'determined to tackle the problem'.

2. H&M

Swedish fashion retailer Hennes & Mauritz - better known as H&M - are no strangers to human rights controversies; it has faced allegations of neglect in regards to workers' rights across its various production factories, while its sustainability practices have also drawn criticism in recent years. Perhaps the most alarming charges levelled at the fast fashion giants, though, concern the reports that they have been using child labour in Myanmar, Bangladesh and Cambodia - and paying as little as 13 pence an hour for the privilege.

An alarming drop in their 2018 profits suggests that customer patience may be growing thin, but H&M seems undeterred about their ethical and moral role in this process; in a public statement, the company was quick to point out that the legal working age in Myanmar is 14. Unfortunately, despite the issuing of a token condemnation of general child labour practices, this blaise attitude suggests that H&M are unlikely to change their ways anytime soon.

3. Philip Morris

The tobacco industry has long been comfortable in its role as public enemy number one, and it's therefore unsurprising to find no less than three of its biggest players on this list; one of them, the US cigarette giant Philip Morris - which owns Marlboro - has a long history of exploiting children.

In 2010, the company admitted that children as young as 10 had been forced into labour on its contracted tobacco farms in Kazakhstan, with allegations by the Human Rights Watch (HRW) suggesting that passports had been confiscated in order to prevent them escaping; the HRW also claims that Philip Morris was then 'slow' to implement their suggestions for tackling the issue. Clearly, there are still ongoing issues with their providers elsewhere in the globe, too, with a Guardian investigation published in June 2018 alleging that child labour on the company's contracted farms - particularly in Malawi - is 'rampant'.

4. Microsoft

Despite Microsoft's global reputation as both a top employer and a philanthropic pioneer, allegations surfaced in October 2018 that child labour was being used to extract cobalt for the company in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC); investigators for Amnesty International claim that children as young as 7 are mining the product in toxic and hostile conditions for 12 hours a day.

Unsurprisingly, Microsoft has moved quickly to address the allegations, producing a report in late 2018 that details the actions they have taken to eradicate this practice; Amnesty remains sceptical, though, stating that while there is 'real evidence of change' on the ground in the DRC, there is still a 'long way to go' to meet both their own concerns and international standards in general.

5. Sports Direct

Another global company that has struggled with its public image and perception, Sports Direct - and, in particular, its controversial owner, Mike Ashley - have repeatedly come under fire for dubious employment practices; the UK-based clothing and sports equipment giant can now add child labour to its charge sheet.

The company's Lonsdale clothing line - a key part of Sports Direct's public brand - is produced in factories in Myanmar, with testimonies from workers detailing how the practice is rife. The company doesn't seem too bothered, though, describing the workers' statements as 'anecdotal and uncorroborated', before later claiming to condemn child labour practices.

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6. British American Tobacco (BAT)

Glassdoor

Despite being the biggest listed tobacco company in the world (Lucky Strike, Pall Mall and Rothmans are among its brands), BAT has faced numerous accusations of enabling child labour practices; in 2016, reports surfaced of children working in hostile conditions on BAT tobacco farms in Bangladesh, something that the company stringently refutes.

In spite of their protestations, concern is still present over the welfare of children and their labour use on BAT's tobacco farms all over the world; Marty Otanez, an academic at the University of Colorado, claims that child labour is present 'in every segment [of] the tobacco production process', and that BAT see any proposed changes as a threat to their annual profit sheets. The company itself, meanwhile, is happy to continue turning a blind eye, despite the accusations put to them; speaking at its AGM in April 2018, chairman Richard Burrows claimed that BAT has 'not got any questions to answer in respect of these issues'.

7. Apple

Apple has cultivated a reputation as an innovative brand, always at the forefront of technology and a dream job for many graduates and interns. But, perhaps unsurprisingly for a company that produces so many units, questions have been raised about what exactly goes on in its supply chain; following the discovery that a Chinese contractor was employing 74 minors in 2013, the company also admitted that its bestselling iPhone X product was being made by schoolchildren.

There were fresh claims in October 2018, too, of school students under the age of 18 being made to manufacture Apple Watches under the guise of a company 'internship'. The contractor in question, based in southwest China, also manufactures products for other tech giants such as Dell, Amazon and Siemens. The company says that it wants to end all child labour practices, although its contractors are still permitted to hire 'interns' to work in such a way.

8. New Look

Penny Cross / Plymouth Herald

The UK-based fashion retailer is also involved in the Myanmar factory scandals that have bought H&M and Sports Direct into disrepute; unlike its competitors, though, New Look is at least willing to accept that there is an issue and have pledged to 'work with suppliers and partners in Myanmar to address the findings'. This includes a remediation programme in which underage workers are removed from factories, returned to school and reimbursed with a similar wage.

The company also claims to have let their suppliers know that they are 'against' the use of Uzbek raw cotton due to child labour exploitation there, although by their own admission, they still place responsibility for the investigation of cotton sourcing in the hands of their contractors - not themselves.

9. JTI

Glassdoor

Japan Tobacco International (JTI) are also involved in the child labour cases involving tobacco farmers in Malawi; unlike their competitors, though, JTI buys the tobacco leaf directly, meaning it has a key say in the prices that are set and the conditions that workers operate in. In the Guardian's June 2018 report, researchers found that children work at their family's behest on the tobacco farms, a practice that is condoned by JTI (and other leaf buyers) with the justification that 'handling dried tobacco is not considered as hazardous [as working with wet leaves]'.

Indeed, according to the report, JTI (and BAT) consider it not just acceptable, but even beneficial, for children between 13 and 15 to work on the farms, provided it is 'light work, permitted by local law'. It also points out that its internal ARISE scheme has removed more than 39,000 children from labour exploitation across the world.

10. Hershey's

Like Nestlé, the US-based confectionary giant, Hershey's, has run into serious labour explotation problems on their west African cocoa farms; like Nestlé, they are also now facing legal action for their practices from Dannell Tomasella, who has also targeted Mars. Tomasella's lawsuit - filed, as with the Nestlé case, by law firm Hagens Berman - claims that Hershey's have repeatedly abandoned any serious attempt to implement the Harkin-Engel Protocol of which they are signatories, resulting in widespread child labour practices on their supply farms.

The company, which sells popular confectionary including Kit Kats, Peppermint Patties and Reese's Peanut Butter Cups, argues that it 'does not tolerate, and is committed to preventing, child labour across the entire supply chain', but according to Tomasella and his legal advisors, Hershey's is simply not doing enough.

Child labour remains one of the biggest issues of our time and while international humanitarian companies might be doing their best to turn things around, many companies continue to fund cheap labour and sweatshops in the production of their goods. While amnesty groups draw attention to the very worst cases, there is still an alarming rate going on and if we really want to make a change, we should pay attention to the products we buy, and the factories we fund as a result.

Join the conversation! Are there any companies that you think should be added to the list? Let us know in the comments section below.

Any views or opinions expressed within this article are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of CareerAddict and/or DeltaQuest Media Ltd. This article is an updated version of an earlier article originally published on 10 October 2016.

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10 Companies that Still Use Child Labour

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You'll be shocked to learn that some of your favourite companies are using child labour. #ChildLabour

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Introduction
The employment of children below a specified legal age is referred to as child labor. While work such as apprenticeship programs or after-school part-time employment can build character and prepare young people for careers, work that exploits children and interferes with their education is seen as a social problem. Unsafe working conditions frequently cause injuries or illnesses in children. In its most extreme forms child labor can resemble slavery.

Poverty is perhaps the single most important reason children are put to work: their families need the extra income. Local traditions may also encourage child labor. In many cultures it is believed that children should learn and participate in the trade of their parents, even if that trade is strenuous or hazardous. In some places there is a tradition of bonded labor (also called debt bondage), in which a poor family receives an advance payment from an employer and then hands over a child to work off the debt. Schooling, as an alternative to work, is simply not available in some areas. Gender or ethnic discrimination can play a role if girls or members of minority groups are put to work because they are considered less worthy of education than boys or members of the dominant group. Employers often actively recruit children because they can be paid lower wages than adults and are easier to control.

Child Labor in Great Britain and the United States
During the Industrial Revolution, children in the cities of Great Britain and other countries, including the United States, were forced to work in factories and shops in harsh conditions to help themselves and their families to survive. Outside cities, some children were put to work in mines. Children were paid very little and were made to work in cramped conditions, sometimes at precise work for which their small hands and keen eyesight were special assets.

At the beginning of the 19th century poor children-some only 4 years old-had workdays as long as 16 hours. At that time children made up about one-fourth of the total workforce of cotton mills in some regions of Great Britain. In one region, local government officials sent children from orphanages to the mills so that the government could be spared the cost of caring for them. In 1824 the father of the novelist Charles Dickens was sent to debtors' prison, and young Dickens, at age 12, had to work in a factory. Dickens later documented the harsh lives of poor children in such novels as Oliver Twist (published 1838).

The earliest efforts of the British government to curb child labor were unsuccessful. The first law that was effective, the Factory Act of 1833, forbade the employment of children under the age of 9. It also limited the number of hours older children could work: between ages 9 and 13 the limit was nine hours per day; between ages 13 and 18 the limit was 12 hours. The law also provided for state inspections. However, the Factory Act applied only to the textile industry and exempted many other industries, such as shipbuilding and the mining of iron and coal. In 1847 the workday of children between ages 13 and 18 was limited to 10 hours. Further legislation extended the regulations to other industries. In 1870 the introduction of compulsory education in Great Britain helped reduce the scale of child labor in the country.

Child labor was common in the United States from colonial times. The 1900 census showed that about 2 million children were employed. Many were engaged in mining and manufacturing. Roughly one in four workers in Southern cotton mills were below age 15, and many were below age 12.

In 1904 a reform group called the National Child Labor Committee was organized, but it took a state-by-state approach to legal reform that proved to be inadequate. After at least one false start, the U.S. Congress in 1916 passed the Keating-Owens Child Labor Act, banning the sale of products from businesses that employed child workers under a specified age (which varied by type of industry), or that employed children under age 16 for more than eight hours per day. This law and another child labor law passed in 1918 were struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court, but support for reform grew. In the mid-1920s Congress passed a constitutional amendment that overruled the Supreme Court. Before the amendment had been ratified by enough states to take effect, the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 was passed. This law set a minimum age of 14 for employment outside school hours in nonmanufacturing jobs, of 16 for employment during school hours in interstate commerce, and of 18 for hazardous occupations. This law was upheld by the Supreme Court. Now, 14- and 15-year-olds are allowed to work under strict conditions (for no more than three hours on a school day or eight hours on a non-school day) and 16-year-olds are allowed to work on most non-farm jobs.

Child Labor in the World Today
Before the 20th century child labor was common throughout Europe. In Belgium, for example, children made up about 50 percent of the workforce in the craft flax and hemp industries and about 20 percent in coal mining and textiles. Likewise, in Japan at the beginning of the 20th century children made up significant proportions of those employed in matchmaking, glassmaking, rope braiding, and rug weaving.

In the 21st century child labor continues to exist in the developed world though on a much smaller scale. In the developing world, however, it remains a major issue. In 2000 it was estimated that more than 200 million children between ages 5 and 14 (including some 75 million 9 years of age or younger) were employed throughout the world, with many working full-time. About half of these children experienced hazardous working conditions. In Africa, where nearly one in three children works, the problem is made worse by the AIDS epidemic, which created many orphans with no one to support them. Child labor is also common in Asia, the Caribbean, Latin America, and the Middle East. Agriculture is the leading employer of child workers: in Brazil, for example, it was estimated that in the late 1990s children accounted for up to 40 percent of workers on some sugar plantations and that on some farms children began work as young as 3 years of age. Child labor is especially prevalent in several industries, including sporting goods, precious gems, and textiles. Child labor increased dramatically in the 1990s in central and eastern Europe, where the transition to democracy affected child welfare adversely. Even in Italy there are estimated to be more than 1 million child workers, and in the United States many children of migrant workers and others toil long hours on farms and in garment industry sweatshops.

Bonded labor is widespread in India, Pakistan, and Nepal and is also practiced in some parts of Africa and Latin America. Bonded labor is similar to slavery, as few children are ever able to pay off their debt and are thus forced into servitude for years. Children are also lured or kidnapped and sold into child labor or prostitution. It is estimated that hundreds of thousands of children are forced to serve as fighters in rebellions and civil wars.

World Efforts to Reduce Child Labor
Child labor was recognized as a worldwide problem in the 20th century. The issue was addressed at the first meeting of the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1919. The ILO passed several international agreements on the subject that were replaced in 1973 by a Minimum Age Convention that set 15 (14 in less developed countries) as the minimum age for most forms of employment. Children of at least 13 years of age (12 in less developed countries) were allowed to perform light work, however, and the minimum age for hazardous work was 18. The convention has been ratified by more than 100 countries. Child labor was also addressed by the United Nations General Assembly in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, both of which took effect in 1976.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted in 1989, declared that children should be protected from work that is hazardous, interferes with their education, or is detrimental to their health or physical or social development. In 1992 the ILO established the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, and the ILO conference in 1999 adopted the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention. The latter was especially aimed at slavery, bonded labor, child prostitution, and the use of children in illegal activities such as drug trafficking. It has been ratified by more than 100 countries. In addition to such legislation, opposition to child labor has led to consumer boycotts of products and to campaigns for labeling of products to guarantee that they were not made by children.

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The employment of children below a specified legal age is referred to as child labor. While work such as apprenticeship programs or after-school part-time employment can...

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Child labor: Facts, FAQs, and how to end it

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Child labor: Facts, FAQs, and how to end it

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10 Shocking Child Labor Facts - The Borgen Project

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Here are 10 child labor facts about the perpetuating cycle of poverty that results from depriving children of an education. These shocking facts about child labor demonstrate the detrimental effects of the practice on the countries which it plagues.

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Child labor is keeping millions of children out of school

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Child labor is keeping millions of children out of school

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This year is the International Year for the Elimination of Child Labour which calls on all of us to raise awareness of the importance of ending child labour and to step up our collective efforts for impactful and sustainable actions.

We publish regular articles on different themes related to child labour throughout the year and you can find links to our previous articles below.

This month, we are turning our attention to education. September is a month when many of the world's children are returning to school. However, this is not the case for a lot of children involved in child labour who are denied their chance to get an education.

Education is a fundamental human right and a major enabler to reduce inequalities and build peaceful, democratic and inclusive societies that are the core of EU values.

Current situation and trends

Percentage of children aged 5 to 14 years in child labour not attending school, by region. © ILO/UNICEF 2021

According to the latest Child Labour Global Estimates, published in June, 160 million children - 63 million girls and 97 million boys - were in child labour globally at the beginning of 2020, accounting for almost 1 in 10 children worldwide. 53 million of these children are not in school, amounting to 28% aged 5 to 11, and 35% aged 12 to 14. This is especially alarming given the largest share of those in child labour who are excluded from school are younger children, within the age range for compulsory education. As a result, the future job and life opportunities for all these children will be seriously impeded.

Even for those children in child labour who get to attend school, most struggle to balance the demands of education and their work. They generally do not attend school full time and lag behind their peers in grade progression and learning achievement, and are more likely to drop out prematurely. Hazardous child labour constitutes an even greater barrier to school attendance.

The situation is getting worse for many children, especially on account of the Covid-19 pandemic and other crises. This is despite a significant overall net decline in children out of primary school in recent years. The gap in education exclusion rates remain large, with sub-Saharan Africa being most affected.

What are the drivers

There is no single reason for why children find themselves in child labour and are not able to fully attend school. In many cases, the work demands so much time and energy that it becomes impossible for children to enter, persist and succeed at school. In other instances, children work because they lack access to quality, free schools. Additionally, decisions concerning children's education can be influenced by family perceptions of its importance. Girls have the double burden of doing unpaid work - household chores and family care, which prevent many from attending school full time.

Covid-19 is a real cause for concern

In 2020, the pandemic increased the number of children in income-poor households by an estimated 142 million, which is a massive 24 % increase on the previous year. Their families have suffered job and income losses, seen cuts in remittances and experienced other shocks.

Families turn to child labour as a coping mechanism in times of crises. Moreover, school closures during lockdowns have added to the risks, especially for children in vulnerable situations, as they are even more likely to work when school is not an option. Pandemic-related school closures have affected over 90 % of the world's students and remote learning failed to reach 463 million learners.When children leave school and enter paid employment, it is usually very difficult to resume their education. Without a robust response, the education emergency may easily spiral into a child labour emergency.

The TACKLE project is tackling child labour through education in African, Caribbean and the Pacific countries

The EU funded TACKLE project implemented by the ILO aimed to tackle child labour through education in 12 countries across Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific countries The project helped prevent child labour and withdraw children from child labour by offering alternative education and training opportunities and promoting livelihoods.

In Madagascar, for instance, an agreement was made between a company and three NGOs to support the economic activities of parents of children in or at risk of child labour. The initiative boosted the agricultural productivity of the parents enabling them to pay for their children's school fees.

In Zambia, community child labour committees were established and collaboration with a local bank helped support livelihoods. Many children in Zambia are forced into child labour at the expense of going to school as a result of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The community committees have helped raise awareness of the importance of education and a savings scheme was launched to help fund children's education.

Read more stories and best practices from the TACKLE project.

What are the solutions

There are some well-known solutions for getting and keeping children in school and out of child labour, and many others, but their effective implementation is still limited:

aligning the minimum working age and the end of compulsory schooling

improving the overall quality of education, which increases the chances of students staying in school and succeeding

abolishing or reducing school costs, which may be unaffordable for some and include school-feeding facilities

register every child at birth, as a birth certificate with proof of legal identity and age is often required to access education

providing or increasing universal child benefits as part of countries' social protection system (see below) and other policy instruments, which could potentially promote more equitable access to education

back-to-school campaigns and outreach in response to pandemic related school closures and to sensitise parents on the importance to invest in education

flexible school calendar and curricula to incentivise school attendance and cope with family farms needs for seasonal light work

facilitate school-to-work transition for children aged 15-17 years through vocational, education and training (VET) to provide them with knowledge, skills and competencies to access decent jobs when they reach working age

involving the formal and informal private sector operators and reduce the mismatch between skills and labour market requirements

empowering teachers' unions to improve teachers' working conditions and wages

improving school infrastructure, including safe roads, water and sanitation

Social protection can make a difference

Social protection by way of universal child benefits or cash transfers offer a powerful solution. Transfers provided on a regular basis to all families with children, are a simple and proven means of cushioning children and their families from poverty and improving access to education and other services. The payments can be used to incentivise school attendance and help offset schooling costs. Solutions may be required for families of informal workers, who may be excluded from social protection payments, making them doubly vulnerable.

The EU stands committed

The EU continuously works to address the root causes of child labour by tackling poverty, inequalities, increasing access to quality education and social protection, promoting due diligence for sustainable supply chains, and supporting partner governments, local actors and businesses, especially in the most affected countries. The complexity of the problem requires holistic approaches to address the root causes and systemic solutions need coordination with a variety of actors and strategic sectors.

The European Commission's commitment aims at transforming education and promoting innovative learning solutions especially in Africa. Commissioner Urpilainen has called for at least 10% of external aid to target education to help increase the number of children in school and learning, and prevent children to fall into child labour.

The President of the European Commission, Ursula Von der Leyen, has committed to a zero-tolerance policy on child labour in new trade agreements in her political guidelines. In addition, the recently adopted EU Strategy on Child Rights 2021-2024 commits the EU to support free and easily accessible compulsory qualitative education, extend social welfare programmes and increase the capacity of labour inspection systems to monitor and enforce child labour in our partner countries.

Between 2013 and 2019 the EU has helped more than 70.6 million children access primary education and close to 24 million children to enrol in secondary education. The EU supports education in some 100 countries and through partnerships such as the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) and Education Cannot Wait.

The CLEAR Cotton project: combating child labour with education in times of COVID-19

The CLEAR Cotton project, financed by the EU and implemented by the ILO and the FAO, is working to eliminate child labour and forced labour in the cotton, textile and garment value chains. The project is reintegrating children in child labour back to school, recognising the importance of education as the most effective way to combat child labour. Read the story of Inoussa who is no longer in child labour and been reintegrated into schooling as a result of the project. Read another story from the ILO on how CLEAR Cotton is implementing the Accelerated Schooling Strategy (Stratégie de scolarisation accélérée - passerelle - SSA/P) in Burkina Faso and Mali, to withdraw children from cotton fields and send them back to school, with specific solutions needed in light of the pandemic.

International targets

The international community has set SDG target 8.7 which calls on countries to end child labour in all its forms by 2025. Given the intrinsic link between child labour and education, reducing and eventually ending child labour contributes to progress on SDG 4 on quality education.

There are two fundamental ILO Conventions that directly address child labour: ILO Convention 138 on the minimum age for work and 182 on eliminating the worst forms of child labour. ILO Convention 182 was universally ratified by all ILO member states last year. This Convention calls on all countries to enhance international cooperation and/or assistance for social and economic development, poverty eradication and universal education (article 8).

Join us on our journey to end child labour

The EU will continue to explore new areas and innovative and effective approaches to eradicate child labour, in cooperation with existing initiatives and alliances. And to raise awareness of all actors on this unacceptable reality: everybody can play a role even if very little. The High Level Conference on Child Labour in Agriculture of November 2021 and the 2022 Global Conference on Child Labour will be instrumental in this regard: the EU is ready to actively participate and commit to further working with all actors towards an ambitious outcome to accelerate action to achieve target 8.7 by 2025.

We call on all actors to step-up their actions: governments, private sector, civil society, communities, education systems, trade unions and other stakeholders. If not, we risk losing another generation of children to child labour, who are missing out on education and other crucial opportunities in life.

Let's end child labour together!

News and resources

Read our previous monthly articles exploring different themes on child labour for the International Year:

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Child labour is keeping millions of children out of school

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According to the latest Child Labour Global Estimates, published in June, 160 million children - 63 million girls and 97 million boys - were in child labour globally at the beginning of 2020, accounting for almost 1 in 10 children worldwide.

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Economic hardship exacts a toll on millions of families worldwide - and in some places, it comes at the price of a child's safety.

Roughly 160 million children were subjected to child labour at the beginning of 2020, with 9 million additional children at risk due to the impact of COVID-19. This accounts for nearly 1 in 10 children worldwide. Almost half of them are in hazardous work that directly endangers their health and development.

Children may be driven into work for various reasons. Most often, child labour occurs when families face financial challenges or uncertainty - whether due to poverty, sudden illness of a caregiver, or job loss of a primary wage earner.

The consequences are staggering. Child labour can result in extreme bodily and mental harm, and even death. It can lead to slavery and sexual or economic exploitation. And in nearly every case, it cuts children off from schooling and health care, restricting their fundamental rights.

Migrant and refugee children - many of whom have been uprooted by conflict, disaster or poverty - also risk being forced into work and even trafficked, especially if they are migrating alone or taking irregular routes with their families.

Trafficked children are often subjected to violence, abuse and other human rights violations. For girls, the threat of sexual exploitation looms large, while boys may be exploited by armed forces or groups.

Whatever the cause, child labour compounds social inequality and discrimination. Unlike activities that help children develop, such as contributing to light housework or taking on a job during school holidays, child labour limits access to education and harms a child's physical, mental and social growth. Especially for girls, the "triple burden" of school, work and household chores heightens their risk of falling behind, making them even more vulnerable to poverty and exclusion.

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Nearly 1 in 10 children are subjected to child labour worldwide, with some forced into hazardous work through trafficking

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WHAT IS CHILD LABOR AND WHAT IS BEING DONE TO STOP IT?

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WHAT IS CHILD LABOR AND WHAT IS BEING DONE TO STOP IT?

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"See that you do not despise one of these little ones. For I tell you that their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven."

- Matthew 18:10

In 2017, 152 million children ages 5 to 17 were engaged in child labor. Child labor harms a child's social and mental development, reduces their ability to enjoy childhood, and limits educational opportunities. Without an education, children grow up without the skills they need to secure employment, making it more likely that they'll send their own children to work someday.

This cycle must end. Stopping child labor creates a better world for children and adults.

Read on to learn more about child labor, why it matters, and what's being done to ensure that we're moving toward a future where all children can experience life in all its fullness (John 10:10).

How is child labor defined?

Child labor refers to work performed by children younger than 15, or 14 in some developing countries, according to the International Labour Organization (ILO).

Hazardous labor specifically refers to work that is likely to harm children's health or well-being and/or expose them to danger. It is among the worst forms of child labor. The minimum age for hazardous labor is 18.

The worst forms of child labor include slavery or near-slavery, forced labor, forced participation in prostitution or pornography, and any kind of labor that is likely to harm the health and safety of a child.

Children may also be pushed into forced labor, defined as involuntary work under the threat of penalty or human trafficking, which involves recruiting, harboring, transporting, and receiving people via threats or false promises for the means of exploitation.

"When I worked at the shrimp factory, I could not dream. I felt that I should not dream." With help from World Vision, Ima, age 13, was able to leave the factory where she worked in Bangladesh and return to school. (©2018 World Vision/photo by Laura Reinhardt)

Child labor takes many forms, and they're all harmful to a child's life and future. Child laborers can be found carrying heavy loads for hours, wielding machetes on farms, scavenging in garbage dumps, fighting in armed conflict, working in commercial sexual exploitation, climbing into mine shafts, working on fishing vessels, working in brick kilns, and working in domestic labor. Child labor is often hidden from the public eye to avoid sanctions, and children from indigenous groups, from lower social castes, and children of migrants are particularly vulnerable to these horrific tasks.

Child labor does not refer to a child helping with a family business (so long as it does not prevent them from going to school) or participating in an education or training program.

Of the 152 million children engaged in child labor in 2016, 4.3 million of those were in forced labor, and 73 million were in hazardous labor.

Why should I care about child labor?

Children in hazardous labor face harm to their physical, mental, and social development. God cares about these children, and God calls us to speak on behalf of those who cannot speak for themselves (Prov. 31:8). Although child labor may feel far removed from our own lives, we can still be part of the solution.

Every year, an estimated $176 billion is lost in potential future wages when children engage in hazardous labor instead of completing their education. Without a basic education, a child will have a higher risk of becoming unemployed, earning low wages, and engaging in hazardous work as an adult. Again, this increases the likelihood that they will put their own children to work, continuing the cycle of child labor and poverty.

"There is broad consensus that the single most effective way to stem the flow of school-aged children into child labour is to improve access to and quality of schooling." - International Labour Organization

Finally, combating child labor and strengthening labor standards helps ensure fair competition for workers in the United States and around the world. And removing child labor from global supply chains ensures that consumers are able to buy products that don't exploit children.

Sakib Al Hassan, 13, dropped out of school to work in a machine shop to contribute to the family income. He attends World Vision's Child Friendly Learning and Recreation Center (CFLRC) where he's had a chance to make new friends. "I can pass my time very joyfully with my friends," he says. At the center, children can begin to receive informal education to prepare them to return to school. (©2018 World Vision/photo by Laura Reinhardt)

What is already being done?

The Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB) is the U.S. agency combating exploitative child labor. ILAB works with organizations like World Vision to prevent and address child labor around the world.

ILAB has contributed to a global effort that has seen rates of hazardous labor cut in half since the year 2000.

Since 1995, ILAB has helped reduce (along with other partners and initiatives) the number of child laborers by 94 million - that's about the entire child population of the United States.

ILAB engages with companies and trade associations to raise awareness and ensure that child and forced labor are not involved in global supply chains.

World Vision works together with ILAB and foreign governments to prevent and address child labor. The World Vision approach to addressing child labor includes:

Educational services for children involved in or transitioning from child labor

Increased community support for education

Livelihood support for families at risk of or engaged in child labor

Advocacy with the goal of strengthening national and local policies that promote education and protect children

Watch Latha's story to see how World Vision works together with families to create alternatives to child labor:

How can I help?

Because of ILAB, we have already made great strides in helping countries strengthen and enforce their child labor laws. ILAB-funded programs have helped contribute to a worldwide reduction of child labor by 25 percent among boys and 40 percent among girls since the year 2000.

But there's more work to do. We still need a stronger inspection systems and stronger laws, especially in informal economies where the majority of child labor exists. Child labor has declined since 2000, but that decline slowed between 2012 and 2016. Without increased efforts, 121 million children will still be involved in child labor in 2025, with 52 million of those in hazardous work.

"Legislation alone cannot eradicate child labour, but at the same time, it won't be possible to eradicate child labour without effective legislation." - International Labour Organization

Strong programming requires strong funding. Strong funding for ILAB grants and programs means that more children will be in school, children will be healthier, and communities will be stronger.

You can raise your voice on behalf of these children. By contacting your members of Congress, you can let them know that you support the global effort to stop child labor. Let Congress know that it's vital that we create a safer world for all God's children.
Together, we can help more children get an education, feel safe and protected, and enjoy life in all its fullness.
ACT NOW:
Top photo: Arafat Hossain, age 12, finished grade 5 before he had to quit school at the age of 10. Arafat works in a lathe machine shop from 9 a.m. to 10 p.m. six days a week to bring home 500 taka (a little less than $6 USD). This helps provide food for his family since his parents' income can't feed the entire family. (©2018 World Vision/photo by Laura Reinhardt)

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What is child labor and what is being done to stop it?

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Worldwide, millions of children are engaged in child labor. World Vision is working with governments to get them out of child labor and back in school.

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Extending and improving schooling for children is the most effective way to eliminate child labor

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Extending and improving schooling for children is the most effective way to eliminate child labor

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There can be no universal blueprint for action against child labour. Moreover, it should be noted that programmes to combat the worst forms of child labour (which are the subject of this Handbook) generally contain elements necessary for combating all forms of child labour. It is a question of giving first priority to children at greatest risk and to rehabilitating those subjected to the most abusive and hazardous forms of exploitation.

In spite of their differences all national programmes must have three basic objectives:

to prevent the engagement of children in the worst forms of child labour;

to remove children from the worst forms of child labour;

to provide for the rehabilitation and social integration of such children.

To attain these objectives requires action on five broad fronts:

sensitizing public opinion;

legislation;

enforcement;

education; and

support for the children and their families.

Sensitizing public opinion

The struggle against child labour is first and foremost a matter of changing attitudes. Key actors in society, beginning with the children themselves and their parents - as well as politicians, political parties, local authorities, employers, trade unions and teachers - have first to be convinced that child labour is a problem at all. All too often it is looked upon simply as a source of income for poor families, or a means of learning a trade.

And even if people can be persuaded that there is something negative about children having to forego or neglect their education in order to work, they have to be convinced that there are viable alternatives to work. To poor families, arguments about the importance of their children attending school are bound to seem somewhat hypothetical when they are confronted with the immediate problem of survival from one day to the next.

Legislation

The elimination of the worst forms of child labour cannot be achieved by legislation alone, but it certainly cannot be achieved without it. The indispensable basis of any legislative programme to eliminate the worst forms of child labour must include:

clear legal definitions of the minimum age below which children should not be engaged in particular types of work;
similarly clear definitions of the hazards to which no child under 18 should be exposed;
laws which ban unacceptable practices such as forced and bonded labour, the sale and trafficking of children and the use and procurement of children for prostitution and pornography, and which prescribe penalties for practicing, encouraging or conniving in such activities.
It will be necessary to ensure not only that various existing laws provide adequate coverage and to amend them if they do not, but also that they provide for sanctions against the perpetrators of inhuman forms of exploitation of children that are sufficiently tough to discourage such activities, while providing for adequate compensation and protection for victims.

Enforcement

A particularly complex problem arises from the fact that in many countries, protective labour legislation, including minimum age legislation, excludes whole sectors or occupations from its scope. These include agriculture, domestic service and small workshops in the informal sector, which are precisely the sectors where a majority of working children are to be found, and where they are liable to be employed in potentially hazardous and in some cases abusive conditions. Even when such sectors are covered by legislation, the enforcement of legislation is exceptionally difficult.

Many of the most abusive types of child labour are hidden, and the perpetrators of such abuses (for instance, slave labour, bonded labour and other extreme forms of exploitation) go to great lengths to make sure that they are not discovered.

Labour inspection services are often so inadequately staffed that they have little chance of discovering, let alone remedying, even the worst forms of child labour. When they do attempt to take action to remove children from hazardous occupations and abusive conditions, labour inspectors tend to meet with much resistance from powerful economic interest groups and even from the children themselves and their parents. Labour inspectors alone are not in a position to provide educational or other alternatives to work for children or, indeed, income for the families.

Furthermore, many of the worst forms of child labour, such as trafficking of children, use of children in prostitution or drug trafficking, are criminal acts requiring the intervention of police, rather than the labour inspectorate - or at least requiring close collaboration between them.

Closer cooperation and partnerships between official law enforcement agencies and other public or non-governmental bodies - including business organizations, trade unions, social workers, local community organizations - can achieve impressive results.

Education

The obvious alternative to child labour is education, as is made clear in international labour standards on minimum age for admission to employment. Laws and regulations making school attendance compulsory for all children up to the minimum age established for admission to employment would, if they were properly enforced, make a major contribution to eliminating many of the worst forms of child labour.

Regular school attendance would make bonded labour and many other forms of exploitation of children virtually impossible. It would also rule out the employment of children in many hazardous industries and occupations which require presence at the work-site for a full shift. Beyond these immediate benefits, good quality education brings many longer-term benefits to the child concerned and to society at large. It would, in time, lead to the ultimate eradication of all forms of child labour.

All too often, however, the school system has been part of the problem rather than the solution. Lack of school facilities in many communities, and a shortage of teachers and poor quality education in many others, have been among the factors driving children into work. A renewed commitment to free, compulsory education for all children (girls as well as boys), a massive investment in education and teacher training and - in many countries - a complete overhaul of the curriculum so that it has more relevance to local needs and situations: these are essential basic requirements for making schooling attractive and affordable to all, and thus to eliminating the worst forms of child labour.

Support for children and their families

Increasing the availability and improving the quality of formal schooling is not enough. It takes many years to show results, and even in countries where substantial progress has been made and average school enrolment rates are high, there are still children from poor population groups who do not benefit from this progress. And applying pressure and sanctions on poor families to oblige them to send their children to school is not necessarily an effective approach. An important lesson from experience is that simply removing children from work and attempting to put them straight into regular schooling is seldom successful - for at least two reasons:

Children who have been subjected to the most unacceptable forms of exploitation need rehabilitation before they can benefit from regular schooling - health care, training, counselling - as well as a safe environment and sometimes legal aid and police protection. To give one, rather extreme, example: a child who has been forced to kill, rape, torture and loot in armed conflict - often under the influence of drugs - can hardly be expected to become overnight a diligent and disciplined pupil at school.
The worst child labour abuses occur among the poorest and the most vulnerable groups in society. Children from such groups will continue to be sent to work as long as their families depend on their income in order to survive. In such cases, improved access to education for the children needs to be accompanied by various incentives - including subsidies of various sorts, such as the provision of stipends, free meals, text books, health care or clothing for the children, as well as training or income-generating programmes for their parents. Such programmes need to address simultaneously the need for improved income for adults and schooling for children, in order not to encourage the employment of children along with or instead of the employment of adults.
Other support measures can be of a preventive nature. It is important to identify children who are in the greatest danger of being drawn into intolerable forms of child labour, and to motivate them to remain in school before it is too late. For instance, a particularly vulnerable group are young girls who are likely to be lured into prostitution and may find themselves in prison-like conditions - perhaps in a remote country.

Programmes designed to provide such girls with education, skills and access to other less exploitative forms of employment can be very effective. Preventive measures directed at parents are also important - for instance warning parents of the techniques used by traffickers to lure children into their networks. Preventive measures also include programmes to motivate children (and their parents) at a very early age to appreciate education and to be aware of their rights and the dangers of being drawn into work prematurely.

Another important preventive measure is to ensure that areas, workplaces and industries from which children have been removed remain child labour free, so that new children do not take the place of those who have been removed. To achieve this goal, workplace and community monitoring mechanisms need to be set up, with the active participation of employers, managers, contractors and subcontractors as well as trade unions and local authorities and community groups. This is necessary because the commitment to free an undertaking and an entire industry from child labour may call for changes in production processes, as well as a concerted effort to provide alternative educational and income support activities for the children and their families.

As the IPEC (2001) surveys in Moscow demonstrates, the problem of child exploitation cannot be easily resolved - not only because this category of labour is in demand among employers, but also because children are quick to adopt "street-smart" skills. Finding themselves in the street, they very soon embrace an alternative value system and become accustomed to regarding street work as indispensable even if it had not been so viewed before. As a result, not every child is prepared to abandon street work in favour of a different, even more decent, alternative. This attitude is shared by 72% of the respondents; only one fourth of respondents considered other options. At the same time, many more children involved in prostitution (40%) and even a greater proportion of those involved in criminal activities (70%) expressed a desire to change their current lifestyle.

Analysis of the children's opinions about their living arrangements demonstrates that while leaving home and living in the street may be easy, withdrawing from the street is a much greater challenge. Re-entry is the most difficult for children with substantial experience of street life. In view of this, special attention should be given to preventive measures aimed at high-risk families and their children and to creating conditions whereby they will not become working street children in the first place.

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Extending and improving schooling for children is the most effective way to eliminate child labour

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There can be no universal blueprint for action against child labour. Moreover, it should be noted that programmes to combat the worst forms of child labour (which are the subject of this Handbook) generally contain elements necessary for combating all forms of child labour.

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Most people agree that everyone should treat animals well and look after their needs. However, there is often disagreement about what this means. The term animal rights is...

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Cruelty to animals refers to treatment or standards of care that cause unwarranted or unnecessary suffering or harm to animals.

Sometimes if someone harms animals they get a fine and in more serious cases can go to jail.

Some ways people could abuse an animal would be locking it up, keeping it tied to a chain, giving it little or no food or water, kicking and hurting it, yelling and scaring it or leaving it outside in cold or hot weather for a long period of time.

Some people say that factory farming, fur farming or animal testing is also cruel to an animal's welfare.

Laws against animal cruelty

Many countries around the world have laws which forbid cruelty to some animals. These laws provide the minimal requirements for care and treatment of animals, but do not require optimal treatment or mandate kindness or love. They require that animals be provided shelter, food, water and medical treatment and that animals not be tortured, or killed in an inhumane manner.

Some traditional practices, such as the treatment of animals at a rodeo or at a circus, are sometimes given exemptions to the laws.

In a few jurisdictions, notably Massachusetts and New York, agents of humane societies and associations may be appointed as special officers to enforce statutes outlawing animal cruelty.

In the USA ear cropping, tail docking, the Geier Hitch, rodeo sports and other acts perceived as cruelty in many other countries are still allowed. Penalties for cruelty are minimal, if pursued.

In Australia, many states have enacted legislation outlawing cruelty to animals. Whilst the police deal with criminal matters, in many states officers of the RSPCA and other animal welfare charities are given authority to investigate and prosecute animal cruelty offences.

Most jurisdictions simply depend on law enforcement officers who may not be knowledgeable in the area or assign it a high priority.

In the United Kingdom, cruelty to animals is a criminal offence and one may be fined or jailed for it for up to five years.

In Mexico, animal cruelty laws are slowly being implemented.

Images for kids

Captured sea turtle at Jamestown, Accra, Ghana

In Spanish: Crueldad hacia los animales para niños

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Did you know that millions of animals are poisoned, blinded, and killed each year in cruel experiments so that companies can test their products? It's true! Animals are suffering right now for things like cosmetics, shampoo and conditioner, cleaners, and other household items. And that's not all-every year, millions of other animals are killed and shipped off to schools, where young people are given scalpels and told to cut up the animals' bodies as part of biology, anatomy, and other classes. Yuck!

Animal testing cannot be done without causing innocent animals pain and suffering. Think animal testing saves lives? Think again.

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Animals Used for Experiments | Animal Facts | PETA Kids

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Animals aren't science experiments. Learn all about animals used for experiments and how you can help them!

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Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation and animal research is the use of animals for experiments. Fruit flies and mice are often used for animal testing. About 50 to 100 million vertebrate animals and many more invertebrate animals are used around the world every year. The source of the animals are different according to the country and species. Most animals used for experiments are bred for this purpose. But others may be caught from the wild or bought from people who buy them from animal shelters.

Animals are used for experiments inside universities, medical schools, farms, large companies and other places that provide animal-testing services. People who support animal testing argue that almost every medical discovery in the 20th century used animals in some way. They say that even complex computers cannot model connections between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, and the environment. But some scientists and animal rights organizations such as PETA do not support animal testing. They say that it is cruel, poorly done, and costly. Others argue that animals have the right not to be used for experiments, and that animal models are different from humans. The limits to animal testing is different in various countries.

Definitions

The terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations. Literally, "vivisection" means "live sectioning" of an animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved the dissection of live animals. The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals; for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes; more broadly, all experimentation on live animals", although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work". The word has a negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research, whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation".

The earliest mention of animal testing is in the writings of the Greeks in the second and fourth centuries BCE. Aristotle (Αριστοτέλης) (384 - 322 BCE) and Erasistratus (304 - 258 BCE) were some of the first people to try out experiments on living animals. Galen, a doctor in second-century Rome who was known as the "father of vivisection", dissected pigs and goats. Avenzoar, an Arabic doctor in twelfth-century Spain, tested out surgical processes on animals before applying them to humans.

Animals have often been used in the history of scientific study. In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur showed the germ theory of medicine by putting anthrax in sheep. In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. On November 3, 1957, a Russian dog, Laika, became the first animal to orbit the earth. In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were made using armadillos, then given to humans. In 1974, Rudolf Jaenisch produced the first genetically changed mammal. He put DNA from a virus into the genome of mice. Genetic study grew quickly after that. In 1996, Dolly the sheep was born-the first cloned mammal.

In the 20th century, toxicology testing became important. In the 19th century, laws about drugs were less strict. Drugs did not have to be checked for safety. But in 1937, a drug called Elixir Sulfanilamide killed more than 100 people. They caused great and long lasting pain, vomiting, and fits. After that, the U.S. congress made laws that said that drugs had to be tested on animals before they could be sold. Other countries passed similar laws.

Even back in the 17th century, people disagreed about animal testing. In 1655, Edmund O'Meara said that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state." O'Meara and others said that animals could be affected by pain during vivisection, making results unreliable. Others also disliked animal testing because they felt that animals should not be hurt for humans. Others opposed animal testing for different reasons: many believed that animals were not as good as humans and that they were so different that results of animal testing would not work on humans.

Supporters had different views. They argued that experiments on animals were necessary for knowledge. Claude Bernard, the "prince of vivisectors" and the father of physiology famously wrote in 1865 that "the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly (brightly) lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen". He declared that "experiments on animals ... are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man ... the effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences in degree". Because of Bernard, animal testing became a regular scientific method. Surprisingly, though, his wife, Marie Françoise Martin, began the first anti-vivisection society in France in 1883.

In 1896, Dr. Walter B. Cannon said, "The antivivisectionists are the second of the two types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, 'Common sense without conscience may lead to crime, but conscience without common sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden (servant) of crime.' " The public first began giving its attention to the supporters and opposers of animal testing during the brown dog affair in the early 1990s. In the brown dog affair, hundreds of medical students and anti-vivisectionists and police argued over a memorial to a vivisected dog.

Images for kids

Claude Bernard, regarded as the "prince of vivisectors", argued that experiments on animals are "entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man".

Beagles are commonly used for animal testing.

A laboratory mouse cage. Mice are either bred commercially, or raised in the laboratory.

The "Leaping Bunny" logo: Some products in Europe that are not tested on animals carry this symbol.

In Spanish: Experimentación con animales para niños

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Animals still suffer and die in the testing of shampoo, mascara and other cosmetics. Look for the be cruelty-free stamp of approval the next time you shop!

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In a huge victory for animals, the European Union (EU), Israel, and India have banned the sale of any cosmetics or cosmetics ingredients that have been tested on animals. These marketing bans mean that companies all around the world will have to abandon animal testing for cosmetics they want to sell in these huge markets. The bans follow vigorous campaigning by PETA entities worldwide and members and supporters that included public protests, phone calls, and tens of thousands of e-mails.

Unfortunately, there's no ban on testing cosmetics or household products on animals in the U.S., so companies that make and sell their products here can choose to conduct tests on animals. Find out more here.

Alternatives

As hard as it is to believe, animal experiments for cosmetics and household products continue even though non-animal tests are widely available. Instead of measuring how long it takes a chemical to burn the cornea of a rabbit's eye, manufacturers can now drop that chemical onto cornea-like 3D tissue structures produced from human cells. Likewise, human skin cultures can be grown and purchased for skin irritation testing. Read more here about these and dozens more non-animal tests currently in use that are faster and more accurate at predicting human reactions to a product than animal tests ever were.

U.S. Environmental Groups Ignore 21st Century Science

Even more incomprehensible is the continued demand by some U.S. environmental organizations for more animal tests for cosmetics products, even though the rest of the world is moving away from these archaic methods and toward modern, more effective non-animal methods. For example, a scientist from the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) acknowledged that there "are non-animal tests that are really valuable, informative, cheaper, and quicker" than animal tests yet publicly disagreed with the EU ban on testing cosmetics on animals, claiming that "we need to test these products on live things" instead of using the widely accepted non-animal alternatives that have been shown to be predictive of human health effects.

It would appear that the scientists at the NRDC have never bothered to read the National Academy of Sciences report "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy" and are ignoring the sea change that has occurred in the last quarter-century regarding our understanding of biological processes. These advances in our understanding have led to the development of test methods that can look directly at cellular mechanisms rather than at the crude and uninformative results that come from using animals.

What You Can Do

The best way to stop companies from using animals is to refuse to purchase their products and to write and tell them why you won't be using their eye shadow, detergent, or shampoo.

The good news is that today, a multitude of cruelty-free cosmetics and household products are not tested on animals. Check out PETA's database of companies that don't test on animals and request a free copy of PETA's global Cruelty-Free Shopping Guide to find cruelty-free versions of all the products that you could ever need.

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Cruelty in Animal Testing Laboratories | PETA

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Animals in labs are burned, shocked, poisoned, isolated, starved, drowned, addicted to drugs, and brain-damaged. Learn more about the cruelty behind animal testing.

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Animal tests for makeup ingredients allowed

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Animal tests for makeup ingredients allowed

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But in 2020 the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), an EU agency which oversees chemical regulation, ruled that companies needed to test some ingredients used in cosmetics on animals to ensure they were safe for workers manufacturing the ingredients.

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Animal tests for makeup ingredients allowed

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The High court dismisses case brought by animal activists against a government change in policy.

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Over 100 million animals are burned, crippled, poisoned and abused in U.S. labs every year.

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What is animal cruelty and what are its main types?

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What is animal cruelty and what are its main types?

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Animal cruelty can be difficult to spot. Often it is perpetrated by people we might not expect or hidden behind the closed doors of a science lab or factory farm. Knowing what animal cruelty is, how to identify it, and how best to address it is important for the health and well-being of both animals and communities.

What are the main types of animal cruelty?

While there are generally two broad categories of animal cruelty: physical abuse and neglect, under each of these there are several subtypes that range in severity.

Animal neglect is fundamentally a failure to provide for the needs of animals. This could be leaving a dog outside without access to clean water or shelter from the elements, failure to feed a hamster, or not providing for the medical needs of an animal that has been injured and needs veterinary attention. Though neglect is often unintentional or due to financial or other constraints on the part of the neglectful person, it can also be intentional. For example: neglecting to feed a chicken to force molting and thereby get them to produce eggs again within the industry standards once food is once again offered.

Physical abuse of animals is what we typically picture when we think of animal abuse. This type of abuse involves causing physical trauma to an animal. This could be a horse in order to make it perform better for competition, taking part in cockfighting, or otherwise injuring any animal in any way. Unfortunately, many types of physical animal abuse are condoned within certain industries. For example, chickens in the egg industry are often transported in that result in an untimely death for some of the birds.

How to identify animal cruelty

Though animal cruelty must be addressed, it is also important to keep in mind that sometimes what is and is not viewed as cruelty can be influenced by cultural and familial background, lack of knowledge or experience, and a number of other factors. Because of this, if it is safe to do so, it might be worth sharing perspectives and learning together to address the issue and solve animal cruelty problems. For example, a neighbor with a wandering dog may not have the means to erect a fence but still want to allow their dog to have the freedom associated with a yard. Instead of having the animal removed from their care, perhaps working together to create an enclosure would be a wise course of action.

Injuries that go untreated

Emaciation, or an animal that appears to be extremely underweight

General weakness

A matted or unkempt coat

A lack of access to clean food and water

A lack of shelter from the elements

Aggression

What are the effects of animal cruelty?

Animal cruelty can cause serious physical pain and suffering for the animals that endure it. Aside from the obvious pain that comes from being kicked or otherwise physically harmed, neglect can also be excruciatingly painful.

Public health concerns

Risk of interpersonal violence

When we think of animal abuse we tend to have a picture in our mind of what an animal abuser looks like, where they come from, where they live, and how they act. This image that we create for ourselves can actually prove detrimental to animal welfare and can be the reason that many animals are unable to escape their suffering. This is because people who abuse animals can come from any background, live in any neighborhood, look like anyone, and behave in a way that would never suggest that they abuse animals. For this reason it is important not to allow our biases to impact the way we look at and address animal suffering.

Correlation with domestic violence

Which animals are the most common victims of animal cruelty?

The most common victims of animal cruelty are those within industries that condone cruelty to animals as standard practice. Two examples of such industries are animal agriculture and animal testing.

Animal testing takes place both for cosmetic and scientific purposes. In cosmetic testing, animals may have chemicals placed into their eyes causing large amounts of irritation. Animals used for scientific tests could be subjected to a wide array of inhumane experiences, including forced swim tests in which a rat or mouse is dropped into water to see how long they spend attempting to climb out. These tests cause great amounts of stress to the animals.

Is animal cruelty a felony?

Though neglecting to feed a dog or neutering a cat without pain management would be considered illegal, these and more are considered common practice within various animal agriculture industries. The animals that we eat and force to produce our food experience horrific suffering, many from the moment that they are born until the day that they die. Their housing is barren and overcrowded. Their feed encourages rapid growth over healthy growth. They are treated as commodities instead of living, breathing, thinking beings.

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act

How to stop animal cruelty

Should I report animal cruelty if I suspect it, but do not have proof?

If you sincerely believe that animal cruelty is taking place, and, if it's safe, have attempted to have a dialogue with the offender to no avail, it may be time to escalate the situation regardless of whether you personally have proof. Speaking with a local animal rescue representative about the situation may enable you to better ascertain whether or not the situation is actually animal abuse and what might be considered proof. In many situations, a report may be enough to start an investigation.

Who should I call to report animal cruelty?

The first step when reporting animal cruelty is to contact a local veterinarian or animal shelter. The employees at these facilities should be able to help you determine the appropriate people to contact about your concerns.

Can I make a report anonymously?

Whether or not a report can be made anonymously will depend upon your location. Whereas some communities may have a mechanism for anonymous reporting others may require a name and contact information.

Should I try to stop someone harming an animal if I am nearby?

If it seems safe to do so, stepping in as an active bystander to stop the suffering of an animal could be lifesaving. This is especially the case when you suspect the responsible human may lack the knowledge or resources to handle the situation on their own.

One of the most impactful decisions we can make to help combat animal cruelty is to reduce our consumption of meat and other animal products. By far the greatest number of animals suffering in inhumane conditions are those that are being used to produce the foods that we consume. The decision to stop eating meat, dairy, or eggs has never been easier though, thanks to the delicious substitutes and meat alternative products that have recently come onto the market.

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What is animal cruelty and what are its main types?

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Animal cruelty can be difficult to spot. Often it is perpetrated by people we might not expect or hidden behind the closed doors of a science lab or factory farm. Knowing what animal cruelty is, how to identify it, and how best to address it is important for the health and well-being of both animals and communities.

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The shocking number of animal cruelty cases reported every day is just the tip of the iceberg-most cases are never reported. Unlike violent crimes against people, cases of animal abuse are not compiled by state or federal agencies, making it difficult to calculate just how common they are. However, we can use the information that is available to try to understand and prevent cases of abuse.

Who abuses animals?

Cruelty and neglect cross all social and economic boundaries and media reports suggest that animal abuse is common in both rural and urban areas.

Intentional cruelty to animals is strongly correlated with other crimes, including violence against people.

Hoarding behavior often victimizes animals. Sufferers of a hoarding disorder may impose severe neglect on animals by housing far more than they are able to adequately take care of. Serious animal neglect (such as hoarding) is often an indicator of people in need of social or mental health services.

Surveys suggest that those who intentionally abuse animals are predominantly men under 30, while those involved in animal hoarding are more likely to be women over 60.

Most common victims

The animals whose abuse is most often reported are dogs, cats, horses and livestock. Undercover investigations have revealed that animal abuse abounds in the factory farm industry. But because of the weak protections afforded to livestock under state cruelty laws, only the most shocking cases are reported, and few are ever prosecuted.

Organized cruelty

Dogfighting, cockfighting and other forms of organized animal cruelty go hand in hand with other crimes, and continues in many areas of the United States due to public corruption.

The HSUS documented uniformed police officers at a cockfighting pit in Kentucky.

The U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency has prosecuted multiple cases where drug cartels were running narcotics through cockfighting and dogfighting operations.

Dozens of homicides have occurred at cockfights and dogfights.

A California man was killed in a disagreement about a $10 cockfight bet.

The HSUS's investigative team combats complacent public officials and has worked with the FBI on public corruption cases in Tennessee and Virginia. In both instances, law enforcement officers were indicted and convicted.

Correlation with domestic violence

Data on domestic violence and child abuse cases reveal that a staggering number of animals are targeted by those who abuse their children or spouses.

There are approximately 70 million pet dogs and 74.1 million pet cats in the U.S. where 20 men and women are assaulted per minute (an average of around 10 million a year).

In one survey, 71 % of domestic violence victims reported that their abuser also targeted pets.

In one study of families under investigation for suspected child abuse, researchers found that pet abuse had occurred in 88 % of the families under supervision for physical abuse of their children.

To put a stop to this pattern of violence, the Humane Society Legislative Fund supported the Pets and Women's Safety (PAWS) Act, introduced to Congress in 2015 as H.R. 1258 and S.B. 1559 and enacted as part of the farm bill passed by Congress and signed by President Trump in 2018. Once fully enacted, the PAWS Act helps victims of domestic abuse find the means to escape their abusers while keeping their companion animals safe-many victims remain in abusive households for fear of their pets' safety.

State legislative trends

The HSUS has long led the push for stronger animal cruelty laws and provides training for law officials to detect and prosecute these crimes. With South Dakota joining the fight in March of 2014, animal cruelty laws now include felony provisions in all 50 states.

First vs. subsequent offense

Given that a fraction of animal cruelty acts are reported or successfully prosecuted, we are committed to supporting felony convictions in cases of severe cruelty.

49 states have laws to provide felony penalties for animal torture on the first offense.

Only Iowa doesn't have such a law.

Animal cruelty laws typically cover intentional and egregious animal neglect and abuse.

Changes in federal tracking

On January 1, 2016, the FBI added cruelty to animals as a category in the Uniform Crime Report, a nationwide crime reporting system commonly used in homicide investigations. While only about a third of U.S. communities currently participate in the system, the data generated will help create a clearer picture of animal abuse and guide strategies for intervention and enforcement. Data collection covers four categories: simple/gross neglect, intentional abuse and torture, organized abuse (such as dogfighting and cockfighting) and animal sexual abuse.

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Facts, statistics and trends of animal abuse, animal cruelty and abused animals in the U.S.

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Dogfighting is where dogs who have been bred, conditioned and trained to fight are placed in a pit to fight each other for spectator entertainment and profit. Fights average one to two hours, ending when one of the dogs cannot continue.

What can I do to help stop dogfights?

Learn how to spot the signs of dogfighting. If you suspect an operation in your area, alert your local law enforcement agency and urge officials to contact the HSUS for practical tools, advice and assistance. If you live in one of the states where being a spectator at a dogfight is still a misdemeanor, please write to your state legislators and urge them to make it a felony.
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Animal suffering and dogfighting

The injuries inflicted and sustained by dog fights are severe and often fatal. The dogs used in the majority of these fights have been specifically bred and trained for fighting-an upbringing that relies on abuse and mistreatment from puppyhood.

Typical injuries of fighting dogs include severe bruising, deep puncture wounds and broken bones. Dogs used in these events often die of blood loss, shock, dehydration, exhaustion or infection hours or even days after the fight. Otherwise healthy dogs who are born "cold" or won't fight are often used to sic other dogs on as training.

In describing the details of one particular dogfight, a convicted dogfighter wrote, "Miss Rufus spent most of the rest of the fight on her back and Bandit broke her other front leg high up in the shoulder, as well as one of her back legs, in the knee joint. The only leg she didn't break, she chewed all to hell. She had literally scalped Miss Rufus, tearing a big chunk of skin off the top of her head alongside one ear."

Breeding criminal activity

Over the years, law enforcement raids have unearthed many disturbing facets of this illegal practice. Young children are often present at these events, which promotes insensitivity to animal suffering, enthusiasm for violence and disrespect for the law. Illegal gambling is commonplace at dogfights, with wagers of thousands of dollars at stake. This profitability makes dog fighting commonplace in organized crime settings as well as the streets.

The sale and use of illegal drugs is common at dogfights as well, and firearms and other weapons have been found at these events due to the large amounts of cash present. Fighting dogs has also been connected to other kinds of violence-even homicide.

Felony charges

Participants

Dogfighting is a felony offense in all 50 states and it is a felony offense under federal law as well. It is also a felony to knowingly bring a minor to an animal fight.

There are several compelling reasons for this. Because fighting dogs yield such large profits, the penalties associated with misdemeanor convictions are much too weak to act as a sufficient deterrent and are simply seen as the cost of doing business.

Fighting dogs should be punished by more than a slap on the wrist-it's not a spur-of-the-moment act; it is an organized and cruel practice. Those involved in these operations go to extensive lengths to avoid detection by law enforcement, so investigations can be difficult, dangerous and expensive. Making dogfighting a felony means law enforcement officials are able to put in the effort needed to properly investigate.

Spectators

The Humane Society of the United States supports felony charges for spectators of dogfights. Spectators provide much of the profit associated with fighting dogs and, with it, the motivation to continue the cruel practice.

Because dogfights aren't widely publicized, spectators do not merely happen upon a fight, they seek it out. They are willing participants who support criminal activity through their paid admission and attendance. Thankfully, many states have realized that felony charges for spectators can help crack down on animal fighting, but more legislation is still needed.

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Get the facts about dogfighting, and why fighting dogs is a horrific event. End dog fighting.

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The Criminal, Underground World of Dogfighting

Dogfighting is a type of blood sport in which dogs are forced to fight one another for the entertainment and/or profit of spectators.

Dogfighting is one of the most heinous forms of animal cruelty. Dogs used for fighting are typically raised in isolation, with many spending most of their lives on short, heavy chains. It is not uncommon for them to be regularly conditioned for fighting through the use of drugs, including anabolic steroids to enhance muscle mass and encourage aggressiveness.

Although dogfighting is a felony in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, it continues to occur in every part of the country and in every type of community. Since 2010, the ASPCA has assisted with more than 300 dogfighting cases in at least 24 states, and has positively impacted through rescue, consultations and investigations nearly 6,000 victims of dogfighting.

Fights can happen in a variety of locations ranging from back alleys to private properties. Fights typically take place in a 14-20 square-foot pit designed to contain the animals. Fights can last just a few minutes or several hours, and both animals may suffer injuries including puncture wounds, lacerations, blood loss, crushing injuries and broken bones. Although fights are not usually to the death, many dogs succumb to their injuries later, and losing dogs are often discarded, killed or brutally executed as part of the "sport."

Dogfighting is often associated with other forms of criminal activity including illegal gambling and possession of drugs and firearms. By our estimate, there are tens of thousands of dogfighters in the U.S., forcing hundreds of thousands of dogs to train, fight, and suffer every year.

To learn more, visit A Closer Look at Dogfighting.
Help Us End Dogfighting Today
If you suspect dogfighting or other animal abuse is happening in your community, please speak up. Find out how to report animal cruelty.

How to Spot Signs of Dogfighting

It is important to be able to recognize the signs identified with dogfighting so that you can report any suspected dogfighting activity to your local authorities.

Some indicators of dogfighting can include:

1. Pit bull-mix-type dogs with multiple scars, possibly with lips or ears ripped off

2. Dogs on heavy chains, tethered to a tire axle or dog house/barrel

3. Dogs chained inches apart from one another

4. Dogs chained or penned in a secluded area out of the public's view

Keep in mind that in urban communities, including New York City, dogs used for fighting can be found in secluded, indoor areas such as basements, where they are hidden from public view.

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Dog fighting is one of the most heinous forms of animal cruelty. Learn about the underground world of dog fighting and find out how you can help stop it.

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What Is Dogfighting?

Although it is a felony offense in all 50 states (plus D.C., Guam, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands), organized dogfighting still takes place in many parts of the country. Historical accounts date as far back as the 1750s, with professional fighting pits proliferating in the 1860s.

As with any other illegal underground activity, it is impossible to determine how many people may be involved in dogfighting. Estimates based on fight reports in underground dogfighting publications, and on animals entering shelters bearing evidence of fighting, suggest that the number of people involved in dogfighting in the U.S. is in the tens of thousands. While organized dogfighting activity seemed to decline in the 1990s, many law enforcement and animal control officials feel that it has rebounded in recent years, with the Internet making it easier than ever for dogfighters to exchange information about animals and fights.

Why Do People Get Involved in Dogfighting?

There are many reasons people are drawn to dogfighting. The most basic is greed. Major dogfight raids have resulted in seizures of more than $500,000, and it is not unusual for $20,000 - $30,000 to change hands in a single fight. Stud fees and the sale of pups from promising bloodlines can also bring in thousands of dollars.

For others, the attraction lies in using the animals as an extension of themselves to fight their battles for them and to demonstrate their strength and prowess. However, when a dog loses, this can cause the owner of the dog to lose not only money, but status, and may lead to brutal actions against the dog.

For others, the appeal simply seems to come from the sadistic enjoyment of a brutal spectacle.

Which Dogs Are Used in Dogfighting?

For professional and hobbyist dogfighters, the sale of pups from parents who have won several fights is a major part of their activity. Underground dogfighting publications and websites are commonly used to advertise pups or the availability of breeding stock. Although there are many breeds of dogs used for fighting worldwide-including the Fila Brasileiro, Dogo Argentino, the Tosa Inu and the Presa Canario-the dog of choice for fighting in the United States is the American Pit Bull Terrier. Occasionally other breeds and mixes are reportedly used in street fights or as "bait" dogs used by some to train dogfighting victims.

This does not mean that the pit bull is unsuitable as a family pet. It is important to remember that any dog can behave aggressively, depending on the context, his genetic background and his upbringing and environment. When a dog is treated well, properly trained and thoroughly socialized during puppyhood and matched with the right kind of owner and household, he's likely to develop into a well-behaved companion and cherished member of the family.

How Are Dogfighting Victims Raised and Trained?

Dogs used for fighting must be kept isolated from other dogs, so they spend most of their lives on short, heavy chains, often just out of reach of other dogs. They are usually unsocialized to other dogs and to most people. However, many professional fighters invest much time and money in conditioning their animals. They are often given quality nutrition and basic veterinary care. The dogs are exercised under controlled conditions, such as on a treadmill.

The conditioning of dogfighting victims may also make use of a variety of legal and illegal drugs, including anabolic steroids to enhance muscle mass and encourage aggressiveness. Narcotic drugs may also be used to increase the dogs' aggression, increase reactivity and mask pain or fear during a fight.

What Happens in a Dogfight?

Fights can take place in a variety of locations and at any time. They may be impromptu street fights in a back alley, or carefully planned and staged enterprises in a location specifically designed and maintained for the purpose. Usually the fight takes place in a pit that is between 14 and 20 feet square, with sides that may be made of plywood, hay bales, chain link or anything else that can contain the animals. The flooring may be dirt, wood, carpet or sawdust.

In a more organized fight, the dogs will be weighed to make sure they are approximately the same weight. Handlers will often wash and examine the opponent's dog to remove any toxic substances that may have been placed on the fur in an attempt to deter or harm the opposing dog. At the start of a fight, the dogs are released from opposite corners and usually meet in the middle, wrestling to get a hold on the opponent. If they do, the dogs grab and shake to inflict maximal damage. Handlers are not permitted to touch the dogs except when told to do so by the referee.

Fights can last just a few minutes or several hours. Both animals may suffer injuries, including puncture wounds, lacerations, blood loss, crushing injuries and broken bones. Although fights are not usually to the death, many dogs succumb to their injuries later.

Unless they have had a good history of past performance or come from valuable bloodlines, losing dogs are often discarded, killed or simply left with their injuries untreated. If the losing dog is perceived to be a particular embarrassment to the reputation or status of its owner, it may be executed in a particularly brutal fashion as part of the "entertainment."

What Are the Laws Related to Dogfighting?

As of 2008, dogfighting is a felony in all 50 states and in the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In most states, the possession of dogs for the purpose of fighting is also a felony offense. Being a spectator at a dogfight is also illegal in all states. Laws and penalties vary widely by state.

On the federal side, the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 prohibits certain animal fighting-related activities when they have involved more than one state or interstate mail services, including the U.S. Postal Service. In 2007, Congress passed the Animal Fighting Prohibition Enforcement Act with strong bipartisan support. The Act amended the Animal Welfare Act and provides felony penalties for interstate commerce, import and export relating to commerce in dogs abused for profit, roosters who are forced to fight and cockfighting paraphernalia. Each violation can result in up to three years in jail and a $250,000 fine.

In 2014, the crucial elements of the Animal Fighting Spectator Prohibition Act were signed into law as part of the Farm Bill. This provision makes attending an animal fight anywhere in the U.S. a federal offense, and imposes additional penalties for bringing a child under 16 to an animal fight.

If Dogfighting Is So Widespread, Why Don't More Cases Come to Light?

Dogfighting is a violent and highly secretive enterprise that is extremely difficult for law enforcement and investigative professionals to infiltrate. A dogfight investigation requires many of the same skills and resources as a major undercover narcotics investigation, and challenges the resources of any agency that seeks to respond to it.

An additional complication is that the evidence likely to be seized in a raid includes the dogs-living creatures who must be taken care of and maintained while the judicial process unfolds. Most prosecutors would be happy to take on every dogfighting case they could, but they are limited by the human and animal care resources available to them.

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What happens in a dog fight? What are the laws related to it, and how can we stop it? Get the answers to these and other questions here.

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History for kids - Free history network for kids

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The Black Death

The Black Death : Bubonic Plague

In late 1347, the Black Death killed approximately 30 to 45 percent of the European population (although some people put this rate even higher at around 60 percent). No one knew what caused the plague so people in the Middle Ages tried a number of methods to combat the disease but they didn't help. The only thing people could do was to simply run away from any place that was infected.

What Is It?

The Black Death is a bacterial disease. This simply means it is caused by bacteria. The official name of the bacteria is Yersina pestis. It was named after the French scientist, Alexandre Yersin, who discovered this germ. This bacteria actually causes three different types of plague: bubonic plague, pneumonic plague, and septicemic plague.

Bubonic Plague: This was the most common form of the plague and got its name from the swollen areas (called buboes) that develop when a person is infected. These buboes appear in the groin, armpit, and neck. They can be the size of a golf ball or as big as an apple. The bubonic plague would typically kill its victim within a week but some people were able to recover from the disease (although not very many).

A flea that was infected with the disease would bite a person .Around six days after being bitten, a black blister would appear around the bite. Shortly after this, the buboes would appear followed by purple blotches on the skin. These blotches were caused by bleeding under the skin of the infected person. Bubonic plague killed around 50 to 60 percent of people who have been infected.

Pneumonic plague: This plague was much more deadly than bubonic plague but didn't happen as often. It entered a victim's lungs and caused pneumonia. The infected person would come down with a fever and begin coughing up blood. This coughing would help pass the disease on to other people. About 95 to 100 percent of people infected with pulmonary plague would die within three days.

Septicemic Plague: Septicemic plague occurs when the bacteria enters the victim's bloodstream. The victim will develop a rash and die within the day. Septicemic plague was always fatal but was very rare. The victim died so quickly that there wasn't time for the disease to be passed on to another person.

How Was It Spread?

The bacteria that causes the plague lives in the stomachs of fleas. These fleas are responsible for the spread of the disease. The fleas live on rats which were numerous throughout the Middle Ages. For some reason (people don't really know why) the bacteria builds up in the flea's stomach. As a result, there is so much bacteria, that the flea "throws up" while feeding. Unfortunately, what the flea is feeding on is a person. The flea bites a person and begins drinking the person's blood. At the same time, the flea throws up and the bacteria enters the blood of the person the flea is biting resulting in the person being infected with the plague.

When Did It Start and Where Did It Come From?

The plague first arrived in Europe in 1347 and came from the steppes area of Central Asia. The disease had been in the area for a while but did not cause a big problem because the people who lived in the area were the Mongols. The Mongols lived closely with their horses and fleas don't like the smell of horses so they did not cause a big problem.

Later trade and trading ports in Central Asia were created to help develop trade. The trading posts were areas where rats could gather. The rats brought the infected fleas with them. Any area that had a lot of rats was in danger of having the plague as well.

The plague probably made it into Europe as the result of an attack on the trading port of Kaffa by the Mongols. As the Mongols laid siege to the city, the army was destroyed by the plague. The Mongol leader, Yannibeg, wanted the people who lived in Kaffa to get the plague as well so he used a catapult to throw infected bodies over the city walls and into the city.

The people who lived in the city tried to stop the plague by quickly throwing the dead bodies into the sea, but the plague quickly spread through the city. In fact, these dead bodies were not responsible for the spread of the plague. A dead body isn't going to breath on anyone and the infected fleas that carry the plague would have almost immediately left the dead body for a living person.

A more likely answer for the spread of the plague into Kaffa is, once again, rats. Rats probably made their way into the city and carried the infected fleas with them. The plague took hold in the city and when the people fled the city in their ships, they took the plague with them. When these ships docked at the town of Messina, most of the crew were infected or already dead. The city government quickly had the ships towed out of the harbour but it was too late. The plague had arrived and began its spread throughout Europe.

Was There A Cure?

During the Middle Ages, there was no cure for the Black Death although a number of things were tried. In fact, doctors had no idea how the disease was spread. To combat the disease, doctors (when they were willing to actually see patients infected with the plague) would use bloodletting and boil lancing. Bloodletting simply means a doctor would cut a person and let some blood drain out. Boil lancing occurred when a doctors would cut open the swollen areas of a person (the buboes) and let them drain.

In addition, people would use burning herbs and bath in vinegar to fight the disease. Another method people would use was to simply run away. People would leave the area as soon as any plague cases were reported (and sometimes even before cases were reported).

Many people believed that the plague was visited upon them by God to punish society for being sinful. To atone for these sins, some people would beat themselves with leather straps or pieces of metal in an effort to lift God's curse.

When Did It End?

This outbreak of the plague ended in the early 1350s (around 1353) although there were a number of outbreaks of the plague over the centuries. In fact, even today, there are plague outbreaks. In 2003, more than 2,100 cases of the plague were reported as well as 180 deaths. In 2006, an outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo resulted in the death of at least fifty people. In recent years, cases of the plague have been reported in China, India, Vietnam, and Mongolia as well as in the United States.

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The Black Death : Bubonic Plague In late 1347, the Black Death killed approximately 30 to 45 percent of the European population (although some people put this rate even higher at around 60 percent).

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The Black Death was a plague that killed many people. It first showed up in Europe in October 1347.

It came to Europe on 12 ships from the Black Sea.

Authorities in Sicily ordered the fleet of death ships to leave the harbor, but it was too late.

Over the next five years, more than 20 million people died from a disease that almost killed one-third of Europe's population.

Plague is one of the most deadly diseases. It is second only to smallpox. It is a disease that comes from rodents and fleas, but it can also quickly go to people in close contact with each other. Keep reading to learn more Black Death facts.

The 14th century saw the worst plague in human history. The "Great Pestilence" or "Great Plague" was the term used by medieval people to describe it. Contemporary writers referred to it as the "Great Mortality."

In the 1340s, rumors about the Great Pestilence were spreading before it hit Europe. It first started in China, then India, Persia, Syria, and Egypt.

It is believed that the plague started in Asia over 2000 years ago. People think it was spread by trading ships, but new research has shown that it could have existed in Europe as early as 3000 B.C.

The plague first arrived in Europe at port cities. It went by sea and land, following trade routes. The most common form was the bubonic plague.

The Black Plague was a very contagious disease. It spread quickly from person to person. Even if people were healthy in the morning, they might die at night. Some towns shut themselves down and sealed their gates so no one could come in or out.

First, the Black Death came to Messina. After that, it traveled to Marseilles in France and Tunis in North Africa. Then it went to Rome and Florence. These were places where people had lots of trade routes, so many people came there too. In the middle of 1348, the Black Death spread to Paris, Lyon, and London.

Some of the worst-hit regions were mountainous and remote areas, such as in Snowdonia in Wales or Mangona, a mountain village north of Florence. It is difficult to explain why the Black Death did not hurt Milan and Douai in Flanders. For some reason, they did not have a big problem with it.

Many people died when the Black Death came. The authorities didn't know what to do with the bodies, so they just piled them up in carts and left them lying there. They told people to stay at home and not talk to anyone since they might get sick.

There weren't enough regular gravesites for all the dead. So new plague cemeteries were opened.

Some people think that the Black Death spread at a rate of one mile or more each day. But other accounts say it traveled as fast as 8 miles every day. It is thought to have traveled 30 to 100 times faster than the bubonic plagues of the 20th century.

People used to think that the Black Death was a person. They would show him as the Grim Reaper who would come to take healthy people.

The Black Death: Rats and the Disease

In the fall of 1347, a ship came from Asia. It had people on board too, but also rats. The rats carried the Black Death and the bubonic plague with them.

The bubonic plague happened because of two groups of rats: those who were not vulnerable to the disease and those who were. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other animals and then to people. They make people sick.

The rat carries the fleas that make people sick. The black rat was the original carrier of the plague-infected fleas thought responsible for the Black Death. The bacterium responsible for the Black Death is called Yersinia pestis. Other animals that can carry the plague are cats and dogs.

Symptoms of the Black Death

The plague affected everyone. It did not matter if you were rich or not, old or young, man or woman. The Black Death was very bad for all people in society.

The Black Death killed many knights, ladies, and merchants. It also killed many people in convents, friaries, and monasteries. Artisans lost their jobs because of this event.

The plague had three distinct strains, each of which resulted in a variety of symptoms.

The first one was the bubonic plague. This was a disease with symptoms like painful swellings. Buboes were found around the neck, armpits, and groin. They oozed pus or blood. The symptoms damaged your skin and tissue until you were covered in dark blotches.

Most people who got the plague died in about a week. This would kill 30-75% of those who had it.

The second one was the pneumonic plague, which was a type of airborne sickness. It attacked the lungs before it went to any other part of the body. This is why it was so deadly during the Black Death.

Finally, if you contracted the septicemic plague, you got sick because of your blood. The septicaemic plague caused dangerous bleeding in your body, which was almost always deadly. This was the deadliest form of plague in medieval times.

Medieval Doctors and Medicine

In the past, doctors wore a mask and clothes to protect them from the plague. The costume looked like a bird and had different scents.

The mask had openings for the eyes. Straps held the beak in front of the doctor's nose, which was a type of respirator.

Doctors thought that if there were bad smells, they could remove them. They thought this would prevent the disease. They also thought herbs could remove the smell of evil and keep people from getting infected with the plague.

A wooden cane was used to point out problems and examine patients without disturbing them. A cane was also used to keep people away and remove clothing from plague victims without having to touch them.

Many important developments in the history of medicine and health happened during times when there was the plague. Doctors learned how to do surgery, they learned about blood circulation, and they also figured out how to make public places safer from disease.

People thought they could get cured using unusual remedies. Here are some of them:

God sent the plague to punish people who did bad things. If you do good things, then the plague will not be given to you.

Mix tree resin, roots of white lilies, and human excrements and spread it on your skin.

Bathing should not be avoided. Bathing with vinegar and rosewater is an option, or you can bathe in your own urine if you prefer.

Quarantine for 40 days (quarantine derives from Latin for "forty").

To capture the pestilence, place a live hen near the sores. Drink two glasses of your own urine twice a day to draw out the disease.

Make an emerald tea by grinding the gem. Sip it in wine.

Drink a hot drink of eggs shells, some flowers, and treacle. Do it every day.

Many people left the city. They couldn't escape the disease. People were desperate to save themselves, so they left their sick relatives in the city.

This disease also affected sheep. A lot of them died. This caused a European wool shortage.
Read more about Medieval Medicine
Consequences

The best estimates are that at least 25 million people died in Europe from 1347 to 1352. This is about 40% of the population (some estimates say 60%).

Half the people in Paris who lived there died. In Italy, Florence's population was reduced from 120,000 people to 50,000. The plague was a disaster that is hard to find in recorded history. It took 150 years for Europe's population to recover after the plague.

The plague never ended. It came back years later. But the people in the Venetian-controlled port city of Ragusa were able to slow its spread.

They put sailors in isolation until they were sure that they did not have the disease. They also created social distancing by keeping people apart to slow down the spread of the disease. The sailors were held on their ships for 30 days, and this was later increased to 40 days or a quarantine.

The plague made the system of serfdom collapse. There were fewer laborers, so people who still had their jobs could charge more for their work. There was more land, food, and money to go around.

Women gained property rights. Laws varied depending on the region, but in some parts of England, women who had lost husbands could keep their land for a certain period until they remarried or remarried and still keep the property.

People who were descendants of people who survived the plague were more likely to live to their 50s or beyond. That was because their ancestors had some genetic advantage that allowed them to survive the plague.

The Great Plague of London happened in 1665. It was the last major plague in England. In the 17th century, the plague also disappeared from Spain and Germany. The last major plague epidemic happened in Marseilles, France, from 1720-1721.

Modern sanitation and public-health practices have significantly reduced the number of people who get the disease, but it is still around. Antibiotics can be used to kill the Black Death, but there are still about 1,000 to 3,000 cases every year, according to the WHO (World Health Organization).

Sources

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The Black Death Facts and History - History for Kids

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The Black Death was a plague that killed millions of people. It first showed up in Europe in October 1347. Click to learn more facts!

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Fast and Lethal How the Black Death Spread

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Fast and Lethal How the Black Death Spread

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https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/history-and-civilisation/2020/04/fast-and-lethal-the-black-death-spread-more-than-a-mile-per-day#:~:text=Most%20evidence%20points%20to%20the,bodies%20and%20clothes%20of%20travellers

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Fast and lethal, the Black Death spread more than a mile per day

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Roughly one out of three people died as this medieval plague quickly travelled along European trade routes, devastating communities along the way.

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Causes, Symptoms and Effects of Black Death

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Causes, Symptoms and Effects of Black Death

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How Did the Black Plague Start?

Even before the "death ships" pulled into port at Messina, many Europeans had heard rumors about a "Great Pestilence" that was carving a deadly path across the trade routes of the Near and Far East. Indeed, in the early 1340s, the disease had struck China, India, Persia, Syria and Egypt.

The plague is thought to have originated in Asia over 2,000 years ago and was likely spread by trading ships, though recent research has indicated the pathogen responsible for the Black Death may have existed in Europe as early as 3000 B.C.

Symptoms of the Black Plague

Europeans were scarcely equipped for the horrible reality of the Black Death. "In men and women alike," the Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio wrote, "at the beginning of the malady, certain swellings, either on the groin or under the armpits...waxed to the bigness of a common apple, others to the size of an egg, some more and some less, and these the vulgar named plague-boils."

Blood and pus seeped out of these strange swellings, which were followed by a host of other unpleasant symptoms-fever, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, terrible aches and pains-and then, in short order, death.

The Bubonic Plague attacks the lymphatic system, causing swelling in the lymph nodes. If untreated, the infection can spread to the blood or lungs.

How Did the Black Death Spread?

The Black Death was terrifyingly, indiscriminately contagious: "the mere touching of the clothes," wrote Boccaccio, "appeared to itself to communicate the malady to the toucher." The disease was also terrifyingly efficient. People who were perfectly healthy when they went to bed at night could be dead by morning.

Did you know? Many scholars think that the nursery rhyme "Ring around the Rosy" was written about the symptoms of the Black Death.

Understanding the Black Death

Today, scientists understand that the Black Death, now known as the plague, is spread by a bacillus called Yersinia pestis. (The French biologist Alexandre Yersin discovered this germ at the end of the 19th century.)

They know that the bacillus travels from person to person through the air, as well as through the bite of infected fleas and rats. Both of these pests could be found almost everywhere in medieval Europe, but they were particularly at home aboard ships of all kinds-which is how the deadly plague made its way through one European port city after another.

Not long after it struck Messina, the Black Death spread to the port of Marseilles in France and the port of Tunis in North Africa. Then it reached Rome and Florence, two cities at the center of an elaborate web of trade routes. By the middle of 1348, the Black Death had struck Paris, Bordeaux, Lyon and London.

Today, this grim sequence of events is terrifying but comprehensible. In the middle of the 14th century, however, there seemed to be no rational explanation for it.

No one knew exactly how the Black Death was transmitted from one patient to another, and no one knew how to prevent or treat it. According to one doctor, for example, "instantaneous death occurs when the aerial spirit escaping from the eyes of the sick man strikes the healthy person standing near and looking at the sick."

How Do You Treat the Black Death?

Physicians relied on crude and unsophisticated techniques such as bloodletting and boil-lancing (practices that were dangerous as well as unsanitary) and superstitious practices such as burning aromatic herbs and bathing in rosewater or vinegar.

Meanwhile, in a panic, healthy people did all they could to avoid the sick. Doctors refused to see patients; priests refused to administer last rites; and shopkeepers closed their stores. Many people fled the cities for the countryside, but even there they could not escape the disease: It affected cows, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens as well as people.

In fact, so many sheep died that one of the consequences of the Black Death was a European wool shortage. And many people, desperate to save themselves, even abandoned their sick and dying loved ones. "Thus doing," Boccaccio wrote, "each thought to secure immunity for himself."

Black Plague: God's Punishment?

Because they did not understand the biology of the disease, many people believed that the Black Death was a kind of divine punishment-retribution for sins against God such as greed, blasphemy, heresy, fornication and worldliness.

By this logic, the only way to overcome the plague was to win God's forgiveness. Some people believed that the way to do this was to purge their communities of heretics and other troublemakers-so, for example, many thousands of Jews were massacred in 1348 and 1349. (Thousands more fled to the sparsely populated regions of Eastern Europe, where they could be relatively safe from the rampaging mobs in the cities.)

Some people coped with the terror and uncertainty of the Black Death epidemic by lashing out at their neighbors; others coped by turning inward and fretting about the condition of their own souls.

Flagellants

Some upper-class men joined processions of flagellants that traveled from town to town and engaged in public displays of penance and punishment: They would beat themselves and one another with heavy leather straps studded with sharp pieces of metal while the townspeople looked on. For 33 1/2 days, the flagellants repeated this ritual three times a day. Then they would move on to the next town and begin the process over again.

Though the flagellant movement did provide some comfort to people who felt powerless in the face of inexplicable tragedy, it soon began to worry the Pope, whose authority the flagellants had begun to usurp. In the face of this papal resistance, the movement disintegrated.

How Did the Black Death End?

The plague never really ended and it returned with a vengeance years later. But officials in the port city of Ragusa were able to slow its spread by keeping arriving sailors in isolation until it was clear they were not carrying the disease-creating social distancing that relied on isolation to slow the spread of the disease.

The sailors were initially held on their ships for 30 days (a trentino), a period that was later increased to 40 days, or a quarantine- the origin of the term "quarantine" and a practice still used today.

Does the Black Plague Still Exist?

The Black Death epidemic had run its course by the early 1350s, but the plague reappeared every few generations for centuries. Modern sanitation and public-health practices have greatly mitigated the impact of the disease but have not eliminated it. While antibiotics are available to treat the Black Death, according to The World Health Organization, there are still 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every year.
Gallery: Pandemics That Changed History

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The Black Death was a devastating global epidemic of bubonic plague that struck Europe and Asia in the mid-1300s. Explore the facts of the plague, the symptoms it caused and how millions died from it.

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The outbreak of plague in Europe between 1347-1352 - known as the Black Death - completely changed the world of medieval Europe. Severe depopulation upset the socio-economic feudal system of the time but the experience of the plague itself affected every aspect of people's lives.

Disease on an epidemic scale was simply part of life in the Middle Ages but a pandemic of the severity of the Black Death had never been experienced before and, afterwards, there was no way for the people to resume life as they had previously known it. The Black Death altered the fundamental paradigm of European life in the following areas:

Socio-Economic

Medical Knowledge and Practice

Religious Belief and Practice

Persecution and Migration

Women's Rights

Art & Architecture

Before the plague, the feudal system rigidly divided the population in a caste system of the king at the top, followed by nobles and wealthy merchants, with the peasants (serfs) at the bottom. Medical knowledge was received without question from doctors who relied on physicians of the past and the Catholic Church was considered an even higher authority on spiritual matters. Women were largely regarded as second-class citizens and the art and architecture of the time reflected the people's belief in a benevolent God who responded to prayer and supplication. The bacterium Yersinia pestis, carried by fleas on rodents, and the actual cause of the plague, was unknown to the people of the time and so did not factor into this world view.

Life at this time was by no means easy, or even sometimes pleasant, but people knew - or thought they knew - how the world worked and how to live in it; the plague would change all that and usher in a new understanding which found expression in movements such as the Protestant Reformation and the Renaissance.

Arrival, Spread, & Effect of the Plague

The death toll rose so quickly that the people of Europe had no time to grasp what was happening & what they should do about the situation.

The plague came to Europe from the East, most probably via the trade routes known as the Silk Road overland, and certainly by ship oversea. The Black Death - a combination of bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic plague (and also possibly a strain of murrain) - had been gaining momentum in the East since at least 1322 and, by c. 1343, had infected the troops of the Mongol Golden Horde under the command of the Khan Djanibek (r. 1342-1357) who was besieging the Italian-held city of Caffa (modern-day Feodosia in Crimea) on the Black Sea.

As Djanibek's troops died of the plague, he had their corpses catapulted over the city's walls, infecting the people of Caffa through their contact with the decomposing corpses. Eventually, a number of the city's inhabitants fled the city by ship, first arriving at Sicilian ports and then at Marseilles and others from whence the plague spread inland. Those infected usually died within three days of showing symptoms and the death toll rose so quickly that the people of Europe had no time to grasp what was happening, why, or what they should do about the situation. Scholar Norman F. Cantor comments:

The plague was much more severe in the cities than in the countryside, but its psychological impact penetrated all areas of society. No one - peasant or aristocrat - was safe from the disease, and once it was contracted, a horrible and painful death was almost a certainty. The dead and dying lay in the streets, abandoned by frightened friends and relatives. (Civilization, 482)

As the plague raged on, and all efforts to stop its spread or cure those infected failed, people began to lose faith in the institutions they had relied on previously while the social system of feudalism began to crumble due to the widespread death of the serfs, those who were most susceptible as their living conditions placed them in closer contact with each other on a daily basis than those of the upper classes.

The plague ran rampant among the lower class who sought shelter and assistance from friaries, churches, and monasteries, spreading the plague to the clergy, and from the clergy it spread to the nobility. By the time the disease had run its course in 1352, millions were dead and the social structure of Europe was as unrecognizable as much of the landscape since, as Cantor notes, "many flourishing cities became virtual ghost towns for a time" ( Civilization, 482) and crops lay rotting in the fields with no one to harvest them.

Socio-Economic Effects

Before the plague, the king was thought to own all the land which he allocated to his nobles. The nobles had serfs work the land which turned a profit for the lord who paid a percentage to the king. The serfs themselves earned nothing for their labor except lodging and food they grew themselves. Since all land was the king's, he felt free to give it as gifts to friends, relatives, and other nobility who had been of service to him and so every available piece of land by c. 1347 was being cultivated by serfs under one of these lords.

Europe was severely overpopulated at this time and so there was no shortage of serfs to work the land and these peasants had no choice but to continue this labor - which was in essence a kind of slavery - from the time they could walk until their death. There was no upward mobility in the feudal system and a serf was tied to the land he and his family worked from generation to generation.

Once the plague had passed, the improved lot of the serf was challenged by the upper class who were concerned that the lower classes were forgetting their place. Fashion changed dramatically as the elite demanded more extravagant clothing and accessories to distance themselves from the poor who could now afford to dress more finely than in their previous rags and blankets. Efforts of the wealthy to return the serf to his previous condition resulted in uprisings such as the peasant revolt in France in 1358, the guild revolts of 1378, the famous Peasants' Revolt of London in 1381. There was no turning back, however, and the efforts of the elite were futile. Class struggle would continue but the authority of the feudal system was broken.

Effect on Medical Knowledge & Practice

The challenge to authority also affected received medical knowledge and practice. Doctors based their medical knowledge primarily on the work of the Roman physician Galen (l. 130-210) as well as on Hippocrates (l. c. 460 - c. 370 BCE) and Aristotle (l. 384-322 BCE), but many of these works were only available in translations from Arabic copies and, often, poor ones. Even so, the works they had were put to the best use they possibly could be. Scholar Jeffrey Singman comments:

Medieval science was far from primitive; in fact, it was a highly sophisticated system based on the accumulated writings of theorists since the first millennium BCE. The weakness of medieval science was its theoretical and bookish orientation, which emphasized the authority of accepted authors. The duty of the scholar [and doctor] was to interpret and reconcile these ancient authorities, rather than to test their theories against observed realities. (62)

Doctors and other caregivers were seen dying at an alarming rate as they tried to cure plague victims using their traditional understanding and, further, nothing they prescribed did anything for their patients. It became clear, by as early as 1349, that people recovered from the plague or died from it for seemingly no reason at all. A cure that had restored one patient to health would fail to work on the next.

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After the plague, doctors began to question their former practice of accepting the knowledge of the past without adapting it to present circumstances. Scholar Joseph A. Legan writes:

Medicine slowly began changing during the generation after the initial outbreak of Plague. Many leading medical theoreticians perished in the Plague, which opened the discipline to new ideas. A second cause for change was while university-based medicine failed, people began turning to the more practical surgeons...With the rise of surgery, more attention was given to the direct study of the human body, both in sickness and in health. Anatomical investigations and dissections, seldom performed in pre-plague Europe, were pursued more urgently with more support from public authorities. (53)

The death of so many scribes and theoreticians, who formerly wrote or translated medical treatises in Latin, resulted in new works being written in the vernacular languages. This allowed common people to read medical texts which broadened the base of medical knowledge. Further, hospitals developed into institutions more closely resembling those in the modern-day. Previously, hospitals were used only to isolate sick people; after the plague, they became centers for treatment with a much higher degree of cleanliness and attention to patient care.

Change in Religious Attitude

the extravagant lifestyle of the clergy & the mounting deaths from the plague generated widespread distrust of the Church's vision & authority.

Doctors and theoreticians were not the only ones whose authority was challenged by the plague, however, as the clergy came under the same kind of scrutiny and inspired the same - or far greater - doubt in their abilities to perform the services they claimed to be able to. Friars, monks, priests, and nuns died just as easily as anyone else - in some towns, religious services simply stopped because there were no authorities to lead them - and, further, the charms and amulets people purchased for protection, the services they did attend, the processions they took part in, the prayer and the fasting, all did nothing to stop the spread of the plague and, in some instances, encouraged it.

The Flagellant Movement, in which groups of penitents would travel town to town whipping themselves to atone for their sins, began in Austria and gained momentum in Germany and France. These groups, led by a self-proclaimed Master with little or no religious training, not only helped spread the plague but also disrupted communities by their insistence on attacking marginalized groups such as the Jews.

Increased Persecution & Migration

The frustration people felt at their helplessness in the face of the plague gave rise to violent outbursts of persecution across Europe. The Flagellant Movement was not the only source of persecution; otherwise peaceful citizens could be whipped into a frenzy to attack communities of Jews, Romani (gypsies), lepers, or others. Women were also abused in the belief that they encouraged sin because of their association with the biblical Eve and the fall of man.

The most common targets, however, were the Jews who had long been singled out for Christian hostility. The Christian concept of the Jew as "Christ Killer" encouraged a large body of superstition which included the claim that Jews killed Christian children and used their blood in unholy rituals, that this blood was often spread by Jews on the fields around a town to cause plague, and that the Jews regularly poisoned wells in the hopes of killing as many Christians as possible.

Jewish communities were completely destroyed in Germany, Austria, and France - in spite of a bull issued by Pope Clement VI (l. 1291-1352) exonerating the Jews and condemning Christian attacks on them. Large migrations of Jewish communities fled the scenes of these massacres, many of them finally settling in Poland and Eastern Europe.

Women's Rights

Women, on the other hand, gained higher status following the plague. Prior to the outbreak, women had few rights. Scholar Eileen Power writes:

In considering the characteristic medieval ideas about women, it is important to know not only what the ideas themselves were but also what were the sources from which they spring...In the early Middle Ages, what passed for contemporary opinion [on women] came from two sources - the Church and the aristocracy. (9)

Neither the medieval Church nor the aristocracy held women in very high regard. Women of the lower classes could work as bakers, milkmaids, barmaids, weavers, and, of course, as laborers with their family on the estate of the lord but had no say in directing their own fate. The lord would decide who a girl would marry, not her father, and a woman would go from being under the direct control of her father, who was subject to the lord, to the control of her husband who was equally subordinate.

Women's status had improved somewhat through the popularity of the Cult of the Virgin Mary which associated women with the mother of Jesus Christ but the Church continually emphasized women's inherent sinfulness as daughters of Eve who had brought sin into the world.

After the plague, with so many men dead, women were allowed to own their own land, cultivate the businesses formerly run by their husband or son, and had greater liberty in choosing a mate. Women joined guilds, ran shipping and textile businesses, and could own taverns and farmlands. Although many of these rights would be diminished later as the aristocracy and the Church tried to assert its former control, women would still be better off after the plague than they were beforehand.

Art & Architecture

The plague also dramatically affected medieval art and architecture. Artistic pieces (paintings, wood-block prints, sculptures, and others) tended to be more realistic than before and, almost uniformly, focused on death. Scholar Anna Louise DesOrmeaux comments:

Some plague art contains gruesome imagery that was directly influenced by the mortality of the plague or by the medieval fascination with the macabre and awareness of death that were augmented by the plague. Some plague art documents psychosocial responses to the fear that plague aroused in its victims. Other plague art is of a subject that directly responds to people's reliance on religion to give them hope. (29)

The most famous motif was the Dance of Death (also known as Danse Macabre) an allegorical representation of death claiming people from all walks of life to come with him. As DesOrmeaux notes, post-plague art did not reference the plague directly but anyone viewing a piece would understand the symbolism. This is not to say there were no allusions to death before the plague, only that such became far more pronounced afterwards.

Architecture was similarly influenced, as noted by Cantor:

In England, there was a parallel increased austerity in architectural style which can be attributed to the Black Death - a shift from the Decorated version of French Gothic, which featured elaborate sculptures and glass, to a more spare style called Perpendicular, with sharper profiles of buildings and corners, less opulent, rounded, and effete than Decorated...The cause may have been economic - less capital to spend on decoration because of heavy war taxation and reduction of estate incomes because of labor shortage and higher peasants' wages. (Wake, 209)

Since peasants could now demand a higher wage, the kinds of elaborate building projects which were commissioned before the plague were no longer as easily affordable, resulting in more austere and cost-effective structures. Scholars have noted, however, that post-plague architecture also clearly resonated with the pervasive pessimism of the time and a preoccupation with sin and death.

Conclusion

It was not only the higher wages demanded by the peasant class, nor a preoccupation with death that affected post-plague architecture, however, but the vast reduction in agricultural production and demand due to depopulation which led to an economic recession. Fields were left uncultivated and crops were allowed to rot while, at the same time, nations severely limited imports in an effort to control the spread of the plague which only worsened their economies as well as those of their former trading partners.

The widespread fear of a death one had not earned, could not see coming, and could not escape, stunned the population of Europe at the time and, once they had somewhat recovered, inspired them to rethink the way they were living previously and the kinds of values they had held. Although little changed initially, by the middle of the 15th century radical changes - unimaginable only one hundred years before - were taking place throughout Europe, notably the Protestant Reformation, the agricultural shift from large-scale grain-farming to animal husbandry, the wage increase for urban and rural laborers, and the many other advances associated with the Renaissance.

Plague outbreaks would continue long after the Black Death pandemic of the 14th century but none would have the same psychological impact resulting in a complete reevaluation of the existing paradigm of received knowledge. Europe - as well as other regions - based its reactions to the Black Death on traditional conventions - whether religious or secular - and, when these failed, new models for understanding the world had to be created.

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The outbreak of plague in Europe between 1347-1352 - known as the Black Death - completely changed the world of medieval Europe. Severe depopulation upset the socio-economic feudal system of the time...

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Courtesy of the National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, D.C

In 1918-19 a severe outbreak of influenza, or flu, affected people all over the world. Many millions of people died. It was considered a pandemic-an outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads to a high proportion of people across a wide geographic area, often over several months. The influenza pandemic of 1918-19 was the most severe influenza outbreak of the 20th century. In terms of the total numbers of deaths, it was among the most devastating pandemics in human history. It is also called the Spanish influenza pandemic or Spanish flu, because the disease was widely reported in Spain early in the pandemic.

Cynthia Goldsmith/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (Image Number: 8160)

Influenza is an infectious respiratory disease caused by several closely related viruses. It is transmitted from person to person through airborne respiratory droplets, mainly from coughing and sneezing. A common illness, flu affects many people each year. From time to time, an epidemic (an outbreak that spreads quickly among many people in one part of the world) or pandemic of influenza occurs. Such an outbreak can occur if a new strain of influenza virus emerges against which the population has no immunity. That is what happened in 1918-19. A strain of a virus called influenza type A subtype H1N1 is now known to have been the cause of the pandemic and its high number of deaths. Scientists estimate that the 1918-19 pandemic resulted in 25 million deaths, though some researchers have projected that it caused as many as 40-50 million deaths.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (cph 3a39569)

The pandemic occurred in three waves. The first wave apparently started in early March 1918, during World War I. Although it remains uncertain where the virus first emerged, it quickly spread through western Europe. By July it had spread to Poland. The first wave of influenza was comparatively mild. However, during the summer a more lethal type of disease was recognized, and this form fully emerged in August 1918. Pneumonia often developed quickly, and in fatal cases death usually came two days after the first indications of the flu. The virus spread rapidly. For example, at Camp Devens, Massachusetts, six days after the first case of influenza was reported, there were 6,674 cases. The third wave of the pandemic occurred in the following winter, and by the spring the virus had run its course. In the two later waves about half the deaths were among 20- to 40-year-olds, an unusual pattern for influenza.

Outbreaks of the flu occurred in nearly every inhabited part of the world, first in ports, then spreading from city to city along the main transportation routes. The disease reached distant islands in the South Pacific, including New Zealand and Samoa. India is believed to have suffered at least 12.5 million deaths during the pandemic. In the United States about 550,000 people died. Most deaths worldwide occurred during the brutal second and third waves. Other outbreaks of the same strain of influenza occurred in the 1920s but with declining severity.

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In 1918-19 a severe outbreak of influenza, or flu, affected people all over the world. Many millions of people died. It was considered a pandemic-an outbreak of an infectious...

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Influenza pandemic of 1918 facts for kids

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Influenza pandemic of 1918 facts for kids

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The Influenza pandemic of 1918 or Spanish flu was a serious pandemic of influenza. It lasted for three years, from January 1918 to December 1920. About 500 million people were infected across the world with a population of 1.80 billion people.

The pandemic spread to remote Pacific Islands and the Arctic. It killed 50 million to 100 million people- three to five percent of the world's population at the time.

It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in human history. One of the reasons for that was becuase the pandemic occured before people knew much about viruses, and before anti-viral medications and vaccines. The people would also get secondary infections leading to pneumonia, which in today's world we would treat with antibiotics like penicillin. Unfortunately Penicillin was only discovered in 1928, ten years after the 1918 pandemic.

To maintain morale, wartime censors reduced reports of illness and mortality in Germany, Britain (United Kingdom), France, and the United States; but papers could report the epidemic's effects in neutral Spain (such as the grave illness of King Alfonso XIII). This situation created the false impression of Spain being especially hard-hit. It also resulted in the nickname Spanish flu.

Often, influenza outbreaks kill young people, or the elderly, or those patients that are already weakened. This was not the case for the 1918 pandemic, which killed mainly healthy young adults. Modern research, using virus taken from the bodies of frozen victims, has concluded that the virus kills through a cytokine storm (overreaction of the body's immune system). The strong immune reactions of young adults ravaged the body. But, the weaker immune systems of children and middle-aged adults caused fewer deaths among those groups.

There is not enough historical and epidemiological data to show where the pandemic started. The pandemic may be a cause of the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica in the 1920s. Another flu pandemic had happened in the 21st century that turns out to be new strain of H1N1. The outbreak began in Mexico and then the United States; spread to the world.

Images for kids

Public health recommendations from the 1918 Illustrated Current News, New Haven, CT

Front page of El Sol ( Madrid), 28 May 1918: "The three-day fever. 80,000 infected in Madrid. H.M. the king is sick."

Advertisement in The Times 28 June 1918 for Formamint tablets to prevent 'Spanish influenza'

Edvard Munch (1863-1944), Self-Portrait with the Spanish Flu (1919)

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Influenza pandemic of 1918 Facts for Kids

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The Influenza pandemic of 1918 or Spanish flu was a serious pandemic of influenza. It lasted for three years, from January 1918 to December 1920. About 500 million people were infected across the world with a population of 1.80 billion people. The pandemic spread to remote Pacific Islands and the Arctic.

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Spanish Flu How it Began and How it Ended

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Spanish Flu How it Began and How it Ended

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What Is the Flu?

Influenza, or flu, is a virus that attacks the respiratory system. The flu virus is highly contagious: When an infected person coughs, sneezes or talks, respiratory droplets are generated and transmitted into the air, and can then can be inhaled by anyone nearby.

Additionally, a person who touches something with the virus on it and then touches his or her mouth, eyes or nose can become infected.

Did you know? During the flu pandemic of 1918, the New York City health commissioner tried to slow the transmission of the flu by ordering businesses to open and close on staggered shifts to avoid overcrowding on the subways.

Flu outbreaks happen every year and vary in severity, depending in part on what type of virus is spreading. (Flu viruses can rapidly mutate.)

Flu Season

In the United States, "flu season" generally runs from late fall into spring. In a typical year, more than 200,000 Americans are hospitalized for flu-related complications, and over the past three decades, there have been some 3,000 to 49,000 flu-related U.S. deaths annually, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Young children, people over age 65, pregnant women and people with certain medical conditions, such as asthma, diabetes or heart disease, face a higher risk of flu-related complications, including pneumonia, ear and sinus infections and bronchitis.

A flu pandemic, such as the one in 1918, occurs when an especially virulent new influenza strain for which there's little or no immunity appears and spreads quickly from person to person around the globe.

Spanish Flu Symptoms

The first wave of the 1918 pandemic occurred in the spring and was generally mild. The sick, who experienced such typical flu symptoms as chills, fever and fatigue, usually recovered after several days, and the number of reported deaths was low.

However, a second, highly contagious wave of influenza appeared with a vengeance in the fall of that same year. Victims died within hours or days of developing symptoms, their skin turning blue and their lungs filling with fluid that caused them to suffocate. In just one year, 1918, the average life expectancy in America plummeted by a dozen years.

What Caused the Spanish Flu?

It's unknown exactly where the particular strain of influenza that caused the pandemic came from; however, the 1918 flu was first observed in Europe, America and areas of Asia before spreading to almost every other part of the planet within a matter of months.

Despite the fact that the 1918 flu wasn't isolated to one place, it became known around the world as the Spanish flu, as Spain was hit hard by the disease and was not subject to the wartime news blackouts that affected other European countries. (Even Spain's king, Alfonso XIII, reportedly contracted the flu.)

One unusual aspect of the 1918 flu was that it struck down many previously healthy, young people-a group normally resistant to this type of infectious illness-including a number of World War I servicemen.

In fact, more U.S. soldiers died from the 1918 flu than were killed in battle during the war. Forty percent of the U.S. Navy was hit with the flu, while 36 percent of the Army became ill, and troops moving around the world in crowded ships and trains helped to spread the killer virus.

Although the death toll attributed to the Spanish flu is often estimated at 20 million to 50 million victims worldwide, other estimates run as high as 100 million victims-around 3 percent of the world's population. The exact numbers are impossible to know due to a lack of medical record-keeping in many places.

What is known, however, is that few locations were immune to the 1918 flu-in America, victims ranged from residents of major cities to those of remote Alaskan communities. Even President Woodrow Wilson reportedly contracted the flu in early 1919 while negotiating the Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I.

Why Was The Spanish Flu Called The Spanish Flu?

The Spanish Flu did not originate in Spain, though news coverage of it did. During World War I, Spain was a neutral country with free media that covered the outbreak from the start, first reporting on it in Madrid in late May of 1918. Meanwhile, Allied countries and the Central Powers had wartime censors who covered up news of the flu to keep morale high. Because Spanish news sources were the only ones reporting on the flu, many believed it originated there (the Spanish, meanwhile, believed the virus came from France and called it the "French Flu.")

Where Did The Spanish Flu Come From?

Scientists still do not know for sure where the Spanish Flu originated, though theories point to France, China, Britain, or the United States, where the first known case was reported at Camp Funston in Fort Riley, Kansas, on March 11, 1918.

Some believe infected soldiers spread the disease to other military camps across the country, then brought it overseas. In March 1918, 84,000 American soldiers headed across the Atlantic and were followed by 118,000 more the following month.

Fighting the Spanish Flu

When the 1918 flu hit, doctors and scientists were unsure what caused it or how to treat it. Unlike today, there were no effective vaccines or antivirals, drugs that treat the flu. (The first licensed flu vaccine appeared in America in the 1940s. By the following decade, vaccine manufacturers could routinely produce vaccines that would help control and prevent future pandemics.)

Complicating matters was the fact that World War I had left parts of America with a shortage of physicians and other health workers. And of the available medical personnel in the U.S., many came down with the flu themselves.

Additionally, hospitals in some areas were so overloaded with flu patients that schools, private homes and other buildings had to be converted into makeshift hospitals, some of which were staffed by medical students.

Officials in some communities imposed quarantines, ordered citizens to wear masks and shut down public places, including schools, churches and theaters. People were advised to avoid shaking hands and to stay indoors, libraries put a halt on lending books and regulations were passed banning spitting.

According to The New York Times, during the pandemic, Boy Scouts in New York City approached people they'd seen spitting on the street and gave them cards that read: "You are in violation of the Sanitary Code."

Aspirin Poisoning and the Flu

With no cure for the flu, many doctors prescribed medication that they felt would alleviate symptoms... including aspirin, which had been trademarked by Bayer in 1899-a patent that expired in 1917, meaning new companies were able to produce the drug during the Spanish Flu epidemic.

Before the spike in deaths attributed to the Spanish Flu in 1918, the U.S. Surgeon General, Navy and the Journal of the American Medical Association had all recommended the use of aspirin. Medical professionals advised patients to take up to 30 grams per day, a dose now known to be toxic. (For comparison's sake, the medical consensus today is that doses above four grams are unsafe.) Symptoms of aspirin poisoning include hyperventilation and pulmonary edema, or the buildup of fluid in the lungs, and it's now believed that many of the October deaths were actually caused or hastened by aspirin poisoning.

The Flu Takes Heavy Toll on Society

The flu took a heavy human toll, wiping out entire families and leaving countless widows and orphans in its wake. Funeral parlors were overwhelmed and bodies piled up. Many people had to dig graves for their own family members.

The flu was also detrimental to the economy. In the United States, businesses were forced to shut down because so many employees were sick. Basic services such as mail delivery and garbage collection were hindered due to flu-stricken workers.

In some places there weren't enough farm workers to harvest crops. Even state and local health departments closed for business, hampering efforts to chronicle the spread of the 1918 flu and provide the public with answers about it.

How U.S. Cities Tried to Stop The 1918 Flu Pandemic

A devastating second wave of the Spanish Flu hit American shores in the summer of 1918, as returning soldiers infected with the disease spread it to the general population-especially in densely-crowded cities. Without a vaccine or approved treatment plan, it fell to local mayors and healthy officials to improvise plans to safeguard the safety of their citizens. With pressure to appear patriotic during wartime and with a censored media downplaying the disease's spread, many made tragic decisions.

Philadelphia's response was too little, too late. Dr. Wilmer Krusen, director of Public Health and Charities for the city, insisted mounting fatalities were not the "Spanish flu," but rather just the normal flu. So on September 28, the city went forward with a Liberty Loan parade attended by tens of thousands of Philadelphians, spreading the disease like wildfire. In just 10 days, over 1,000 Philadelphians were dead, with another 200,000 sick. Only then did the city close saloons and theaters. By March 1919, over 15,000 citizens of Philadelphia had lost their lives.

St. Louis, Missouri, was different: Schools and movie theaters closed and public gatherings were banned. Consequently, the peak mortality rate in St. Louis was just one-eighth of Philadelphia's death rate during the peak of the pandemic.

Citizens in San Francisco were fined $5-a significant sum at the time-if they were caught in public without masks and charged with disturbing the peace.

Spanish Flu Pandemic Ends

By the summer of 1919, the flu pandemic came to an end, as those that were infected either died or developed immunity.

Almost 90 years later, in 2008, researchers announced they'd discovered what made the 1918 flu so deadly: A group of three genes enabled the virus to weaken a victim's bronchial tubes and lungs and clear the way for bacterial pneumonia.

Since 1918, there have been several other influenza pandemics, although none as deadly. A flu pandemic from 1957 to 1958 killed around 2 million people worldwide, including some 70,000 people in the United States, and a pandemic from 1968 to 1969 killed approximately 1 million people, including some 34,000 Americans.

More than 12,000 Americans perished during the H1N1 (or "swine flu") pandemic that occurred from 2009 to 2010. The COVID-19 pandemic, which started in December 2019, spread around the world before an effective COVID-19 vaccine was made available in December 2020. By May of 2023, when the World Health Organization declared an end to the global coronavirus emergency, almost 7 million people had died of COVID-19.

Each of these modern day pandemics brings renewed interest in and attention to the Spanish Flu, or "forgotten pandemic," so-named because its spread was overshadowed by the deadliness of World War I and covered up by news blackouts and poor record-keeping.

Sources

Salicylates and Pandemic Influenza Mortality, 1918-1919 Pharmacology, Pathology, and Historic Evidence. Clinical Infectious Diseases.

In 1918 Pandemic, Another Possible Killer: Aspirin. The New York Times.

How the Horrific 1918 Flu Spread Across America. Smithsonian Magazine.

What the Spanish Flu Debacle Can Teach Us About Coronavirus. Politico.

WHO declares end to Covid global health emergency. NBC News.

COVID-19 Dashboard. WHO.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Spanish Flu - Symptoms, How It Began & Ended

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The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, the deadliest in history, infected an estimated 500 million people worldwide-about one-third of the planet's population-and killed an estimated 20 million to 50 million victims, including some 675,000 Americans.

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Kids coping - the 1918 influenza pandemic

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Kids coping - the 1918 influenza pandemic

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Kids coping - the 1918 influenza pandemic | NZHistory, New Zealand history online

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Many children were made orphans by the pandemic. For others it was just an extended holiday from school.

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The Spanish flu: The global impact of the largest influenza pandemic in history

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The Spanish flu: The global impact of the largest influenza pandemic in history

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Our World in Data presents the data and research to make progress against the world's largest problems. Parts of the article - mostly the mortality estimates of the various influenza pandemics - were revised in May 2023.

In the last 150 years the world has seen an unprecedented improvement in health. The visualization shows that in many countries life expectancy, which measures the average age of death, doubled from around 40 years or less to more than 80 years. This was not just an achievement across the countries shown here; life expectancy has doubled in all regions of the world.

What also stands out is how abrupt and damning negative health events can be. Most striking is the large, sudden decline of life expectancy in 1918, caused by an unusually deadly influenza pandemic that became known as the 'Spanish flu'.

To make sense of the fact life expectancy declined so abruptly, one has to keep in mind what it measures. Period life expectancy, which is the precise name for this measure, captures the mortality in one particular year. It summarizes the mortality in a particular year by calculating the average age of death of a hypothetical cohort of people for which that year's mortality pattern would remain constant throughout their entire lifetimes.

This influenza outbreak wasn't restricted to Spain and it didn't even originate there. Recent genetic research suggests that the strain emerged a few years earlier, around 1915, but did not take off until later on. The earliest recorded outbreak was in Kansas in the United States in 1918.

But it was named as such because Spain was neutral in the First World War (1914-18), which meant it was free to report on the severity of the pandemic, while countries that were fighting tried to suppress reports on how the influenza impacted their population to maintain morale and not appear weakened in the eyes of the enemies. Since it is very valuable to speak openly about the threat of an infectious disease I think Spain should be proud that it was not like other countries at that time.

The virus spread rapidly and eventually reached all parts of the world: the epidemic became a pandemic. Even in a much less-connected world the virus eventually reached extremely remote places such as the Alaskan wilderness and Samoa in the middle of the Pacific islands. In these remote places the mortality rate was often particularly high.

How many people died in the Spanish flu pandemic?

The global death count of the flu today:

To have a context for the severity of influenza pandemics it might be helpful to know the death count of a typical flu season. Current estimates for the annual number of deaths from influenza are around 400,000 deaths per year. Paget et al (2019) suggest an average of 389,000 with an uncertainty range 294,000 from 518,000. This means that in recent years the flu was responsible for the death of 0.005% of the world population. Even in comparison to the low estimate for the death count of the Spanish flu (17.4 million) this pandemic, more than a century ago, caused a death rate that was 182-times higher than today's baseline.

Global deaths of the Spanish flu

Several research teams have worked on the difficult problem of reconstructing the global health impact of the Spanish flu.

The visualization here shows the available estimates from the different research publications discussed in the following. The range of published estimates for the Spanish flu is particularly wide.

The widely cited study by Johnson and Mueller (2002) arrives at a very high estimate of at least 50 million global deaths. But the authors suggest that this could be an underestimation and that the true death toll was as high as 100 million.

Patterson and Pyle (1991) estimated that between 24.7 and 39.3 million died from the pandemic.

The more recent study by Spreeuwenberg et al. (2018) concluded that earlier estimates have been too high. Their own estimate is 17.4 million deaths.

The global death rate of the Spanish flu

How do these estimates compare with the size of the world population at the time? How large was the share who died in the pandemic?

Estimates suggest that the world population in 1918 was 1.8 billion.

Based on this, the low estimate of 17.4 million deaths by Spreeuwenberg et al. (2018) implies that the Spanish flu killed almost 1% of the world population.

The estimate of 50 million deaths published by Johnson and Mueller implies that the Spanish flu killed 2.7% of the world population. And if it was in fact higher - 100 million as these authors suggest - then the global death rate would have been 5.4%.

The world population was growing by around 13 million every year in this period which suggests that the period of the Spanish flu was likely the last time in history when the world population was declining.

Other large influenza pandemics

The Spanish flu pandemic was the largest, but not the only large recent influenza pandemic.

Two decades before the Spanish flu the Russian flu pandemic (1889-1894) is believed to have killed 1 million people.

Estimates for the death toll of the "Asian Flu" (1957-1958) range from 1.7 to 2.7 million according to Spreeuwenberg et al. (2018).

The same authors estimate that the "Hong Kong Flu" (1968-1969) killed between 2 and 3.8 million people.

The "Russian Flu" pandemic of 1889-1890 is believed to be caused by an H3 pandemic virus. According to Spreeuwenberg et al. (2018) around 3.7 to 5.1 million people died worldwide.

The "Swine flu" pandemic of 2009-2010 was caused by a new H1N1 pandemic virus. Several research groups have made estimates of the global death toll, which ranges from 130,000 to 1.87 million people worldwide.

What becomes clear from this overview are two things: influenza pandemics are not rare, but the Spanish flu of 1918 was by far the most devastating influenza pandemic in recorded history.

The impact of the Spanish flu on different age groups

This last visualization here shows the life expectancy in England and Wales by age.

The red line shows the life expectancy for a newborn, with the rainbow-colored lines above showing how long a person could expect to live once they had reached that given, older, age. The light green line, for example, represents the life expectancy for children who have reached age 10.

It shows that life expectancy increased at all ages, which means that the often-heard assertion that life expectancy 'only' increased because child mortality declined is not true.

With respect to the impact of the Spanish flu it is striking that the visualization shows that the pandemic had little impact on older people. While the life expectancy at birth and at young ages declined by more than ten years, the life expectancy of 60- and 70-year olds saw no change. This is at odds with what one would reasonably expect: older populations tend to be most vulnerable to influenza outbreaks and respiratory infections. If we look at mortality for both lower respiratory infections (pneumonia) and upper respiratory infections today, death rates are highest for those who are 70 years and older.

This data tells us that young people accounted for a large share of the deaths, this made this pandemic especially devastating.

Why were older people so resilient to the 1918 pandemic? The research literature suggests that this was the case because older people had lived through an earlier flu outbreak - the already discussed 'Russian flu pandemic' of 1889-90 - which gave those who lived through it some immunity for the later outbreak of the Spanish flu.

The earlier 1889-90 pandemic might have given the older population some immunity, but was a destructive event in itself. According to Smith 132,000 people died in England, Wales, and Ireland alone.

How the Spanish flu differs from the Coronavirus outbreak in 2020

Writing in early March 2020 it is an obvious question to ask how the ongoing outbreak of Covid-19 compares. There are a number of important differences that should be considered.

They are not the same disease and the virus causing these diseases are very different. The virus that causes Covid-19 is a coronavirus, not an influenza virus that caused the Spanish flu and the other influenza pandemics listed above.

The age-specific mortality seems to be very different. As we've seen above, the Spanish flu in 1918 was especially dangerous to infants and younger people. The new coronavirus that causes Covid-19 appears to be most lethal to the elderly, based on early evidence in China.

We've also seen above that during the Spanish flu many countries tried to suppress any information about the influenza outbreak. Today the sharing of data, research, and news is certainly not perfect, but very different and much more open than in the past.

But it is true that the world today is much better connected. In 1918 it was railroads and steamships that connected the world. Today planes can carry people and viruses to many corners of the world in a very short time.

Differences in health systems and infrastructure also matter. The Spanish flu hit the world in the days before antibiotics were invented; and many deaths, perhaps most, were not caused by the influenza virus itself, but by secondary bacterial infections. Morens et al (2008) found that during the Spanish flu "the majority of deaths ... likely resulted directly from secondary bacterial pneumonia caused by common upper respiratory-tract bacteria."

And not just health systems were different, but also the health and living conditions of the global population. The 1918 flu hit a world population of which a very large share was extremely poor - large shares of the population were undernourished, in most parts of the world the populations lived in very poor health, and overcrowding, poor sanitation and low hygiene standards were common. Additionally the populations in many parts of the world were weakened by a global war. Public resources were small and many countries had just spent large shares of their resources on the war.

While most of the world is much richer and healthier now, the concern today too is that it is the poorest people that are going to be hit hardest by the Covid-19 outbreak.

These differences suggest that one should be cautious in drawing lessons from the outbreak a century ago.

But the Spanish flu reminds us just how large the impact of a pandemic can be, even in countries that had already been successful in improving population health. A new pathogen can cause terrible devastation and lead to the death of millions. For this reason the Spanish flu has been cited as a warning and as a motivation to prepare well for large pandemic outbreaks, which have been considered likely by many researchers.

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The Spanish flu: The global impact of the largest influenza pandemic in history

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The Spanish flu pandemic had a devastating impact on the global population.

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Social and Economic Impacts of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic

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Social and Economic Impacts of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic

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Social and Economic Impacts of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic

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An estimated 40 million people, or 2.1 percent of the global population, died in the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918-20. If a similar pandemic occurred today, it would result in 150 million deaths worldwide. In The Coronavirus and the Great Influenza Pandemic: Lessons from the "Spanish Flu" for the Coronavirus's Potential Effects on Mortality and Economic Activity (NBER Working Paper ), Robert J.

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Calm, Cool, Courageous: Nursing and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic

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Calm, Cool, Courageous: Nursing and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic

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The 1918 influenza virus, erroneously known as Spanish Flu, presented first in late spring. During its second wave in late summer, doctors quickly noted it was different than the normal seasonal flu, even at times misdiagnosing it. This strain caused tremendous stress on the body, had a higher rate of death, and was atypically seen more in young adults than in the rest of the population. Ordinary flu has a higher death rate in young children and older adults; this strain of influenza caused a spike in young adults contracting and dying from the disease. It would kill an estimated 50 million people world-wide. In the United States 25 million people were infected with influenza, about 25% of the population, and would kill 675,000.

In Philadelphia over 12,000 people would die

Philadelphia had one of the highest death rates in the country, 4 times higher than Boston. The daily death toll from influenza alone in Philadelphia would exceed the city's average weekly death toll from all causes. In a single day, 759 people died from the pandemic alone. In an average week, 485 died from all causes. Within 10 days the city went from 2 deaths and hundreds ill to hundreds dead each day and hundreds of thousands ill. Every hospital bed in 31 hospitals were filled. People who were healthy a couple days ago were fighting for their lives, some dying within a day of contracting influenza. For over three weeks, influenza paralyzed the city. Schools were closed. Public meetings were banned. Yet the population continued to get sick. Despite declarations on October 4 th and 5 th, the peak of the pandemic didn't happen until the week of the 19 th when 4,597 died from influenza or pneumonia. Despite the numerous deaths though, many more survived and recovered from the illness.

As influenza spread, so too did fear. People isolated themselves, not speaking to anyone, avoiding crowds, not having anywhere to go but stay at home, where there may be people sick or dead. The rapid rate of death, and the fact there were so many dying, meant the city and it's undertakers and morgue couldn't keep up with dead bodies. The city morgue was designed to hold 36 bodies. It was quickly overrun, with nearly 200 bodies crammed into every available space. Exacerbating the overload, besides the rapid influx of the dead, was the lack of available undertakers and grave diggers. For some families, it was easier for them to dig a grave themselves than wait for someone else.

During the height of the flu the city established 5 additional temporary morgues, but even that wasn't enough. Bodies piled up in hospitals, on porches, on the streets, and in the home. Rooms, if there were any to spare, were sectioned off when family members couldn't arrange for or find someone to take care of the body. Without embalming, the bodies began to decay; bodies oozed and blood would flow out. The smell was everywhere. Philadelphians could walk down the street seeing and smelling dozens and dozens of bodies. Death was everywhere.

Nurses were at the forefront of care

Thousands of patients reported the classic symptoms of influenza- fever, aches, sore throat, and headache. However, this strain struck more severely and soon some patients turned blue at the fingers, arms or face, had trouble breathing, and even bled. More shocking was these were young men and women suffering from these terrible symptoms. Doctors had few resources and few medicines to assist at the time though they did their best. Nurses could help. Nursing care was critical in the day-to-day battle against influenza. Nurses were overwhelmed with numbers of patients, either at the hospital, at home, or in the field, yet they continued to do their job in the face of overwhelming numbers.

There weren't enough hands to help each patient- some died within 12 hours before being seen by a nurse or a doctor. Fresh laundry, water, and fluids and food were critical to combating the flu, but with so many patients it was difficult to obtain supplies. Medicines to ease the pain ran out. Clean linens and soups were used as quickly as they were made.

Visiting nurses from the Visiting Nurse Society of Philadelphia, which provided nursing care in the home, took on some of the earliest cases of the flu and were overwhelmed before the Liberty Bond Parade. By the end of the first week of October, these nurses would see on average 20-30 cases in a day, with the highest at 40 cases in a single day. And each case might be more than one patient. Nurses often cared for most of one family in a single call. Some arrived too late to provide care and instead found bodies and orphans.

"... In a crib beside the mother's bed was a six-week- old baby who had not been bathed for four days and was wet and cold. Though the father ... running a temperature of 103 degrees, had to get out of bed ... to care for his wife and children... . The family had no coal, and the three well children were shivering and hungry. The nurse gave care to the sick and bathed and fed the baby. She made a wood fire in the stove and prepared food for the other children. She then found a kind neighbor to continue to look after the children."

Heroes and martyrs

Whether it was in the home or in the hospital, nurses made their rounds to as many patients as they could, saving those when they could. Nurses put themselves on the line knowing they themselves could contract the same illness. The nurses remained professionals.

Patient care in hospitals remained the same. In an apprenticeship that provided hospitals with free labor, student nurses received on the job experience by caring for hospital patients while also attending various lectures on procedures, medications, and nursing care. When influenza spread throughout the country, nursing students were on the front lines caring for desperately ill patients. These students often fell ill themselves and saw fellow students get sick and even die, from the influenza. It wasn't uncommon for training schools to report at least one student fatality from influenza.

Regardless of where they worked nurses remained calm, cool, and courageous in the midst of the deadly outbreak.

Want to learn more?

Curated Galleries from Our Collections:
Annual Reports Across Philadelphia
Meetings and Minutes Across Philadelphia
Presbyterian School of Nursing Student Influenza 1918 records
Visiting Nurse Society of Philadelphia Scrapbook

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Calm, Cool, Courageous: Nursing and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic

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Philadelphia was hit hard by the 1918 Influenza Pandemic and relied on nurses and nursing care to survive.

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If you've been watching the news lately, chances are you'll have heard lots about an illness that's affecting people around the world, called coronavirus.
It's natural to feel worried about stuff you read in the news. If you're feeling anxious about coronavirus, talk to a trusted grown-up, like a parent, guardian or teacher about how you're feeling. You can also find online support on the Open Minds website.

What is coronavirus?

How did the coronavirus outbreak start?

It's not completely clear how the outbreak started, but it's thought it's likely to have begun in Wuhan, China at a local meat market known to sell wild animal meat.

We still don't know for sure which animal sparked the outbreak, but it's thought that the new virus could have originated in bats. Bats weren't sold at the market, but they may have come into contact with the animals that were.

How is coronavirus spread?

Because we haven't encountered this virus before, scientists have had to work hard to discover exactly how it spreads. Similar viruses, like colds and flu, spread through water droplets in coughs and sneezes. These droplets can live on surfaces and spread when someone touches them with their hands. People become infected when they then touch their hands to their mouth, nose or eyes.

Coronavirus is mostly spread through the air, when people are in close contact with each other. This is why it's very important that we socially distance from other people, and wear a mask. Wearing a mask over your mouth and nose helps to stop your water droplets from reaching other people. If we all wear masks, we all keep our droplets to ourselves!

Being in places with lots of fresh air also helps stop these droplets from reaching other people, which is why we don't have to wear our masks outside. Some places you go to, like your school, might open windows and doors to help with this, too.

What are the symptoms of coronavirus?

For the most people, including kids, this coronavirus isn't dangerous. It will make them feel poorly for a short time, before they make a full recovery. For a few people, like the elderly and people who have long-term health conditions such as diabetes, heart disease or asthma, the risk of becoming very ill is more serious. That's why these people are making extra efforts to have less face-to-face contact with others at the moment.

That means you might have to change the way you keep in touch with grandparents, friends or family who are vulnerable, for the time-being. For example, how about video calling your grandparents, or sending them a letter? It's good to keep in touch, but in a way that keeps you and others safe.

Coronavirus symptoms include:

- a high temperature

- a new, continuous cough

- a loss or change to your sense of smell and taste

If you feel poorly, tell a trusted adult like a parent, guardian or teacher.

What can I do?

There are plenty of small, easy things you can do. You probably do some of them already, but at this time, we all just need to be extra sensible and cautious as we go about our daily lives and activities:

- Wash your hands more regularly, for at least 20 seconds - that's about as long as it takes to sing Happy Birthday twice! Dry them with a paper towel and then chuck it in the bin!

- If you can't wash your hands with soap and water, then use hand-sanitiser.

- Avoid touching your face, especially your eyes, nose and mouth.

- Cover your nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. Bin the tissue and wash your hands afterwards.

- Avoid contact with people who feel unwell, or if you feel poorly, let a trusted adult know.

What are people doing about coronavirus?

Scientists have created a vaccine for COVID-19, in record time! Vaccines give people protection from the virus. In the UK, they're being given to the most vulnerable people, like grandparents and hospital staff, first, because they are at the highest risk of catching coronavirus. Some people have already received the vaccine, which is brilliant news!

In the meantime, there are lots of changes being made to help slow the spread of coronavirus. Some of them might feel a bit scary or unusual, but rest assured, they're being made to keep you and others safe:

- Everyone is now ' social distancing' from most other people. This basically means keeping your distance from others, avoiding social gatherings like meeting with friends, going to sporting events or gigs. This is to help prevent the virus from passing from person to person.

- Your parents may be asked to work from home. This might mean your family routine changes while they spend more time than usual at home.

- Cafés, restaurants, events and other public places may be closed.

These changes won't be around forever, but they are important steps towards slowing the spread of coronavirus.

Should I be worried?

You might feel worried about coronavirus, about how it might affect you, your family and friends, and the changes that we are making to our daily lives at this time. The important thing to remember is that we are all in this together. Talk to your friends and family about your worries and work out how you will support each other during the coming weeks, ensuring you all stay happy and healthy.

Things you can do:

- Have a break from talking or thinking about coronavirus. Keep yourself busy and don't overcheck the news.

- Don't believe everything that your friends tell you about coronavirus. Check the facts with a parent or trusted adult.

You can access free online school resources in our Primary Resources section! We cover all of your favourite subjects like Ancient Egypt, rainforests, dinosaurs and space!

Images ⓒ Getty Images: coronavirus structure (1209871896), sneezing boy (1127920667), children handwashing (700709633), girl reading (909239264).

Did you find our coronavirus article helpful? Let us know by leaving a comment below...

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If you've been watching the news lately, chances are you'll have heard lots about a virus called coronavirus. What is coronavirus, how is it spread and what can you do...

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Coronavirus (or, as doctors and scientists call it, COVID-19) has been part of everyone's life since mid-March 2020, when most schools, businesses, and communities quickly changed how they operated to prevent the spread of the virus. Because the disease infected a large number of people all over the world, experts call this a pandemic.

For over a year, many kids attended school at least partly from their houses; their parents might've worked from home, too. This was all to avoid catching the virus from other people outside the home.

Lots of people helped their neighbors throughout the pandemic. First responders, like healthcare workers, police officers, and firefighters, kept people healthy and safe; essential workers such as grocery store employees, delivery drivers, and postal workers worked in-person to make sure other folks had what they needed to live.

Nearly 190 million people in the world have been infected by COVID-19, and more than four million people have died. But the good news is that the number of people getting the virus in the United States is going way down, thanks to testing, vaccines, and other preventative measures, like wearing masks and social distancing.

Here are answers to some questions you might still have about coronavirus.

So ... what is COVID-19? And what's a "coronavirus?"

The term "coronavirus" actually refers to a family of viruses that causes many different types of diseases, including the common cold. COVID-19 is a "novel coronavirus," which means it's a new disease unfamiliar to scientists and doctors. Its name is actually a mash-up of three words: CO stands for "corona," which means "crown" in Latin, and the viruses are named for the crown-like spikes on their surface; VI stands for "virus"; and D is for "disease." The "19" comes from the year 2019, when the disease was first detected.

How did COVID-19 start?

Scientists don't know the exact origin of COVID -19, and they might never have all the answers. But they do know that some diseases start in animals before spreading to humans. These types of diseases are called zoonotic (pronounced zoh-uh-NAH-tik). Cows, bats, and camels are among the animals that have spread diseases to humans in the past. The COVID-19 disease is also zoonotic, with the first cases popping up in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. The affected humans were all connected to a nearby market that sold live animals.

How does someone catch COVID-19?

COVID-19 can be transmitted by little droplets from coughs or sneezes, which is why doctors say unvaccinated people should wear masks when they're indoors or close to others. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there's no evidence that a dog, cat, or any other pet can transmit COVID-19. But more studies are needed to understand how COVID-19 could affect different types of animals.

How can I protect myself?

Kids older than 12 can now get the Pfizer COVID-19 vaccine. For older kids who aren't vaccinated, as well as kids 11 and younger, research shows that taking small steps-like staying six feet (about two arm lengths) from others, wearing face masks that cover the mouth and nose, washing hands often, and seeing friends outside-can make a big difference in stopping the spread of the virus. (Vaccines for kids under 12 are expected to be available later in 2021.)

Learn how vaccines work and why they're so effective.

OK, but what happens if I do get it?

Most people-including kids- who catch COVID-19 get better, and their illness is usually mild. But if you do catch COVID-19, you might have a dry cough, a fever, and shortness of breath. But just like when you've had a cold, the best treatment is to stay in bed-and away from anyone who might catch it from you. (Like your grandparents! Older people are more at risk for catching and getting sick from COVID-19.) You might also not even know you have it, so keep washing your hands and wearing a mask, just in case. Masks work best when everyone wears one.

Researchers expect that as more people are vaccinated and become immune to COVID-19, the number of cases will continue to go down. Immunity to the virus means the body can fight it off and won't spread it to another person. When enough people are immune to COVID-19 so that the illness is no longer a serious threat, that's called herd immunity. Experts say that for herd immunity to work in a community, between 75 and 85 percent of people need to be vaccinated. Almost 60 percent of Americans are fully vaccinated, depending on where you live: Some places are higher, and others are lower.

The majority of new cases in the United States are in unvaccinated people. They can also transmit the coronavirus to others, which is why the CDC recommends they still wear masks indoors and at crowded outdoor events.

What about school?

The latest guidelines from the CDC say that students and teachers who are fully vaccinated-meaning it's been two weeks since their second COVID-19 shot-can be in class without masks. For students too young to get the vaccine, the recommendation is to keep doing what you've been doing in school: wear masks and social distance. Scientists say that keeping just three feet indoors in school is enough to keep kids safe.

This story has been updated with new information about vaccines for children.

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Coronaviruses are a group of related viruses that cause illnesses in humans and other animals. Some coronaviruses cause stomach and intestinal disease in humans, poultry, and cattle. Others cause respiratory illnesses in humans. Many of the illnesses are mild and are similar to the common cold. A few coronaviruses cause diseases that are severe and very easy to spread from person to person. They can lead to death in humans.

The name coronavirus comes from the way the viruses appear. They have spikes of protein that form a corona, or crown, on their surface.

A few types of coronavirus have caused epidemics of very contagious respiratory disease in humans. (An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease that quickly infects a large number of people.) One type of coronavirus causes a disease called SARS, which is short for severe acute respiratory syndrome. People who have SARS experience fever, cough, muscle ache, and often difficulty in breathing. The virus first appeared in humans in 2002 and caused an epidemic in 2003. More than 8,000 cases of SARS were reported. Most of the cases were in China. About 800 people died from the disease.

In 2012 another coronavirus was discovered in humans. The first case was found in Saudi Arabia, and cases were soon identified in other countries of the Middle East. As a result, the illness was called Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). MERS cases were later found in Europe, Tunisia, China, Malaysia, South Korea, and the United States. All confirmed cases were directly or indirectly linked to the Middle East.

In late 2019 a novel, or new, coronavirus emerged in Wuhan, China. The new virus caused an illness known as COVID-19, which is similar to SARS. People with the illness experienced a fever, a dry cough, and, in severe cases, difficulty breathing. The virus was likewise highly contagious. By early 2020 it had spread throughout regions of China. It soon reached all the continents except Antarctica. It was carried by travelers from affected regions. By mid-March cases of COVID-19 were reported in more than 100 countries, with larger outbreaks in China, South Korea, Iran, and Italy. Many thousands of people around the world contracted the illness.

Doctors do not know exactly how the disease spreads from person to person. However, there are some ways that may help people avoid getting any respiratory disease. Experts suggest that everyone should wash their hands frequently and avoid touching their face. In addition, people should always cover their mouth when sneezing or coughing. Doctors suggest that people cough or sneeze into a bent elbow or use a tissue and then throw the tissue in the trash.

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Coronaviruses are a group of related viruses that cause illnesses in humans and other animals. Some coronaviruses cause stomach and intestinal disease in humans, poultry, and...

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As the new year begins, the coronavirus pandemic rages on. More than 90 million cases of COVID-19 have been detected worldwide.

At press time, the United States alone had seen about 23 million cases. Three million new cases had already been reported in 2021. In California's Los Angeles County, about 1 in 5 people is testing positive daily. The numbers continue to surge.

Vaccine distribution is underway. (See " Vaccine Trackers.") But it's taking longer than expected to get people vaccinated. And health officials are concerned about new versions of the virus.

New Variants

One new strain, or variant, of the novel coronavirus is proving to be more contagious than the original. It spreads more easily and quickly. Fortunately, this strain doesn't seem to cause worse symptoms. It was first detected in the United Kingdom (U.K.) in September. Many countries have banned travel from the U.K. This is to keep the virus from spreading further.

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It's normal for a virus to mutate, or change, over time. Other variants of the virus that causes COVID-19 have been detected in Japan, Nigeria, and South Africa.

The U.K. variant has already been found in at least eight states in the U.S. "Over the next couple of months, we're likely to see this increase," Greg Armstrong told the Washington Post. He works for the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Officials say existing COVID-19 vaccines should protect against new variants. Dr. Anthony Fauci, of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, says his teams are studying this. "We are taking [these variants] seriously," he told TIME, "and will be following them closely to make sure we don't miss anything."

Distribution Issues

Distribution of COVID-19 vaccines began in the U.S. in December. The government hoped to vaccinate 20 million people by January. To date, only about 9 million have gotten a dose. Some areas have received fewer doses than promised. Others received more. Because of strict rules about who must be vaccinated first, some doses have gone bad and had to be thrown away.

Until a vaccine is available to everyone, people should continue to wear masks, wash their hands, and stay six feet from others. Dr. Rick Malley, of Boston Children's Hospital, told TIME for Kids that these actions "are so important, and can really reduce the number of cases."
Stop and Think! What is the article's headline? How does each section of the article support the headline? Why is the last paragraph important?

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As the new year begins, the coronavirus pandemic rages on. More than 90 million cases of COVID-19 have been detected worldwide. At press time, the United States alone had seen about 23 million cases. Three million new cases had already...

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Maybe you're reading this magazine in your classroom, with desks spaced six feet apart and your teacher wearing a mask. Maybe you're reading it at home, and you'll discuss it online with your teacher or classmates. The coronavirus that began spreading around the world last winter has changed all of our lives in more ways than we can count. Some of the biggest changes have been economic. This month, we take a look at what happened to the U.S. economy this year, where we stand, and what may be ahead.

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Big Shift In A Short Time

The economy is how the U.S. and other countries measure their wealth and resources over time. When we talk about the economy, we often describe it as good or bad. A good economy is one in which businesses are making money, people are finding jobs, are comfortable spending money, and the gross domestic product, or , is going up. A bad economy is the opposite. Businesses are closing, people are losing jobs and not spending as much, and the GDP is falling.

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In 2019, before anyone had heard of COVID-19, our country's GDP grew by 2.3%. That was pretty good. But during the first three months (or what economists call the first quarter) of 2020, it fell by 5%. That was pretty bad. Then, during the second quarter, it fell by 32.9%. That was really bad. A recession happens when a country's GDP declines for two quarters in a row.

Loss Of Jobs And Businesses

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Two days later, 16 states had closed schools, with the rest soon to follow. And by the end of March, 26 states had issued stay-at-home orders. Only essential businesses, such as groceries, drugstores, gas stations, and hospitals, were allowed to stay open. Most others had to close.

Just as many students were eventually able to attend school remotely, or from a distance, many workers were able to do their jobs from home. They could communicate with coworkers and customers online.

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Government Steps In

On March 27, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act was passed by Congress and signed by President Trump. It would cost the country more than $2 trillion.

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The Road To Recovery

So where does the economy go from here? In May, June, and July, the country restored millions of jobs that were lost earlier in the year. Many of those were in businesses such as restaurants and hotels, which had fully or partially reopened.

Consumers started spending more in May and June, as well. They bought clothes and shoes, dined out, and rescheduled dental visits and checkups that they'd postponed. But in July, as cases of COVID-19 continued to rise, consumer confidence-a monthly survey that measures how Americans feel about the economy and predicts their spending-dropped again.

In August, as this story was being written, Congress and the president were negotiating another act, similar to CARES, to help struggling Americans. The results of those negotiations are not yet clear. What is clearer than ever, however, is that the health of the country and the health of the economy go hand in hand.
-By Jean Chatzky
Extra! Click here to read a related article from TIME for Kids.

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Maybe you're reading this magazine in your classroom, with desks spaced six feet apart and your teacher wearing a mask. Maybe you're reading it at home, and you'll discuss it online with your teacher or classmates. The coronavirus that began...

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Children are now preparing to head back to school for the third time since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Schools are expected to return in-person this fall, with most experts now agreeing the benefits of in-person learning outweigh the risks of contracting COVID-19 for children. Though children are less likely than adults to develop severe illness, the risk of contracting COVID-19 remains, with some children developing symptoms of long COVID following diagnosis. COVID-19 vaccines provide protection, and all children older than 6 months are now eligible to be vaccinated. However, vaccination rates have stalled and remain low for younger children. At this time, only a few states have vaccine mandates for school staff or students, and no states have school mask mandates, though practices can vary by school district. Emerging COVID-19 variants, like the Omicron subvariant BA.5 that has recently caused a surge in cases, may pose new risks to children and create challenges for the back-to-school season.

Children may also continue to face challenges due to the ongoing health, economic, and social consequences of the pandemic. Children have been uniquely impacted by the pandemic, having experienced this crisis during important periods of physical, social, and emotional development, with some experiencing the loss of loved ones. While many children have gained health coverage due to federal policies passed during the pandemic, public health measures to reduce the spread of the disease also led to disruptions or changes in service utilization and increased mental health challenges for children.

This brief examines how the COVID-19 pandemic continues to affect children's physical and mental health, considers what the findings mean for the upcoming back-to-school season, and explores recent policy responses. A companion KFF brief explores economic effects of the pandemic and recent rising costs on households with children. We find households with children have been particularly hard hit by loss of income and food and housing insecurity, which all affect children's health and well-being.

Children's Health Care Coverage and Utilization

Despite job losses that threatened employer-sponsored insurance coverage early in the pandemic, uninsured rates have declined likely due to federal policies passed during in the pandemic and the safety net Medicaid and CHIP provided. Following growth in the children's uninsured rate from 2017 to 2019, data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) show that the children's uninsured rate held steady from 2019 to 2020 and then fell from 5.1% in 2020 to 4.1% in 2021. Just released quarterly NHIS data show the children's uninsured rate was 3.7% in the first quarter of 2022, which was below the rate in the first quarter of 2021 (4.6%) but a slight uptick from the fourth quarter of 2021 (3.5%), though none of these differences are statistically significant. Administrative data show that children's enrollment in Medicaid and CHIP increased by 5.2 million enrollees, or 14.7%, between February 2020 and April 2022 (Figure 1). Provisions in the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA) require states to provide continuous coverage for Medicaid enrollees until the end of the month in which the public health emergency (PHE) ends in order to receive enhanced federal funding.

Children have missed or delayed preventive care during the pandemic, with a third of adults still reporting one or more children missed or delayed a preventative check-up in the past 12 months (Figure 2). However, the share missing or delaying care is slowly declining, with the share from April 27 - May 9, 2022 (33%) down 3% from almost a year earlier (July 21 - August 2, 2021) according to KFF analysis of the Household Pulse Survey. Adults in households with income less than $25,000 were significantly more likely to have a child that missed, delayed, or skipped a preventive appointment in the past 12 months compared to households with income over $50,000. These data are in line with findings from another study that found households reporting financial hardship were significantly more likely to report missing or delaying children's preventive visits compared to those not reporting hardships. Hispanic households and households of other racial/ethnic groups were also significantly more likely to have a child that missed, delayed, or skipped a preventive appointment in the past 12 months compared to White households (based on race of the adult respondent).

Telehealth helped to provide access to care, but children with special health care needs and those in rural areas continued to face barriers. Overall, telehealth utilization soared early in the pandemic, but has since declined and has not offset the decreases in service utilization overall. While preventative care rates have increased since early in the pandemic, many children likely still need to catch up on missed routine medical care. One study found almost a quarter of parents reported not catching-up after missing a routine medical visit during the first year of the pandemic. The pandemic may have also exacerbated existing challenges accessing needed care and services for children with special health care needs, and low-income patients or patients in rural areas may have experienced barriers to accessing health care via telehealth.

The pandemic has also led to declines in children's routine vaccinations, blood lead screenings, and vision screenings. The CDC reported vaccination coverage of all state-required vaccines declined by 1% in the 2020-2021 school year compared to the previous year, and some public health leaders note COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy may be spilling over to routine child immunizations. The CDC also reported 34% fewer U.S. children had blood lead level testing from January-May 2020 compared to the same period in 2019. Further, data suggest declines in lead screenings during the pandemic may have exacerbated underlying gaps and disparities in early identification and intervention for lower-income households and children of color. Additionally, many children rely on in-school vision screenings to identity vision impairments, and some children went without vision checks while schools managed COVID-19 and turned to remote learning. These screenings are important for children in order to identify problems early; without treatment some conditions can worsen or lead to more serious health complications.

The pandemic has also led to difficulty accessing and disruptions in dental care. Data from the National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) show the share of children reporting seeing a dentist or other oral health provider or having a preventive dental visit in the past 12 months declined from 2019 to 2020, the first year of the pandemic (Figure 3). The share of children reporting their teeth are in excellent or very good conditions also declined from 2019 (80%) to 2020 (77%); the share of children reporting no oral health problems also declined but the change was not statistically significant.

Recently released preliminary data for Medicaid/CHIP beneficiaries under age 19 shows steep declines in service utilization early in the pandemic, with utilization then rebounding to a varying degree depending on the service type. Child screening services have rebounded to pre-PHE levels while blood lead screenings and dental services rates remain below per-PHE levels. Telehealth utilization mirrors national trends, increasing rapidly in April 2020 and then beginning to decline in 2021. When comparing the PHE period (March 2020 - January 2022) to the pre-PHE period (January 2018 - February 2020) overall, the data show child screening services and vaccination rates declined by 5% (Figure 4). Blood lead screening services and dental services saw larger declines when comparing the PHE period to before the PHE, declining by 12% and 18% respectively among Medicaid/CHIP children.

Children's Mental Health Challenges

Children's mental health challenges were on the rise even before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. A recent KFF analysis found the share of adolescents experiencing anxiety and/or depression has increased by one-third from 2016 (12%) to 2020 (16%), although rates in 2020 were similar to 2019. Rates of anxiety and/or depression were more pronounced among adolescent females and White and Hispanic adolescents. A separate survey of high school students in 2021 found that lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) students were more likely to report persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness than their heterosexual peers. In the past few years, adolescents have experienced worsened emotional health, increased stress, and a lack of peer connection along with increasing rates of drug overdose deaths, self-harm, and eating disorders. Prior to the pandemic, there was also an increase in suicidal thoughts from 14% in 2009 to 19% in 2019.

The pandemic may have worsened children's mental health or exacerbated existing mental health issues among children. The pandemic caused disruptions in routines and social isolation for children, which can be associated with anxiety and depression and can have implications for mental health later in life. A number of studies show an increase in children's mental health needs following social isolation due to the pandemic, especially among children who experience adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). KFF analysis found the share of parents responding that adolescents were experiencing anxiety and/or depression held relatively steady from 2019 (15%) to 2020 (16%), the first year of the pandemic. However, the KFF COVID-19 Vaccine Monitor on perspectives of the pandemic at two years found six in ten parents say the pandemic has negatively affected their children's schooling and over half saying the same about their children's mental health. Researchers also note it is still too early to fully understand the impact of the pandemic on children's mental health. The past two years have also seen much economic turmoil, and research has shown that as economic conditions worsen, children's mental health is negatively impacted. Further, gun violence continues to rise and may lead to negative mental health impacts among children and adolescents. Research suggests that children and adolescents may experience negative mental health impacts, including symptoms of anxiety, in response to school shootings and gun-related deaths in their communities.

Access and utilization of mental health care may have also worsened during the pandemic. Preliminary data for Medicaid/CHIP beneficiaries under age 19 finds utilization of mental health services during the PHE declined by 23% when compared to prior to the pandemic (Figure 4); utilization of substance use disorder services declined by 24% for beneficiaries ages 15-18 for the same time period. The data show utilization of mental health services remains below pre-PHE levels and has seen the smallest improvement compared to other services utilized by Medicaid/CHIP children. Telehealth has played a significant role in providing mental health and substance use services to children early in the pandemic, but has started to decline. The pandemic may have widened existing disparities in access to mental health care for children of color and children in low-income households. NSCH data show 20% of children with mental health needs were not receiving needed care in 2020, with the lowest income children less likely to receive needed mental health services when compared to higher income groups (Figure 5).

Children's Health and COVID-19

While less likely than adults to develop severe illness, children can contract and spread COVID-19 and children with underlying health conditions are at an increased risk of developing severe illness. Data through July 28, 2022 show there have been over 14 million child COVID-19 cases, accounting for 19% of all cases. Among Medicaid/CHIP enrollees under age 19, 6.4% have received a COVID-19 diagnosis through January 2022. Pediatric hospitalizations peaked during the Omicron surge in January 2022, and children under age 5, who were not yet eligible for vaccination, were hospitalized for COVID-19 at five times the rate during the Delta surge.

Some children who tested positive for the virus are now facing long COVID. A recent meta-analysis found 25% of children and adolescents had ongoing symptoms following COVID-19 infection, and finds the most common symptoms for children were fatigue, shortness of breath, and headaches, with other long COVID symptoms including cognitive difficulties, loss of smell, sore throat, and sore eyes. Another report found a larger share of children with a confirmed COVID-19 case experienced a new or recurring mental health diagnosis compared to children who did not have a confirmed COVID-19 case. However, researchers have noted it can be difficult to distinguish long COVID symptoms to general pandemic-associated symptoms. In addition, a small share of children are experiencing multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), a serious condition associated with COVID-19 that has impacted almost 9,000 children. A lot of unknowns still surround long COVID in children; it is unclear how long symptoms will last and what impact they will have on children's long-term health.

COVID-19 vaccines were recently authorized for children between the ages of 6 months and 5 years, making all children 6 months and older eligible to be vaccinated against COVID-19. Vaccination has already peaked for children under the age of 5, and is far below where 5-11 year-olds were at the same point in their eligibility. As of July 20, approximately 544,000 children under the age of 5 (or approximately 2.8%) had received at least one COVID-19 vaccine dose. Vaccinations for children ages 5-11 have stalled, with just 30.3% have been fully vaccinated as of July 27 compared to 60.2% of those ages 12-17. Schools have been important sites for providing access as well as information to help expand vaccination take-up among children, though children under 5 are not yet enrolled in school, limiting this option for younger kids. A recent KFF survey finds most parents of young children newly eligible for a COVID-19 vaccine are reluctant to get them vaccinated, including 43% who say they will "definitely not" do so.

Some children have experienced COVID-19 through the loss of one or more family members due to the virus. A study estimates that, as of June 2022, over 200,000 children in the US have lost one or both parents to COVID-19. Another study found children of color were more likely to experience the loss of a parent or grandparent caregiver when compared to non-Hispanic White children. Losing a parent can have long term impacts on a child's health, increasing their risk of substance abuse, mental health challenges, poor educational outcomes, and early death. There have been over 1 million COVID-19 deaths in the US, and estimates indicate a 17.5% to 20% increase in bereaved children due to COVID-19, indicating an increased number of grieving children who may need additional supports as they head back to school.

Looking Ahead

Children will be back in the classroom this fall but may continue to face health risks due to their or their teacher's vaccination status and increasing transmission due to COVID-19 variants. New, more transmissible COVID-19 variants continue to emerge, with the most recent Omicron subvariant BA.5 driving a new wave of infections and reinfections among those who have already had COVID-19. This could lead to challenges for the back-to-school season, especially among young children whose vaccination rates have stalled.

Schools, parents, and children will likely continue to catch up on missed services and loss of instructional time in the upcoming school year. Schools are likely still working to address the loss of instructional time and drops in student achievement due to pandemic-related school disruptions. Further, many children with special education plans experienced missed or delayed services and loss of instructional time during the pandemic. Students with special education plans may be entitled to compensatory services to make up for lost skills due to pandemic related service disruptions, and some children, such as those with disabilities related to long COVID, may be newly eligible for special education services.

To address worsening mental health and barriers to care for children, several measures have been taken or proposed at the state and federal level. Many states have recently enacted legislation to strengthen school based mental health systems, including initiatives such as from hiring more school-based providers to allowing students excused absences for mental health reasons. In July 2022, 988 - a federally mandated crisis number - launched, providing a single three-digit number for individuals in need to access local and state funded crisis centers, and the Biden Administration released a strategy to address the national mental health crisis in May 2022, building on prior actions. Most recently, in response to gun violence, the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act was signed into law and allocates funds towards mental health, including trauma care for school children.

The unwinding of the PHE and expiring federal relief may have implications for children's health coverage and access to care. The American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) extended eligibility to ACA health insurance subsides for people with incomes over 400% of poverty and increased the amount of assistance for people with lower incomes. However, these subsidies are set to expire at the end of this year without further action from Congress, which would increase premium payments for 13 million Marketplace enrollees. In addition, provisions in the FFCRA providing continuous coverage for Medicaid enrollees will expire with the end of the PHE. Millions of people, including children, could lose coverage when the continuous enrollment requirement ends if they are no longer eligible or face administrative barriers during the process despite remaining eligible. There will likely be variation across states in how many people are able to maintain Medicaid coverage, transition to other coverage, or become uninsured. Lastly, there have also been several policies passed throughout the pandemic to provide financial relief for families with children, but some benefits, like the expanded Child Tax Credit, have expired and the cost of household items is rising, increasing food insecurity and reducing the utility of benefits like SNAP.

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Headed Back to School: A Look at the Ongoing Effects of COVID-19 on Children's Health and Well-Being | KFF

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Emerging COVID-19 variants, like the Omicron subvariant BA.5 that has recently caused a surge in cases, may pose new risks to children and create challenges for the back-to-school season. Children may also continue to face challenges due to the ongoing health, economic, and social consequences of the pandemic.

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The pandemic has had devastating impacts on learning. What will it take to help students catch up?

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The pandemic has had devastating impacts on learning. What will it take to help students catch up?

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The pandemic has had devastating impacts on learning. What will it take to help students catch up? | Brookings

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This may be a moment when decades of educational reform, intervention, and research pay off.

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COVID Hurt Student Learning: Key Findings From a Year of Research

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COVID Hurt Student Learning: Key Findings From a Year of Research

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COVID Hurt Student Learning: Key Findings From a Year of Research

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Our cheat-sheet tells you what the most important studies have found—and what we still need to know.

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Top 28 Companies That Use Child Labor Still !

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Top 28 Companies That Use Child Labor Still !

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Top 28 Companies That Use Child Labor Still ! - Wisestep

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Child labor is a crime and we should take steps to eradicate it by all means. You will be shocked to see the top companies that use child labor. Find here

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Delayed salaries and no overtime

A study of sweatshop wages in Bangladesh found that not even are workers paid very little. Often, employees do not receive their wages on time nor are they paid for overtime work.

Sweatshop workers' conditions - It can be really bad

In the worst forms of sweatshops people are forced to work up to 72 hours straight, without sleep. Those complaining are beaten and abused. Cases of physical, sexual, and verbal abuse are common and well documented.

Child labor in sweatshops

250 million children between 5 and 14 are forced to work in sweatshops in developing countries.

Children as young as 6 have been found working in sweatshops for up to 16 hours per day. The pay? Sometimes less than 20 cents per day or about one cent per hour.

Products produced in sweatshops

Products that are commonly produced in sweatshops include clothing, shoes, toys, electronics, carpets, chocolate, coffee.

Products from sweatshops are exported on a large scale. To illustrate, the clothing industry in Bangladesh accounts for about 80% of the country's exports and around 40% of its industrial workforce.

What to do as a consumer to avoid supporting sweatshops?

Look for fair trade labeled products. Fair trade labels ensure higher salaries and better working conditions as well as higher social and environmental standards.

A shirt that sells for $60 on western markets can cost less than 10 cents in labor-wages.

Most consumers are willing to pay a little more to make sure their t-shirt is not made in a sweatshop under very poor conditions. A study showed that on average, consumers are willing to pay 15% more for their products to guarantee that it has not been made in a sweatshop.

The actual cost to consumers to double wages would be a mere 1.8% increase on average.
So why no major changes if people are willing to pay more to avoid sweatshops?
Because, as a consumer you don't see all the bad stuff going on in the process of making your product. The brands trying to sell you a shirt are not exactly advertising their sweatshop production conditions when you are in the store.

Not all sweatshops are bad

If workers' rights are respected sweatshops can actually help poor countries. For example, in Honduras, the average clothing "sweatshop" worker earns 13 US dollars per day, which is a decent wage considering that 44 percent of the country's population lives on less than 2 dollars per day.

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What is a sweatshop?Sweatshops are factories where workers work extremely long hours for very low wages under poor, often illegal, conditions. They are no...

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In developing countries, an estimated 250 million children ages 5-14 are forced to work.

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What do we really know about kids and screens?

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What do we really know about kids and screens?

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By the time research on screen time reaches the public, it's often framed in black-and-white terms: guidelines setting out strict time limits, or news reports with titles like "Are Screens Bad for Kids?"

In reality, though, screen time research has been less than definitive, mainly owing to a lack of strong longitudinal studies to date. That's now beginning to change as psychologists and other child development experts take a deeper and increasingly nuanced look at children's and teens' use of tablets, phones and other screens. Researchers are now paying close attention to the kinds of content kids are consuming via digital devices. They're looking at the environment that surrounds screen time, including parenting and socioeconomic status. And they're buckling down for the long haul, building new longitudinal studies that will help answer complex questions about kids, teens and screens.

In particular, they're studying both the potential benefits of screens-if they can be used as teaching tools-and the potential physical and mental health drawbacks.

The picture that has emerged suggests that the youngest children don't learn well from screens. As kids get older, they can learn meaningful information from screens, but the ubiquity of digital devices also means that children can easily spend far too much time being sedentary. Nevertheless, total abstinence from recreational screen time may backfire for older kids and teens.

Meanwhile, many questions remain about how much screen time is too much and about the effects of different types of activities that involve screens.

"As psychologists, it's really important for us to have scientific-based evidence behind what we're recommending. We're not there yet," says Jerri Lynn Hogg, PhD, a media psychologist at Fielding Graduate University. "We have ideas, but the problem is that the technology is getting more and more sophisticated and more ubiquitous."

The challenges of screen time

In all the popular-media hubbub and scientific debate over screen time, it's easy to forget how quickly these issues have evolved: The first-generation iPhone was introduced only 13 years ago, in 2007, the same year Netflix introduced streaming services. The iPad just saw its 10th birthday. Television and video games have been around for decades, of course, but never so portably and easily accessed.

Amid this rapid change, professional organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) have stepped in with recommendations. AAP calls for no screen time at all for children until 18 to 24 months, except for video chatting, and says kids ages 2 to 5 should get an hour or less of screen time per day. It has also developed the Family Media Use Plan for older kids, in which parents and children negotiate limits and boundaries around screen usage. In its guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behavior and sleep for young children, WHO similarly recommends no screens for kids under 2, and less than an hour a day for kids 2 to 5.

However, some critics charge that much of the research backing up the guidelines is correlational, cross-sectional or based upon self-report-though there are longitudinal studies in the mix, too. And not all research effectively differentiates between different types of screen time. Many studies lump all screen time together into one category, though it seems unlikely that video chatting with Grandma, for example, would have much in common with playing "Grand Theft Auto V."

Isolating the effects of screens from all the other experiences kids are exposed to is a challenge as well. It would be difficult indeed to run a long-term, randomized study in which children were assigned to different amounts of screen time each day and then tracked over their life spans to measure well-being outcomes. Imagine the look on a parent's face when told their child would be required to watch six hours of television every day-or that they could never watch a screen at all.

What is clear is that many parents often don't enforce the screen time limits suggested by the guidelines. For example, a study led by economist Weiwei Chen, PhD, of Florida International University, found that, as of 2014, children age 2 and under in the United States averaged 3 hours, 3 minutes a day of screen time, up from 1 hour, 19 minutes a day in 1997. Three- to 5-year-olds got 2 hours, 28 minutes a day of screen time, on average, during that time period (JAMA Pediatrics , Vol. 173, No. 4, 2019).

Qualitative studies suggest several reasons for the widespread screen use. One survey of 133 parents of preschool-age kids led by Rutgers University professor of nutritional sciences Carol Byrd-Bredbenner, PhD, for example, found that many parents reported lacking affordable alternative entertainment for their kids. Others cited factors such as their own exhaustion, the need to get things done around the house and bad weather for excess screen time (Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior , Vol. 47, No. 4, 2015).

Babies, toddlers, preschoolers and screens

Research has, however, turned up evidence to support limiting screen time for babies and young children. One longitudinal study of 2,441 mothers and children, led by University of Calgary psychologist Sheri Madigan, PhD, found that more time per week spent on screens at ages 24 months and 36 months was linked with poorer performance on screening tests for behavioral, cognitive and social development at 36 months (JAMA Pediatrics , Vol. 173, No. 3, 2019 ). The opposite association (poorer development leading to more screen time) was not seen, suggesting that the linkage wasn't a matter of parents leaning on screen time to handle a challenging child. Instead, the excessive screen time seemed to precede the developmental difficulties.

Despite experts' concerns, media for babies and toddlers has been on the market for years, often with promises of stimulation and education-the "Baby Einstein" videos are one prominent example. But the evidence is strong that screens aren't an effective teaching tool for the baby and toddler set, and they could displace the kinds of face-to-face interactions that actually help young kids learn. A 2005 review led by developmental psychologist Daniel Anderson, PhD, now a professor emeritus at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, found that television viewing consistently failed to teach kids age 2 and younger as much as live interaction (American Behavioral Scientist , Vol. 48, No. 5, 2005 ). This "video deficit" was seen in simple imitation tasks, in language learning and in emotional learning.

"The basic pattern that has been found in dozens of studies is that children learn better from a person who is with them face-to-face than from a person on a screen, even if it's the exact same person doing the exact same thing," says Georgene Troseth, PhD, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University.

More recently, researchers like Troseth are trying to understand why this screen learning gap occurs in toddlers. That toddlers struggle to learn from videos does not seem to be perceptual, Troseth says, but conceptual: Until they're around age 3, kids seem to view video as irrelevant to real life. In numerous studies, toddlers shown video of an experimenter hiding a toy in the room next door are terrible at finding that toy in the real room immediately afterward. In one study co-authored by Troseth, however, toddlers who watched a toy being hidden on a screen disguised to look like a window were much better at finding the toy than toddlers who saw the toy hidden on a regular screen (Child Development , Vol. 69, No. 4, 1998 ). "When they were told they were watching through a window, they were willing to take in the information," Troseth says. "The idea when they're watching on TV seems to be, 'You're not going to fool me, I know that's not real.'"

Though screen time recommendations for the youngest kids now make exceptions for video chatting, the evidence also suggests that toddlers find this medium confusing and that they struggle to make sense of video chat unless they have help from an adult who is physically present. In one study by Troseth and her colleagues, for example, 2-year-olds were assigned to either watch a prerecorded video intended to teach them new words or to engage in a word-learning video chat session with an experimenter. In half of the cases, the child's parent simply sat with the child. In the other half, the parent followed the experimenter's directions, modeling interactions with the video screen. A live video chat kept the kids' attention better than a prerecorded video, but only kids whose parents participated alongside them were able to learn new words from the screen (Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , Vol. 166, 2018 ).

Three- to 5-year-olds, on the other hand, are a bit more savvy. Since the early days of "Sesame Street," research has found that this age group can learn from slow-paced, thoughtfully designed children's media. For example, in tests of prereading skills such as alphabet recognition and letter sounds, kids who were randomly assigned to watch a 20-episode run of the literacy show "Super Why!" outperformed kids who were assigned to watch an educational science series, according to a study of 171 preschoolers conducted by Deborah Nichols, PhD, the director of the Children's Media Lab at Purdue University ( International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education , Vol. 6, No. 1, 2015 ). Children from low socioeconomic backgrounds generally saw greater gains than children in the wealthiest families, possibly because the more privileged children were already exposed to more literacy enrichment than the less-advantaged group.

Television's educational potential isn't limited to academic skills: A study of the PBS show "Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood" led by Texas Tech University media researcher Eric Rasmussen, PhD, found that kids who were randomly assigned to watch the program showed greater emotion recognition, empathy and self-efficacy-if those children also came from homes where parents consistently talked to their children about their TV viewing ( Journal of Children and Media , Vol. 10, No. 4, 2016 ). As with toddlers, preschoolers seem to benefit from adults co-viewing their media.

Co-viewing may seem a steep price to pay for parents who are desperate to use their child's screen time to make dinner or pack tomorrow's lunch, but it doesn't have to be a full-time job, Hogg says. Rather, she recommends parents should aim to scaffold their child's screen time, first watching a few episodes with them and talking about the content, then stepping back and checking in as the child becomes familiar with how media works.

Growing up digital

As children mature, they're exposed to more screens, with more diverse content via television, video games and social media. A report released in October 2019 by the nonprofit organization Common Sense Media found that 8- to 12-year-olds in the United States now use screens for entertainment for an average of 4 hours, 44 minutes a day, and 13- to 18-year-olds are on screens for an average of 7 hours, 22 minutes each day (The Common Sense Census: Media Use by Tweens and Teens , 2019). These numbers don't count time using screens for schoolwork or homework.

Common Sense Media's data also reveal a substantial disparity in media use based on socioeconomic status, with 8- to 12-year-olds from high income families using 1 hour, 50 minutes less of media each day than kids of the same age from low income families. Teens show a similar gap. Previous research has suggested that increased screen time in poorer families may be an attempt by parents to protect their children; studies in multiple countries have found that parent anxiety about neighborhood safety and actual neighborhood safety are linked to more screen time and less physical activity. For example, health researchers Valerie Carson, PhD, of the University of Alberta, and Ian Janssen, PhD, of Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, found that kids who lived in neighborhoods with the highest social and physical disorder (such as crime, graffiti and gang activity) had a 40% to 60% higher likelihood of high screen use (International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity , Vol. 9, No. 66, 2012). Higher-income families may also have more alternatives to screen time available, in the form of extracurricular activities and safe recreation areas.

As with young children, there are reasons for concern over large amounts of screen time in tweens and teens. Correlational studies have shown that 8- to 11-year-olds who exceed screen time recommendations scored lower on cognitive assessments, with compliance with recommendations explaining about a fifth of the overall variance in cognitive scores (The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health , Vol. 2, No. 11, 2018). A combination of screen time and too little sleep has also been associated with heightened impulsivity in the same age group (Pediatrics , Vol. 144, No. 3, 2019).

These studies weren't designed to show causal relationships, though, says Gary Goldfield, PhD, a psychologist at the University of Ottawa who coauthored both studies. It could be that increased impulsivity or struggles with cognition drive the excess screen time. Nevertheless, in numerous studies, Goldfield and his team have consistently found the best mental health and cognitive outcomes in teens who do one hour of physical activity each day, sleep eight to 10 hours a day and use screens recreationally less than two hours a day.

Researchers have also found links between screen time and various health outcomes in teens, though again, establishing definitive causal relationships is difficult. The firmest associations are between screen time and obesity and screen time and depressive symptoms, according to a systematic review of reviews published by University College London (UCL) psychologist Neza Stiglic, PhD, and Russell Viner, PhD, a professor of adolescent health at UCL (BMJ Open , Vol. 9, No. 1, 2019). Most research on obesity focused on television viewing and found that more time spent watching TV was associated with a higher body mass index or body fat composition. Multiple studies also found that screen use of more than two hours a day was correlated with depressive symptoms. The reviewers found moderate evidence linking screen time to poorer quality of life, higher caloric intake and less-healthy diets. Evidence linking screen time to other problems, such as behavior issues, anxiety, and low feelings of well-being and self-esteem, was weak, with studies on these outcomes returning mixed results.

A study led by psychologists Amy Orben, PhD, of the University of Cambridge, and Andrew Przybylski, PhD, of the University of Oxford, found that screen time as measured by time-use diaries (as opposed to retrospective self-reports, which many studies use) in large did not have noticeable effects on teen psychological well-being, according to nationally representative data sets in the United States, United Kingdom and Ireland (Psychological Science , Vol. 30, No. 5, 2019). But other research points to complicated relationships between screen time and well-being. For example, a study led by physician Pierre-André Michaud, MD, of the Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine in Lausanne, Switzerland, found a U-shaped relationship between internet use and adolescent mental and physical heath, such that moderate users were the best off (Pediatrics , Vol. 127, No. 2, 2011).

"A lot depends on how kids are using media, how much their parents are monitoring their use, how much time they're spending and what exactly they're watching and using," says Victor Strasburger, MD, a pediatrician and professor emeritus at the University of New Mexico School of Medicine.

Future research and recommendations

Fortunately, a new longitudinal data set may help illuminate some of the outstanding questions about adolescents and screen time. In 2015, the National Institutes of Health began funding the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, the largest ever longitudinal study on teen brain and behavioral development in the United States. More than 10,000 9- to 10-year-olds have been recruited and are being followed to young adulthood. Screen time data are among the information being collected, and researchers are already using the first wave: Goldfield's cognition and impulsivity studies drew from ABCD data. "We're pretty excited about this database," he says.

In the meantime, some experts recommend a mindful approach to media. Simply banning screens may backfire, says Jon Lasser, PhD, a psychologist at Texas State University and co-author, with Mike Brooks, PhD, of the 2018 book "Tech Generation: Raising Balanced Kids in a Hyper-Connected World."

"It's important for kids to develop the capacity to self-regulate," Lasser says, "and parents who try to micromanage screen time may inadvertently interfere with that self-regulatory development."

Lasser and Brooks include a tool in their book called the Family Assessment of Screen Time, or FAST, which family members can use to gauge their feelings about screen time-their own and each other's. The tool is similar to AAP's Family Media Use Plan, in which parents and children, 5 years and older, negotiate limits and boundaries around screen usage.

Finally, parents should keep co-viewing media with their kids. Keeping an open line of communication around media helps protect kids when they inevitably run into content they aren't ready to see, Strasburger says. A healthy, nonrancorous relationship around media also makes it easier to enforce boundaries when required.

"The number one recommendation that we give to parents is [to] spend time engaged with their kids," Lasser says. "It's simple, it's good parenting and it promotes a healthy relationship."

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What do we really know about kids and screens?

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Researchers are now paying close attention to the kinds of content kids are consuming via digital devices as well as the environment that surrounds screen time, including parenting and socioeconomic status.

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Dog fighting is a blood sport that involves several dogs fighting at one time; sometimes many dogs are involved. The practice of dog fighting goes back to the ancient times. Dog fighting is forbidden in Australia, the United States and Canada. All fifty U.S. States classify dog fighting as a felony and attending a dog fight is not allowed in many US States.

In dog fighting breeds, gameness is valued as it gives the dog the ability to maintain the attack in baiting, despite ripped flesh, dehydration, exhaustion or broken bones. As one writer describes it, "Game is the dog that won't quit fighting, the dog that'll die in the ring, the dog that'll fight with two broken legs." Training of a game dog varies depending on the level and experience of the dog-fighter. A famous American "gamebred" breed of dog is the American Pit Bull Terrier. A famous Irish "gamebred" breed of dog is the Kerry Blue Terrier. A famous English "gamebred" breed of dog is the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. A famous Japanese "gamebred" breed of dog is the Tosa Inu. A famous Argentinian "gamebred" breed of dog is the Dogo Argentino.

Images for kids

"A Dog Fight at Kit Burn's" by Edward Winslow Martin (James D. McCabe). USA, 1868.

A fight between a dog and Jacco Macacco, the fighting monkey, at the Westminster Pit, London. 1822.

An English broadside advertising an upcoming event at the Westminster Pit, London, featuring a match between the monkey, Jacco Macacco and a dog, also dog fights, badger-baiting and bear-baiting, c. November 1821.

In Spanish: Pelea de perros para niños

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CommonLit | Watch Out: Cell Phones Can Be Addictive [Answer Key] | CommonLit

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Get the PDF and answer keys for 'Watch Out: Cell Phones Can Be Addictive'. Kathiann Kowalski covers the results of Dr. James Roberts' 2014 cell phone study.

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'Couch potatoes' tend to be TV-energy hogs

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'Couch potatoes' tend to be TV-energy hogs

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CommonLit | 'Couch potatoes' tend to be TV-energy hogs

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How many hours of television do you watch a day? Depending on your answer, you could be responsible for wasting a lot of electricity.

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Technology has impacted almost every aspect of life today, and education is no exception. Or is it? In some ways, education seems much the same as it has been for many years. A 14th century illustration by Laurentius de Voltolina depicts a university lecture in medieval Italy. The scene is easily recognizable because of its parallels to the modern day. The teacher lectures from a podium at the front of the room while the students sit in rows and listen. Some of the students have books open in front of them and appear to be following along. A few look bored. Some are talking to their neighbors. One appears to be sleeping. Classrooms today do not look much different, though you might find modern students looking at their laptops, tablets, or smart phones instead of books (though probably open to Facebook). A cynic would say that technology has done nothing to change education.

However, in many ways, technology has profoundly changed education. For one, technology has greatly expanded access to education. In medieval times, books were rare and only an elite few had access to educational opportunities. Individuals had to travel to centers of learning to get an education. Today, massive amounts of information (books, audio, images, videos) are available at one's fingertips through the Internet, and opportunities for formal learning are available online worldwide through the Khan Academy, MOOCs, podcasts, traditional online degree programs, and more. Access to learning opportunities today is unprecedented in scope thanks to technology.

Opportunities for communication and collaboration have also been expanded by technology. Traditionally, classrooms have been relatively isolated, and collaboration has been limited to other students in the same classroom or building. Today, technology enables forms of communication and collaboration undreamt of in the past. Students in a classroom in the rural U.S., for example, can learn about the Arctic by following the expedition of a team of scientists in the region, read scientists' blog posting, view photos, e-mail questions to the scientists, and even talk live with the scientists via a videoconference. Students can share what they are learning with students in other classrooms in other states who are tracking the same expedition. Students can collaborate on group projects using technology-based tools such as wikis and Google docs. The walls of the classrooms are no longer a barrier as technology enables new ways of learning, communicating, and working collaboratively.

Technology has also begun to change the roles of teachers and learners. In the traditional classroom, such as what we see depicted in de Voltolina's illustration, the teacher is the primary source of information, and the learners passively receive it. This model of the teacher as the "sage on the stage" has been in education for a long time, and it is still very much in evidence today. However, because of the access to information and educational opportunity that technology has enabled, in many classrooms today we see the teacher's role shifting to the "guide on the side" as students take more responsibility for their own learning using technology to gather relevant information. Schools and universities across the country are beginning to redesign learning spaces to enable this new model of education, foster more interaction and small group work, and use technology as an enabler.

Technology is a powerful tool that can support and transform education in many ways, from making it easier for teachers to create instructional materials to enabling new ways for people to learn and work together. With the worldwide reach of the Internet and the ubiquity of smart devices that can connect to it, a new age of anytime anywhere education is dawning. It will be up to instructional designers and educational technologies to make the most of the opportunities provided by technology to change education so that effective and efficient education is available to everyone everywhere.

You can help shape the influence of technology in education with an Online Master of Science in Education in Learning Design and Technology from Purdue University Online. This accredited program offers studies in exciting new technologies that are shaping education and offers students the opportunity to take part in the future of innovation.

Learn more about the online MSEd in Learning Design and Technology at Purdue University today and help redefine the way in which individuals learn. Call (877) 497-5851 to speak with an admissions advisor or click here to request more information.

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How Has Technology Changed Education | Purdue Online

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Looking at lecturers from the podium, one might ask

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Impact of technology on kids today (and tomorrow).

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Impact of technology on kids today (and tomorrow).

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Hand a smartphone or tablet to a toddler, chances are they'll figure out how to open it and make some in-app purchases in a matter of seconds. The technological boom means that children are becoming computer experts at a very young age. Elementary school kids have classes on computers, and many of them have been using their computers and tablets at home well before they started school. As kids are learning from a very young age about technology, they're making huge strides as they grow in being prepared for schooling, future careers, innovation, and more. Your kids may even be able to help you with your online coursework at WGU!

However, with all this constant immersion in technology, there are some very real concerns about how this tech impacts childhood development. We are wandering into unknown territory as generations past have never had this same kind of constant technological immersion. But experts are starting to see what technology at this level can do to children and their future. Many of our WGU students are parents, and we want to help you

Kids have access to screens all around them. Many homes have multiple television sets, computers, tablets, and phones for children to find and play with. And some children even have access to their own tablet and phone, starting at a young age. Research shows that the average 8- to 10-year-old spends almost 8 hours a day with a variety of media, and older children and teenagers spend around 11 hours per day with media. That time adds up, and young people are spending more time with technology than they do in school.

Children and teenagers around the country aren't cutting down their media consumption either. Some teenagers say they send thousands of text messages each month, stay up until 2 AM scrolling social media, and spend hours each day playing video games. And this has continued to get more intense over time, as more apps and options arise to distract kids.

While many people see the negative impact of such technology usage, there also pros. The real question is what can parents and teachers do to harness technology in useful ways, without letting kids become slaves to it and the negative effects it can have on their lives.

Learn about the negative effects of technology on young children and teenagers.

Falling grades. Many students today can see their grades take a hit when they spend more time with technology. Increasing technology usage means less time spent on homework, and the kind of developmental changes technology can bring can make students struggle with homework like reading and writing.

Bullying. As technology flourishes, so does bullying. Children and teens are using technology and social media to bully other kids, without having to face them. Often called cyberbullying, this trend is increasing and getting more popular with even younger students.

Social interaction issues. With more time spent on technology, younger children are having issues with face-to-face social interactions. Many seem to prefer to text or talk on social media as opposed to talking to each other in-person. Even when children spend time together, they may spend more time texting or on their phones than actually being together.

While there are many negative impacts that can be connected to technology use, there are many positive impacts as well.

Helping them learn. There are many educational elements of technology that can help children learn. From TV programming to apps on a smartphone or tablet, there are many things that children can be exposed to that can help develop their mind and teach them new things.

Classroom tool. Many teachers have started using technology in classrooms to help students learn. Technology helps teachers reach different kinds of learners, reinforce and expand on concepts, and motivate students in new ways. As more teachers embrace technology, new kinds of learning can take place in classrooms, and more students can be reached in ways that they relate with.

Improved multitasking. Studies show that using technology helps young children learn how to multitask more effectively. While multitasking never allows you to fully focus on one area, students can learn how to listen and type to take notes, or other multitasking activities that can help them succeed in their future.

Parents and adults can help children get the benefits of technology with less of the negative effects. Parents can start by ensuring children under two don't use screens. They can also play along with children to include face-to-face interactions with technology, and make sure that tech doesn't interfere for opportunities to play. Parents should also work to set appropriate boundaries including time limits, and model good smartphone use. Cybersecurity software and systems can help ensure that kids stay safe while using technology.

Parents and teachers can watch for quality apps that promote vocabulary, math, literacy, and science. Adults can help make sure kids learn about computer science and IT as part of technology use to give them opportunities for a bright tech future.

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Impact of Technology on Kids Today and Tomorrow.

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Hand a smartphone or tablet to a kid, and they likely know exactly what to do with it. As technology use increases, and the users get younger and younger, it's vital to know how it impacts their future. Learn how technology directly impacts the development of young children.

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How Important Is Technology in Education? Benefits, Challenges, and Impact on Students

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How Important Is Technology in Education? Benefits, Challenges, and Impact on Students

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Many of today's high-demand jobs were created in the last decade, according to the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). As advances in technology drive globalization and digital transformation, teachers can help students acquire the necessary skills to succeed in the careers of the future.

How important is technology in education? The COVID-19 pandemic is quickly demonstrating why online education should be a vital part of teaching and learning. By integrating technology into existing curricula, as opposed to using it solely as a crisis-management tool, teachers can harness online learning as a powerful educational tool.

The effective use of digital learning tools in classrooms can increase student engagement, help teachers improve their lesson plans, and facilitate personalized learning. It also helps students build essential 21st-century skills.

Virtual classrooms, video, augmented reality (AR), robots, and other technology tools can not only make class more lively, they can also create more inclusive learning environments that foster collaboration and inquisitiveness and enable teachers to collect data on student performance.

Still, it's important to note that technology is a tool used in education and not an end in itself. The promise of educational technology lies in what educators do with it and how it is used to best support their students' needs.

Educational Technology Challenges

BuiltIn reports that 92 percent of teachers understand the impact of technology in education. According to Project Tomorrow, 59 percent of middle school students say digital educational tools have helped them with their grades and test scores. These tools have become so popular that the educational technology market is projected to expand to $342 billion by 2025, according to the World Economic Forum.

However, educational technology has its challenges, particularly when it comes to implementation and use. For example, despite growing interest in the use of AR, artificial intelligence, and other emerging technology, less than 10 percent of schools report having these tools in their classrooms, according to Project Tomorrow. Additional concerns include excessive screen time, the effectiveness of teachers using the technology, and worries about technology equity.

Prominently rising from the COVID-19 crisis is the issue of content. Educators need to be able to develop and weigh in on online educational content, especially to encourage students to consider a topic from different perspectives. The urgent actions taken during this crisis did not provide sufficient time for this. Access is an added concern - for example, not every school district has resources to provide students with a laptop, and internet connectivity can be unreliable in homes.

Additionally, while some students thrive in online education settings, others lag for various factors, including support resources. For example, a student who already struggled in face-to-face environments may struggle even more in the current situation. These students may have relied on resources that they no longer have in their homes.

Still, most students typically demonstrate confidence in using online education when they have the resources, as studies have suggested. However, online education may pose challenges for teachers, especially in places where it has not been the norm.

Despite the challenges and concerns, it's important to note the benefits of technology in education, including increased collaboration and communication, improved quality of education, and engaging lessons that help spark imagination and a search for knowledge in students.

The Benefits of Technology in Education

Teachers want to improve student performance, and technology can help them accomplish this aim. To mitigate the challenges, administrators should help teachers gain the competencies needed to enhance learning for students through technology. Additionally, technology in the classroom should make teachers' jobs easier without adding extra time to their day.

Technology provides students with easy-to-access information, accelerated learning, and fun opportunities to practice what they learn. It enables students to explore new subjects and deepen their understanding of difficult concepts, particularly in STEM. Through the use of technology inside and outside the classroom, students can gain 21st-century technical skills necessary for future occupations.

Still, children learn more effectively with direction. The World Economic Forum reports that while technology can help young students learn and acquire knowledge through play, for example, evidence suggests that learning is more effective through guidance from an adult, such as a teacher.

Leaders and administrators should take stock of where their faculty are in terms of their understanding of online spaces. From lessons learned during this disruptive time, they can implement solutions now for the future. For example, administrators could give teachers a week or two to think carefully about how to teach courses not previously online. In addition to an exploration of solutions, flexibility during these trying times is of paramount importance.

Below are examples of how important technology is in education and the benefits it offers to students and teachers.

Increased Collaboration and Communication

Educational technology can foster collaboration. Not only can teachers engage with students during lessons, but students can also communicate with each other. Through online lessons and learning games, students get to work together to solve problems. In collaborative activities, students can share their thoughts and ideas and support each other. At the same time, technology enables one-on-one interaction with teachers. Students can ask classroom-related questions and seek additional help on difficult-to-understand subject matter. At home, students can upload their homework, and teachers can access and view completed assignments using their laptops.

Personalized Learning Opportunities

Technology allows 24/7 access to educational resources. Classes can take place entirely online via the use of a laptop or mobile device. Hybrid versions of learning combine the use of technology from anywhere with regular in-person classroom sessions. In both scenarios, the use of technology to tailor learning plans for each student is possible. Teachers can create lessons based on student interests and strengths. An added benefit is that students can learn at their own pace. When they need to review class material to get a better understanding of essential concepts, students can review videos in the lesson plan. The data generated through these online activities enable teachers to see which students struggled with certain subjects and offer additional assistance and support.

Curiosity Driven by Engaging Content

Through engaging and educational content, teachers can spark inquisitiveness in children and boost their curiosity, which research says has ties to academic success. Curiosity helps students get a better understanding of math and reading concepts. Creating engaging content can involve the use of AR, videos, or podcasts. For example, when submitting assignments, students can include videos or interact with students from across the globe.

Improved Teacher Productivity and Efficiency

Teachers can leverage technology to achieve new levels of productivity, implement useful digital tools to expand learning opportunities for students, and increase student support and engagement. It also enables teachers to improve their instruction methods and personalize learning. Schools can benefit from technology by reducing the costs of physical instructional materials, enhancing educational program efficiency, and making the best use of teacher time.

Become a Leader in Enriching Classrooms through Technology

Educators unfamiliar with some of the technology used in education may not have been exposed to the tools as they prepared for their careers or as part of their professional development. Teachers looking to make the transition and acquire the skills to incorporate technology in education can take advantage of learning opportunities to advance their competencies. For individuals looking to help transform the education system through technology, American University's School of Education online offers a Master of Arts in Teaching and a Master of Arts in Education Policy and Leadership to prepare educators with essential tools to become leaders. Courses such as Education Program and Policy Implementation and Teaching Science in Elementary School equip graduate students with critical competencies to incorporate technology into educational settings effectively.

Learn more about American University's School of Education online and its master's degree programs.

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How Important Is Technology in Education? | American University

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How important is technology in education? Learn how American University's School of Education can prepare you to serve as a leader in educational technology.

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How Using Technology in Teaching Affects Classrooms

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How Using Technology in Teaching Affects Classrooms

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Technology is at the center of our lives in most environments, and the classroom is no exception. Student in today's classrooms have grown up in a world surrounded by technology. They do not know what it is like to experience life without cell phones, computers, televisions and other common tech devices.

Despite this familiarity with technology, educational environments may be slow to integrate technology into the classroom. Many schools still use analog tools, such as books, notebooks, whiteboards and posters in instructional design. This could be attributed to lack of funding. However, some school districts have invested in instructional technology for the classroom by securing grant funding or donations from community and business partners. This includes smart boards to replace outdated projectors as well as personal digital devices such as iPads or Chromebooks.

Technology has the potential to make aspects of education easier and more equitable in many ways. Let's find out how teachers and students can benefit from additional technology in the classroom.
In This Article:
Embracing Technology in the Classroom

Are you ready to start using technology as a teaching tool? Increasingly, educators are recognizing the value of technology in K-12 education, according to an Education Week Special Report. ¹

As beneficial as using technology in the classroom can be, it's still important to remember the overall goals: to help students learn, succeed and prepare for life with confidence. With that in mind, teachers and administrators should carefully evaluate each new technology to determine whether it will indeed support intended learning outcomes and enable students to master the lesson plan. Furthermore, educators must collaborate with IT staff to thoroughly vet the privacy and safety standards of any new technology before it's brought into the classroom.

8 Benefits of Technology in the Classroom

Using technology in your teaching can help many students succeed in their learning. Here are eight top benefits of using technology in the classroom:

1. Increased Student Engagement

Students who use technology in the classroom may be more engaged. When schools have a 1:1 initiative (one device for every student), students benefit because technology can be more smoothly integrated into the curriculum. Many teachers use interactive software and programs as learning technologies so that students can respond to questions and lectures digitally. In addition, gamified learning makes education fun and engaging as they earn badges and move through competencies.

2. Collaboration

Technology makes it easier for students to collaborate and save their work. Traditionally, when students collaborated, they may have created posters or notes of their work together. However, technology allows students to create digital collections of research and ideas. They can draw and write together in the same program, creating documents and projects that are fully collaborative.

3. Inclusion

Technology allows some students to be included in the classroom in ways they have never been before. Many students who receive special education can benefit from technology that helps them write, spell, read and do mathematical computation. Word processors can point out spelling mistakes to students. Adaptive readers highlight text or read aloud to students so they can research and use websites like their peers using technology. As technology becomes more prevalent in schools, students who receive special education and use a laptop for help will not stand out or seem out of place.

4. Differentiation

Technology gives students access to a variety of programs and information sources at the simple click of a button. Teachers can find leveled readers or allow students to choose research topics that fit their interests much more easily than by going to the library where resources may be limited. In addition, teachers can assign programs to help students remediate or expand their knowledge so that students can process or investigate topics further. This work can be done during centers or group work, freeing the teacher to attend to individual students or other small groups. Using technology in this way ensures that all the students get what they need.

5. Productivity

Analog tools need to be tended to, cared for and replaced. Using technology allows students to access what they need when they need it. They can keep calendars online, and teachers can push due date reminders in a learning management system (LMS). Word processors do not need to be sharpened and online books do not get lost. Technology allows students instant access to all the materials they need, saving time, space and mental effort.

6. Creativity

The content available online is endless. Students who are interested in learning about arts, music, videos - and virtually anything else - can find plenty of resources. Any creative endeavor that calls to a student can be supported by technology. Tablets have the capabilities to capture students' sketches. Editing software lets students bring photos to life and manipulate them in creative ways. Technology can enhance creativity rather than inhibit it if students are given choice about what they create.

7. Automation

A huge benefit of educational technology for teachers is automation. You can upload lessons into an LMS for students to access on their own time. Online assessments make grading easy and parents can automatically be messaged when students receive a failing grade. Teachers are always looking for ways to find more time in the day, and technology can assist in big ways.

8. Future Focus

We do not yet know what types of jobs will be around when many of our students are adults joining the workforce, but we do know that technology is not going anywhere. Students will need strong technology skills to be successful in whatever job or career they may go into after school. Simply having a mindset that embraces the process of learning and using new technology can make a difference in a student's future.

What Are Some Examples of Using Technology in the Classroom?

If you are interested in using online technology aids in the classroom, here are a couple popular methods to help you get started:

Virtual Textbooks

Among the many benefits of computers for students in the classroom is the potential to access virtual textbooks. Virtual textbooks connect students to a considerable volume of information in an engaging and accessible way. However, it's important for school administrators to ensure that students have the necessary digital resources to access these virtual textbooks at home.

Online Courses

Some K-12 schools are taught entirely online, while others have embraced a hybrid online/in-person model. Both can be helpful for supporting student success.

For example, some smaller school districts might not have the resources necessary to offer more than the standard core classes plus a few enrichment courses (art, physical education, etc.) Access to online classes opens the door to greater opportunities to students in these school districts. Whereas before, students might have only had the option of learning Spanish, for example, they may be able to access online courses for German, French or a variety of other languages.

Using Technology in Teaching: Classroom Technology Tools

Technology plays an important role in both virtual and classroom learning. FlipGrid and Zoom are a couple useful tools you can use in your classroom to help get both students and parents engaged.

FlipGrid

FlipGrid is a video discussion platform for students of all ages. It's much like an online discussion forum for a class, but in video format. The teacher posts a video topic pertaining to the lesson plan and the students record their own discussion videos and post them to the grid.

FlipGrid can offer greater accessibility and engagement for students than traditional text-based discussion platforms. It's also easy to learn how to use, and there is a free version.

Zoom

Zoom is the web-based videoconferencing platform that many people relied upon for meetings during the pandemic. It's also handy for teachers, and not only for those teaching online classes.

Consider implementing Zoom technology in other useful ways, such as virtually bringing a guest speaker to class. You might even suggest Zoom meetings for parent-teaching conferences as a way to boost parental involvement.

Earning a Teaching Degree and Learning More About the Benefits of Computers for Students

The benefits of technology in the classroom are undeniable. As you can see, a teaching career offers limitless potential for innovation. From using technology in teaching to boosting student engagement and parental involvement, you could make a considerable difference in your community as a teacher.

Your first step toward becoming a teacher is to earn a teaching degree. You have many options to choose from. Start by considering which age group you'd like to teach. For example, you could earn a Bachelor of Science in Early Childhood Education or a Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education.

If you decide you'd like to teach older kids, you'll need to specialize in a particular subject area, as well. For instance, if you are passionate about the power of language, you might pursue a Bachelor of Arts in English for Secondary Education.

Be sure that the degree you select leads to teacher licensure for the state in which you plan to work. In addition to taking coursework in pedagogy and your subject area, you will gain practical experience with a student teaching rotation. You'll also need to meet other licensure requirements for your state, such as passing a background check.

If you are interested in learning how educational technology can benefit your classroom, join us at Grand Canyon University for any of our teaching degree programs. Many of them have a technology-focused approach that will help you learn to integrate new skills and new ways of using technology in your classroom. Fill out the form at the top of your screen to take the next step in your academic journey.

¹EdWeek (n.d.) The Future Classroom: What Will It Look Like and How Will It Be Different? Education Week. Retrieved February 2023.

Approved by the associate dean for the College of Education on March 14, 2023.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Using Technology in Teaching Affects Classrooms

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn about using technology in teaching and the many benefits of technology in the classroom. Earn your teaching degree at GCU.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Technology is at the center of our lives in most environments, and the classroom is no exception. Student in today's classrooms have grown up in a world surrounded by technology. They do not know what it is like to experience life without cell phones, computers, televisions and other common tech devices.

Despite this familiarity with technology, educational environments may be slow to integrate technology into the classroom. Many schools still use analog tools, such as books, notebooks, whiteboards and posters in instructional design. This could be attributed to lack of funding. However, some school districts have invested in instructional technology for the classroom by securing grant funding or donations from community and business partners. This includes smart boards to replace outdated projectors as well as personal digital devices such as iPads or Chromebooks.

Technology has the potential to make aspects of education easier and more equitable in many ways. Let's find out how teachers and students can benefit from additional technology in the classroom.
In This Article:
Embracing Technology in the Classroom

Are you ready to start using technology as a teaching tool? Increasingly, educators are recognizing the value of technology in K-12 education, according to an Education Week Special Report. ¹

As beneficial as using technology in the classroom can be, it's still important to remember the overall goals: to help students learn, succeed and prepare for life with confidence. With that in mind, teachers and administrators should carefully evaluate each new technology to determine whether it will indeed support intended learning outcomes and enable students to master the lesson plan. Furthermore, educators must collaborate with IT staff to thoroughly vet the privacy and safety standards of any new technology before it's brought into the classroom.

8 Benefits of Technology in the Classroom

Using technology in your teaching can help many students succeed in their learning. Here are eight top benefits of using technology in the classroom:

1. Increased Student Engagement

Students who use technology in the classroom may be more engaged. When schools have a 1:1 initiative (one device for every student), students benefit because technology can be more smoothly integrated into the curriculum. Many teachers use interactive software and programs as learning technologies so that students can respond to questions and lectures digitally. In addition, gamified learning makes education fun and engaging as they earn badges and move through competencies.

2. Collaboration

Technology makes it easier for students to collaborate and save their work. Traditionally, when students collaborated, they may have created posters or notes of their work together. However, technology allows students to create digital collections of research and ideas. They can draw and write together in the same program, creating documents and projects that are fully collaborative.

3. Inclusion

Technology allows some students to be included in the classroom in ways they have never been before. Many students who receive special education can benefit from technology that helps them write, spell, read and do mathematical computation. Word processors can point out spelling mistakes to students. Adaptive readers highlight text or read aloud to students so they can research and use websites like their peers using technology. As technology becomes more prevalent in schools, students who receive special education and use a laptop for help will not stand out or seem out of place.

4. Differentiation

Technology gives students access to a variety of programs and information sources at the simple click of a button. Teachers can find leveled readers or allow students to choose research topics that fit their interests much more easily than by going to the library where resources may be limited. In addition, teachers can assign programs to help students remediate or expand their knowledge so that students can process or investigate topics further. This work can be done during centers or group work, freeing the teacher to attend to individual students or other small groups. Using technology in this way ensures that all the students get what they need.

5. Productivity

Analog tools need to be tended to, cared for and replaced. Using technology allows students to access what they need when they need it. They can keep calendars online, and teachers can push due date reminders in a learning management system (LMS). Word processors do not need to be sharpened and online books do not get lost. Technology allows students instant access to all the materials they need, saving time, space and mental effort.

6. Creativity

The content available online is endless. Students who are interested in learning about arts, music, videos - and virtually anything else - can find plenty of resources. Any creative endeavor that calls to a student can be supported by technology. Tablets have the capabilities to capture students' sketches. Editing software lets students bring photos to life and manipulate them in creative ways. Technology can enhance creativity rather than inhibit it if students are given choice about what they create.

7. Automation

A huge benefit of educational technology for teachers is automation. You can upload lessons into an LMS for students to access on their own time. Online assessments make grading easy and parents can automatically be messaged when students receive a failing grade. Teachers are always looking for ways to find more time in the day, and technology can assist in big ways.

8. Future Focus

We do not yet know what types of jobs will be around when many of our students are adults joining the workforce, but we do know that technology is not going anywhere. Students will need strong technology skills to be successful in whatever job or career they may go into after school. Simply having a mindset that embraces the process of learning and using new technology can make a difference in a student's future.

What Are Some Examples of Using Technology in the Classroom?

If you are interested in using online technology aids in the classroom, here are a couple popular methods to help you get started:

Virtual Textbooks

Among the many benefits of computers for students in the classroom is the potential to access virtual textbooks. Virtual textbooks connect students to a considerable volume of information in an engaging and accessible way. However, it's important for school administrators to ensure that students have the necessary digital resources to access these virtual textbooks at home.

Online Courses

Some K-12 schools are taught entirely online, while others have embraced a hybrid online/in-person model. Both can be helpful for supporting student success.

For example, some smaller school districts might not have the resources necessary to offer more than the standard core classes plus a few enrichment courses (art, physical education, etc.) Access to online classes opens the door to greater opportunities to students in these school districts. Whereas before, students might have only had the option of learning Spanish, for example, they may be able to access online courses for German, French or a variety of other languages.

Using Technology in Teaching: Classroom Technology Tools

Technology plays an important role in both virtual and classroom learning. FlipGrid and Zoom are a couple useful tools you can use in your classroom to help get both students and parents engaged.

FlipGrid

FlipGrid is a video discussion platform for students of all ages. It's much like an online discussion forum for a class, but in video format. The teacher posts a video topic pertaining to the lesson plan and the students record their own discussion videos and post them to the grid.

FlipGrid can offer greater accessibility and engagement for students than traditional text-based discussion platforms. It's also easy to learn how to use, and there is a free version.

Zoom

Zoom is the web-based videoconferencing platform that many people relied upon for meetings during the pandemic. It's also handy for teachers, and not only for those teaching online classes.

Consider implementing Zoom technology in other useful ways, such as virtually bringing a guest speaker to class. You might even suggest Zoom meetings for parent-teaching conferences as a way to boost parental involvement.

Earning a Teaching Degree and Learning More About the Benefits of Computers for Students

The benefits of technology in the classroom are undeniable. As you can see, a teaching career offers limitless potential for innovation. From using technology in teaching to boosting student engagement and parental involvement, you could make a considerable difference in your community as a teacher.

Your first step toward becoming a teacher is to earn a teaching degree. You have many options to choose from. Start by considering which age group you'd like to teach. For example, you could earn a Bachelor of Science in Early Childhood Education or a Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education.

If you decide you'd like to teach older kids, you'll need to specialize in a particular subject area, as well. For instance, if you are passionate about the power of language, you might pursue a Bachelor of Arts in English for Secondary Education.

Be sure that the degree you select leads to teacher licensure for the state in which you plan to work. In addition to taking coursework in pedagogy and your subject area, you will gain practical experience with a student teaching rotation. You'll also need to meet other licensure requirements for your state, such as passing a background check.

If you are interested in learning how educational technology can benefit your classroom, join us at Grand Canyon University for any of our teaching degree programs. Many of them have a technology-focused approach that will help you learn to integrate new skills and new ways of using technology in your classroom. Fill out the form at the top of your screen to take the next step in your academic journey.

¹EdWeek (n.d.) The Future Classroom: What Will It Look Like and How Will It Be Different? Education Week. Retrieved February 2023.

Approved by the associate dean for the College of Education on March 14, 2023.

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How Using Technology in Teaching Affects Classrooms

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Learn about using technology in teaching and the many benefits of technology in the classroom. Earn your teaching degree at GCU.

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How Does Technology Impact Student Learning?

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How Does Technology Impact Student Learning?

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Bay Atlantic University - Washington, D.C.

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Traditional face-to-face classes have served as an effective method of learning and teaching for the longest time. It has produced visible and satisfactory results and hasn't been questioned until the world faced a common enemy, the CoVid-19 pandemic that stopped everyone from attending the traditional in-person classes.

That situation proved that technology could be sufficient and deliver the same, if not better, results in the learning process. Technology clearly impacts education in various ways. If you are curious to learn more about this impact, read this guide as it answers the question "How does technology impact student learning?"

Use of Technology in Modern Education

In today's day and age, technology has incorporated itself into every aspect of our lives, including the education field. It is a tool that helps us complete complex tasks quickly and efficiently.

However, it is necessary to keep in mind that technology is a tool for education, but it can't solve the problems itself. The usefulness of educational technology lies in what educators do with it and how they use it to best meet the needs of their students.

The appropriate use of digital learning tools in the classroom can boost student engagement, assist teachers in improving lesson plans, and enable personalized learning. It also helps students to develop critical thinking skills.

Virtual classrooms, augmented reality (AR), videos, different robots, and other technology tools can not only make the class more interesting, but they can also develop more inclusive practices that foster cooperation and intellectual curiosity while also allowing teachers to collect data on student performance.

Benefits of Technology in Education

We all use technology in some form or another in our daily activities. As time passes, it has become more important in our lives, changing the way we consume and process information.

The influence of technology can be seen in every area of our lives; however, the impact of technology on education has been the most noticeable in recent years. Schools are incorporating more and more technology into the classroom to keep up with technological advances in hopes of preparing students for the rapidly changing world of technology.

Putting students' knowledge into action

One of the most significant benefits of using technology in education is putting students' knowledge and skills into action. Students earn beneficial knowledge through online classes and interactions with their teachers and other peer students. However, it is very important to put these new skills into practice and action.

Technology enables students to put their earned knowledge into practice through different applications. The incorporation of technology into the classroom helps teachers to easily assign various tasks and assignments that allow students to put their knowledge and experience into action and develop the ability to apply their knowledge to create a solution to a situation, problem, or event.

Sharpening students' critical thinking

Technology will have an impact on students' critical thinking skills depending on a variety of elements, including the type of technology used and the context in which it is used.

It is a well-known fact that the use of technology in the classroom can make activities and the learning process more engaging. Technology has the ability to engage multiple senses and can increase students' investment in the material.

Appropriate classroom technology boosts students' academic achievement, self-confidence, motivation in class, and attendance. Technology facilitates students' transition from sitting attentively and listening to more hands-on learning.

In addition, technology influences critical thinking by assisting students in applying what they've learned to real-life situations and developing problem-solving skills, both of which are essential components of critical thinking.

Increased collaboration

Collaboration can be aided by educational technology. Teachers can communicate with students during lessons, but students can also interact with one another. Students collaborate to solve problems through online classes and educational games.

Students can share their ideas and thoughts and encourage one another in collaborative activities. Simultaneously, technology allows for one-on-one interaction with teachers. Students can ask questions about the classroom and receive additional assistance with the difficult-to-understand subject matter. Students can upload homework from home, and teachers can access and view submitted assignments on their devices.

Numerous studies have found that implementing instructional technology improves overall student motivation and engagement in learning. More specifically, technology engages students behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively. Whether technology is used in class or after school, students have more opportunities to communicate with instructors, collaborate with peers, and participate in the learning process.

Web-conferencing software, blogs, wikis, social networking sites, and digital games are specific examples of technology that have been shown to improve student engagement and communication.

Better communication

Students can use technology to connect with people in their classrooms and around the world. Learning how to collaborate on projects using digital tools prepares students for almost any career.

Connecting with students across the globe promotes cultural learning and actually teaches how to collaborate with people who are different from them. While the internet can be an unpleasant place full of hate at times, it can provide a tremendous sense of community and support when used wisely.

Classroom websites can benefit students of all ages. They frequently foster student connections and provide a space for them to collaborate on team projects. They also help learners by instilling a sense of belonging and community in them.

Websites, which are typically filled with student work, classroom updates, and assignments, simulate the experience of being a member of an online forum or group. Students are able to gain experience designing, editing, and uploading files to the site.

Personalized learning opportunities

It has become difficult and critical to expand your skillset with hectic schedules and demanding lifestyles. This is where technology comes in. Education is more convenient than ever, with virtual lessons gradually replacing traditional lectures.

Students can plan their time and learn at a convenient time for them. They can also pursue subjects and courses outside of their course curriculum to broaden their knowledge.

Technology enables continuous access to information and knowledge. Classes can be completed entirely online using a laptop or mobile device. Learning that is hybrid combines the use of technology from almost anywhere with regular in-person classroom sessions. It is possible to use technology to tailor learning plans for each student in both scenarios. Lessons can be designed based on student interests and strengths.

Another advantage is that students can learn at their own pace. Students can rewatch videos in the lesson plan when they need to review class material to better understand key concepts. In addition, teachers can use the data generated by these online activities to see which students struggled with certain subjects and offer extra help and support.

The Impact of Technology on Student Learning

The use of technology has helped students and teachers create practical and easily-accessible teaching and learning environment.

A very important technological impact on education is increased interactivity and class engagement. In addition, better overall comprehension, practical learning, time management, and combined learning methodologies are just some of the impacts that technology has had on student learning.

Enriching the classroom with technology

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Choosing the right technology to incorporate into the classroom can be challenging. However, defining your learning objectives can assist you in determining which tools will be most beneficial.

It is true that not all schools can afford a one-to-one device ratio in the classroom. In situations where there are many more students than teachers, digital tools can assist in providing personalized guidance to each student. While teachers meet in private with other students, personalized digital applications can guarantee that the rest of the students are using their devices to work on their particular areas of improvement.

Better comprehension

Through the use of technology, every student basically has the world in their hands. With just a few clicks, students can easily access all the information and materials they need in order to comprehend different topics better and succeed in the process.

In certain situations, every student can face problems dealing with specific topics, and thanks to technology, this is no longer a problem since they can quickly look it up in different search engines or even ask for more explanation from their instructors. Thanks to the use of technology, instructors are always an email away, making it easier for students to connect with them and get all the necessary help.

Interactivity and class engagement

When technology is seamlessly and carefully incorporated into the classroom, students not only become more engaged but also begin to take more control over the learning process.

Effective technology integration alters the dynamics of the classroom, stimulating student-centered project-based learning. When using technology during the learning process, students are able to engage with their teachers and other students quickly and easily without wasting class time through chat rooms and other available applications.

Exploring complex matters

As mentioned previously, during the learning process, students will inevitably face obstacles and different difficulties. In addition, they may be required to explore matters that are complex and challenging for them.

However, the incorporation of technology into the learning process has made it easy for students as well as teachers to access all the materials and sources that would help to explore and solve complex matters they may encounter during the learning and teaching process.

Time-saving: effective learning

It is clear that both teachers and students make the most of what technology has to offer. One of the most significant advantages of using technology in the classroom is that it saves a lot of time.

A number of apps are available to assist teachers in taking attendance so that the task does not consume too much of their time. Even if the teacher is busy getting ready for class, students can sign their names on a tablet as they walk in.

In addition, the use of technology can completely eliminate numerous different problems; for instance, when students can access their assignments online, photocopying and stapling are no longer required.

Furthermore, with technological platforms that instantly interpret test answers on a large scale, grading is a piece of cake. Many apps provide teachers with status reports, allowing them to view each student's progress. These reports also highlight opportunities for improvement, allowing teachers to identify learning difficulties earlier in the school year. Technology not only makes grading more accessible for teachers, but it also helps students get the help and attention they require.

Combined learning methodologies

Technology allows teachers to adapt every style of learning. Whether students learn best through lectures, reading, illustrations, or recordings, technology has the ability to accommodate every type of learning that students use and prefer.

Students can learn at their convenience by using online videos, audiobooks, interactive online games, and other resources. And, because online material is typically updated, teachers and students can always get the most up-to-date information. In addition, teachers can combine different learning methodologies while using technology in order to best fit everybody's needs.

Will Technology Prevail Over Traditional Learning?

Modern technology has completely transformed the educational system. The internet-enabled classrooms have made education available to anyone who wants to learn anywhere in the world, at any time, on any subject.

In contrast to the traditional face-to-face classrooms, which have a limited capacity of students, virtual classrooms can accommodate any number of students. And, when it comes to learning, there is an infinite amount of information available for free or at a reasonable cost.

There's no denying that we're becoming a more technologically oriented society. Understanding how to use technology, from digital menus to self-driving cars, helps prepare students for the future. Early learning of technology skills can help students to grow in their careers and personal lives. Therefore, whether technology will prevail over traditional learning or not, it is very beneficial for students to be up-to-date with the latest educational methods.

Final Thoughts

While education technology is generally viewed as a threat, and it does have limitations, incorporating it into your classroom practices provides students with a new way to better interact and engage with course material. Thanks to the use of technology tools, education is no longer restricted to the four walls of your classroom. The internet and social media do not have to be a source of distraction. After finding out how technology helps students learn, as a teacher, you can integrate it into lesson plans and help both yourself and students to create improved learning outcomes.

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How Does Technology Impact Student Learning?

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Read this guide to find out more how technology impacts student learning and learn more about the benefits of incorporating technology into the learning process.

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Advantages Of Artificial Intelligence (AI) In 2023

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Advantages Of Artificial Intelligence (AI) In 2023

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To become successful in any kind of business, all you need is accurate collection of data, easy processing, adequate analytics, which further forms the backbone of decision-making and is required for vital insights. But, the kind of volume and variety of data which is generated cannot be just handled by humans at this large- scale.

And hence, eventually the significance of artificial intelligence comes into the picture which plays a very vital role in segregating these huge datasets into useful and accurate pieces of information which makes human lives much easier.

So, what are the benefits of AI and how does it affect our day to day lives? Here's a detailed read on the advantages of artificial intelligence in the real world.

9 Key Benefits of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence has pushed the boundaries of the way computer machines used to operate and functions to make human lives easier. AI is a mammoth structure of super computers which helps in facilitating machines to act seamlessly and perform many human-like tasks.

Thus, it can be referred to as a magnificent creation of next-generation developments and progressions which leads to end-to-end automation and orchestration of various complex operations and thus reduces human error.

There is no doubt about that AI-enabled systems have been able to transform various industries through its several advantages which it has to offer in the following ways:

Reducing Human Error:

AI-enabled computers make zero errors if programmed correctly.

AI models are based on predictive analysis thus leaving no scope for errors.

Helps to save both time and resources and helps in achieving accurate and efficient results.

Automates Repetitive Tasks and Processes

AI enables automation of routine monotonous tasks in areas such as data collection, data entry, customer focussed business, email responses, software testing, invoice generation, and many more.

Employees get time to focus on such tasks which require human abilities.

Smoothly handles Big Data

AI has all the skills and algorithms to process and make conclusions from big data in very less time.

AI has the ability to quickly grasp and extract relevant data which might be needed for analysis.

AI can also further process this data through interpretation and transformation.

Facilitates Quick Decision-Making

AI helps in gathering reliable and valuable insights at a much faster pace.

AI, along with important algorithms enables machines to bring consolidated data and predictions.

AI systems are always available thus helping in faster decision making.

AI-Enabled Digital Assistants

AI-based chatbots reduce the need for unnecessary customer service staff.

Helps in addressing routine and simple customer queries.

Chatbots smartly handle customers and provide timely and accurate information on demand.

Examples of voice assistants: Siri and Alexa, which respond to human voice commands and help them in resolving queries.

Performs Risky and Perilous Tasks Efficiently

AI applications can be used in the areas which are hazardous to humans.

AI systems minimize the risks involved in perilous tasks. For instance, Robots are able to undertake hazardous tasks such as coal mining, sea exploration, help in rescue operations during natural disasters, and so on.

Helps in Improving Processes and Workflows

AI helps companies to work more efficiently, enhances productivity, and increases revenues.

Helps in improving tedious processes and offers better workflows which are error-free.

Assist in Medical Applications

AI is directly involved in healthcare applications and treatments.

Medical practitioners are able to predict health risks rapidly with AI.

AI assists in complex treatment procedures such as radiosurgery.

AI based surgery stimulators monitor and detect neurological disorders and stimulate brain functions.

Full-Time Availability

AI based systems are available 24*7 and can be accessed whenever required at any given time.

Unlike humans, AI based systems can be productive all the time.

AI systems are programmed to work for longer hours and can handle repetitive and monotonous tasks easily.

Bottom Line

Now it is crystal clear that AI has all the ability to surpass human intelligence and can perform any particular task much accurately and efficiently. There is also no doubt that AI possesses immense potential which further helps to create a better place to live in. However, anything in excess is not good and nothing can be matched at par with the human brain.

Therefore, AI should not be used excessively as too much automation and dependent on machines can create a very hazardous environment for the present human mankind and for the next generations to come.

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Advantages Of Artificial Intelligence (AI) In 2024

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To become successful in any kind of business, all you need is accurate collection of data, easy processing, adequate analytics, which further forms the backbone of decision-making and is required for vital insights. But, the kind of volume and variety of data which is generated cannot be just handle

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The Pros And Cons Of Artificial Intelligence

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The Pros And Cons Of Artificial Intelligence

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(Photo by Andreas SOLARO / AFP) (Photo by ANDREAS SOLARO/AFP via Getty Images)
AFP via Getty Images

Key takeaways

Artificial intelligence (AI) is hitting the mainstream, though the first form of AI was invented in England, way back in 1951.

Nowadays AI is used in a wide range of applications, from our personal assistants like Alexa and Siri, to cars, factories and healthcare.

AI has the power to make massive improvements to our quality of life, but it's not perfect.

Artificial intelligence, or AI, is everywhere right now. In truth, the fundamentals of AI and machine learning have been around for a long time. The first primitive form of AI was an automated checkers bot which was created by Cristopher Strachey from the University of Manchester, England, back in 1951.

It's come a long way since then, and we're starting to see a large number of high profile use cases for the technology being thrust into the mainstream.

Some of the hottest applications of AI include the development of autonomous vehicles, facial recognition software, virtual assistants like Amazon's Alexa and Apple's Siri and a huge array of industrial applications in all industries from farming to gaming to healthcare.

And of course, there's our AI-powered investing app, Q.ai.

But with this massive increase in the use of AI in our everyday lives, and algorithms that are constantly improving, what are the pros and cons of this powerful technology? Is it a force for good, for evil or somewhere in between?
Download Q.ai today for access to AI-powered investment strategies.
The Pros of AI

There's no denying there are a lot of benefits to using AI. There's a reason it's becoming so popular, and that's because the technology in many ways makes our lives better and/or easier.

Fewer errors

Humans are great. Really, we're awesome. But we're not perfect. After a few hours in front of a computer screen, we can get a little tired, a little sloppy. It's nothing that some lunch, a coffee and a lap around the block won't fix, but it happens.

Even if we're fresh at the start of the day, we might be a bit distracted by what's going on at home. Maybe we're going through a bad breakup, or our football team lost last night, or someone cut us off in traffic on the way into work.

Whatever the reason, it's common and normal for human attention to move in and out.

These lapses of attention can lead to mistakes. Typing the wrong number in a mathematical equation, missing out a line of code or in the case of heavy duty workplaces like factories, bigger mistakes which can lead to injury, or even death.

24/7 Uptime

Speaking of tiredness, AI doesn't suffer from sugar crashes or need a caffeine pick-me-up to get through the 3pm slump. As long as the power is turned on, algorithms can run 24 hours a day, 7 days a week without needing a break.

Not only can an AI program run constantly, but it also runs consistently. It will do the same tasks, to the same standard, forever.

For repetitive tasks this makes them a far better employee than a human. It leads to fewer errors, less downtime and a higher level of safety. They're all big pros in our book.

Analyze large sets of data - fast

This is a big one for us here at Q.ai. Humans simply can't match AI when it comes to analyzing large datasets. For a human to go through 10,000 lines of data on a spreadsheet would take days, if not weeks.

AI can do it in a matter of minutes.

A properly trained machine learning algorithm can analyze massive amounts of data in a shockingly small amount of time. We use this capability extensively in our Investment Kits, with our AI looking at a wide range of historical stock and market performance and volatility data, and comparing this to other data such as interest rates, oil prices and more.

AI can then pick up patterns in the data and offer predictions for what might happen in the future. It's a powerful application that has huge real world implications. From an investment management standpoint, it's a game-changer.

The Cons of AI

But it's not all roses. Obviously there are certain downsides to using AI and machine learning to complete tasks. It doesn't mean we shouldn't look to use AI, but it's important that we understand its limitations so that we can implement it in the right way.

Lacks creativity

AI bases its decisions on what has happened in the past. By definition then, it's not well suited to coming up with new or innovative ways to look at problems or situations. Now in many ways, the past is a very good guide as to what might happen in the future, but it isn't going to be perfect.

There's always the potential for a never-before-seen variable which sits outside the range of expected outcomes.

Because of this, AI works very well for doing the 'grunt work' while keeping the overall strategy decisions and ideas to the human mind.

From an investment perspective, the way we implement this is by having our financial analysts come up with an investment thesis and strategy, and then have our AI take care of the implementation of that strategy.

We still need to tell our AI which datasets to look at in order to get the desired outcome for our clients. We can't simply say "go generate returns." We need to provide an investment universe for the AI to look at, and then give parameters on which data points make a 'good' investment within the given strategy.

Reduces employment

We're on the fence about this one, but it's probably fair to include it because it's a common argument against the use of AI.

Some uses of AI are unlikely to impact human jobs. For example, the image processing AI in new cars which allows for automatic braking in the event of a potential crash. That's not replacing a job.

An AI-powered robot assembling those cars in the factory, that probably is taking the place of a human.

The important point to keep in mind is that AI in its current iteration is aiming to replace dangerous and repetitive work. That frees up human workers to do work which offers more ability for creative thinking, which is likely to be more fulfilling.

AI technology is also going to allow for the invention and many aids which will help workers be more efficient in the work that they do. All in all, we believe that AI is a positive for the human workforce in the long run, but that's not to say there won't be some growing pains in between.

Ethical dilemmas

AI is purely logical. It makes decisions based on preset parameters that leave little room for nuance and emotion. In many cases this is a positive, as these fixed rules are part of what allows it to analyze and predict huge amounts of data.

In turn though, it makes it very difficult to incorporate areas such as ethics and morality into the algorithm. The output of the algorithm is only as good as the parameters which its creators set, meaning there is room for potential bias within the AI itself.

Imagine, for example, the case of an autonomous vehicle, which gets into a potential road traffic accident situation, where it must choose between driving off a cliff or hitting a pedestrian. As a human driver in that situation, our instincts will take over. Those instincts will be based on our own personal background and history, with no time for conscious thought on the best course of action.

For AI, that decision will be a logical one based on what the algorithm has been programmed to do in an emergency situation. It's easy to see how this can become a very challenging problem to address.

How to use AI for your personal wealth creation

We use AI in all of our Investment Kits, to analyze, predict and rebalance on a regular basis. A great example is our Global Trends Kit, which uses AI and machine learning to predict the risk-adjusted performance of a range of different asset classes over the coming week.

These asset classes include stocks and bonds, emerging markets, forex, oil, gold and even the volatility index (VIX).

Our algorithm makes the predictions each week and then automatically rebalances the portfolio on what it believes to be the best mix of risk and return based on a huge amount of historical data.

Investors can take the AI a step further by implementing Portfolio Protection. This uses a different machine learning algorithm to analyze the sensitivity of the portfolio to various forms of risk, such as oil risk, interest rate risk and overall market risk. It then automatically implements sophisticated hedging strategies which aim to reduce the downside risk of the portfolio.
Download Q.ai today for access to AI-powered investment strategies.
If you believe in the power of AI and want to harness it for your financial future, Q.ai has got you covered.

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Q.ai - Powering a Personal Wealth Movement

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The Pros And Cons Of Artificial Intelligence

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With this massive increase in the use of AI in our everyday lives, and algorithms that are constantly improving, what are the pros and cons of this powerful technology?

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Should Kids Have Smartphones?Time for Kids

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Should Kids Have Smartphones?Time for Kids

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Take a look at this photo. Remind you of anyone? Common Sense Media says that 43% of kids 8 to 12 now own a smartphone. Is that a good thing? Many young people tell TIME for Kids that smartphones help them stay in touch with their families.

But some experts advise caution. "Young kids are not particularly well-equipped to regulate their smartphone use," Julia Storm says. She's a digital-media wellness educator. Too much time on a device can affect kids' health and well-being. Should kids have smartphones? TFK asked some. Here's what they had to say.

COURTESY LAURA GAROFALO
John Garofalo, 11 Scarsdale, New York
There are a few reasons that kids should have smartphones. First, phones allow parents to get in touch with their kids easily. Parents can see their kids' location and pick them up if there's an emergency. Second is education. An app like Duolingo helps kids learn Spanish and other languages. YouTube can also be a learning tool when it's used appropriately. Finally, smartphones help kids communicate with friends. If you move away, you can still stay in touch. This happened to me when I changed schools. Now I can talk to my old friends while I make new ones at my new school.

COURTESY AIKO YANO
Yume Yano, 10 Foster City, California
Smartphones can cause addiction. A study by Baylor University found that college students spend about nine hours a day on their phones! Children are also vulnerable to addiction, because they're not disciplined enough to set limits. They can lose sight of their interests, dreams, and schoolwork. Studies show that smartphone use can cause anxiety, harm relationships, and even damage kids' eyesight. I'm not saying that kids should never have electronic devices. But they should also go outside, make art, and spend time with family. Why waste time on a screen?

COURTESY CYRA HUSSAIN
Alina Hussain, 10 Winfield, Illinois
My opinion is that you can have a smartphone, but too much time on it isn't good. Smartphones can provide entertainment, which we need. But this can be addicting. Watching videos online isn't the best use of your time. With effort, we're capable of amazing things. YouTube won't really help you achieve them. And looking at a screen for too long isn't good for your vision. But if there's an emergency, a smartphone lets you call your parents or the authorities. If you need to remember something, you can make a note. These are reasons that kids should have phones.

COURTESY EDUARDO DIEPPA III
Alejandro Dieppa, 10 Miami, Florida
I think kids should not own smartphones. Constantly being exposed to blue light from screens could be bad for their eyes. Smartphones can also distract them from school. And studies say that teens and young adults who spend the most time on social media are more often depressed than those who spend the least time on them. This might happen to kids, too. What about safety? Well, children should always be with adults, so safety is not part of it. With all the risks to schoolwork, health, and happiness, it's not worth it for kids to have smartphones.

COURTESY MELISSA EASTON
Logan Easton, 10 Mount Albert, Ontario, Canada
There are many good reasons that kids should have smartphones. The most important one is emergencies. Kids can call for help. Or parents can track kids by phone. Another reason is that kids can talk to their friends and family when they are feeling stressed. Or they can ask a friend to come over. And then there's the remedy for boredom: Kids could use their phones for games and other entertainment. Using smartphones lets us stay safe, communicate with friends, and have fun. Why wouldn't we want kids to have them?

COURTESY ANNETTE MCCANN
Emily McCann, 9 Pelham, New York
There are many reasons that kids do not need smartphones. First, they could get calls from people they don't know and get tricked into doing things they are not supposed to do. Some apps could leak kids' personal information. Kids might also be hurt by a mean comment online. They might not want to spend time with family and friends. And with a phone in their hands, they might not be aware of their surroundings. For example, when crossing a street. Phones can distract you from school, sports, clubs, and homework.
The Next Debate! Do kids need homework? Email your opinion to tfkeditors@time.com by December 30. Your response might be featured in an upcoming issue. *Submissions have been edited only for length and clarity. They are not intended to reflect the views of TIME for Kids. Ages are accurate as of the time of submission.

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Take a look at this photo. Remind you of anyone? Common Sense Media says that 43% of kids 8 to 12 now own a smartphone. Is that a good thing? Many young people tell TIME for Kids that smartphones help...

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On July 20, 1969, millions of people gathered around their televisions to watch two U.S. astronauts do something no one had ever done before. Wearing bulky space suits and backpacks of oxygen to breathe, Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first human beings to walk on the moon.

After the two stepped onto the lunar surface, Armstrong proclaimed these famous words: "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."

SPACE RACE

Humans were only able to make that small step after several other space firsts happened. In 1957 the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched into space by Russia. The United States launched several satellites of their own afterward. Both countries hoped to be the first to send a human into space.

It wasn't until 1961 that a person went to space: On April 12, Russia's Yuri Gagarin became the first. Less than a month later the United States' Alan Shepard became the first American in space. Following these milestones, President John F. Kennedy issued a challenge to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to put a human on the moon in 10 years or less.

NASA went to work. On July 16, 1969, the spacecraft Apollo 11 prepared to launch a crew of three astronauts into space ... and the history books.

MOON WALK

NASA officials selected Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins as the astronauts who would make the historic trip from Earth on Apollo 11. Just four days after launching from Kennedy Space Center in Florida, the spacecraft neared the moon's surface.

Before touching down, the three men split up. Collins boarded Apollo 11's command module, the Columbia, where he would remain in orbit around the moon. Armstrong and Aldrin boarded Apollo 11's lunar module, the Eagle, and began to descend to the moon's surface.

The Eagle made a risky landing in a shallow moon crater named the Sea of Tranquility. (Most people watching the landing on TV didn't know that the Eagle had only 20 seconds of landing fuel left at this point.) Armstrong and Aldrin looked out the windows of the module at the lifeless and barren lunar landscape.

After six and a half hours pass, the pair inside the Eagle prepared to exit the module. As mission commander, Armstrong stepped out first ... and became the first person on the moon.

Twenty minutes later, Aldrin climbed down the ladder and joined his partner. After reading a plaque that said they "came in peace for all mankind," the two planted the United States' flag on the surface. President Richard Nixon called to congratulate the astronauts.

Armstrong and Aldrin went back to work collecting samples of moon rocks and dust. After over two hours, the astronauts brought 47 pounds back onto the lunar module and prepared to rejoin Collins. It was time to go home.

DOWN TO EARTH

The Apollo 11 crew returned to Earth on July 24, 1969. Over the next several years, 10 astronauts would follow in Armstrong and Aldrin's footsteps. The last mission to the moon was in 1972.

Though humans haven't returned to the moon since, they have continued to explore space. They even built the International Space Station (ISS), a space research station, where they can conduct experiments and study space up close.

Today NASA is working on sending humans to another planet: Mars. Thanks to the Apollo 11 moon landing, NASA is hopeful about its chances. The act of putting three people on the moon-and then safely bringing them back home-proved that successful human exploration in space is possible.

Text adapted from Ladders Earth Science: Exploring Above and Beyond by Stephanie Harvey and Space Encyclopedia: A Tour of Our Solar System and Beyond byDavid A. Aguilar and Patricia Daniels

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The historic event captivated the world-and helped people look to the future.

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In 1969 the Apollo 11 spacecraft carried the first people to land on the Moon. The spacecraft was launched from Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral), Florida, on July 16. Four days later, Apollo 11 commander Neil Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface. The Apollo 11 mission was the culmination of the Apollo program, the Moon-landing project conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), beginning in the early 1960s.

From the time of its launch on July 16 until its return splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, almost every major aspect of the flight of Apollo 11 was witnessed via television by hundreds of millions of people around the world. A giant 363-foot- (111-meter-) high Saturn V launch vehicle was used to propel Apollo 11 into space. It lifted off from Pad 39A at Cape Kennedy with hundreds of thousands of spectators watching. The spacecraft was first inserted into Earth orbit then boosted into lunar trajectory by the Saturn rocket's third stage. Aboard Apollo 11 were Armstrong and fellow astronauts Edwin ("Buzz") Aldrin, Jr., and Michael Collins. Their enthusiasm was evident from the beginning, as Armstrong exclaimed, "This Saturn gave us a magnificent ride....It was beautiful!"

By July 19 the astronauts began to slow the spacecraft so that it would go into lunar orbit. Apollo 11 eventually entered a nearly circular orbit between 62 and 76 miles (100 and 122 kilometers) above the surface of the Moon. On the morning of July 20 Armstrong and Aldrin crawled from the spacecraft's command module Columbia through an interconnecting tunnel into the detachable lunar module Eagle. Toward the end of the 12th lunar orbit, the Apollo 11 spacecraft became two separate spacecraft. Columbia was piloted by Collins, and Eagle was occupied by Armstrong and Aldrin.

By firing Eagle 's propulsion system, the two astronauts changed from their nearly circular orbit to an elliptical course. Its closest approach to the Moon was only 50,000 feet (15,000 meters). At this low point they again fired their engine, this time to initiate a powered descent toward the Moon's surface. At about 500 feet (150 meters) above the surface, Armstrong began maneuvering the craft manually to avoid landing in a rock-strewn crater. The main engine, however, continued under automatic control.

Armstrong soon found a clear area on which to descend. The contact light went on inside the cockpit as the 68-inch (172-centimeter) probes dangling below Eagle's footpads signaled contact with the ground. One second later the descent rocket engine was cut off. At 4:17 pm U.S. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), Armstrong radioed to NASA Mission Control in Houston, Texas, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Eagle had touched down in the Sea of Tranquility, an area of the Moon selected for its level and smooth terrain.

At 10:56 pm EDT Armstrong stepped out onto the lunar soil with the now-famous words, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." (In the excitement of the moment, Armstrong skipped the "a" in the statement that he had prepared.) He described the surface as "fine and powdery" and said that there was no difficulty moving about. Aldrin joined him about 20 minutes later.

The astronauts spent about two hours walking on the surface. They deployed several scientific instruments. One was a device to measure the composition of the solar wind reaching the Moon. Another was a device to receive laser beams from astronomical observatories on Earth to determine the exact distance of the two bodies from one another. They also collected about 50 pounds (23 kilograms) of rock and soil samples and took many photographs. Meanwhile, they maintained constant radio communication with NASA Mission Control.

Armstrong and Aldrin returned to the lunar module. After more than 21 hours on the Moon, the astronauts used Eagle's ascent stage to launch it back into lunar orbit. After various maneuvers, Eagle once again docked with Columbia. The trip back to Earth began soon afterward.

Splashdown of Apollo 11 occurred in the Pacific Ocean about 900 miles (1,400 kilometers) west of Hawaii on July 24. The astronauts were immediately placed in quarantine on the recovery ship. From there they were flown to Houston, where they were transferred into the large Lunar Receiving Laboratory. During their period of quarantine, the astronauts were checked for any diseases that they might have picked up on the Moon. They were released from quarantine on August 10. The Apollo 11 astronauts later participated in an international goodwill tour, during which they were hailed for their part in opening a new era in human exploration of the universe.

Today Columbia is part of the collections of the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.

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In 1969 the Apollo 11 spacecraft carried the first people to land on the Moon. The spacecraft was launched from Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral), Florida, on July 16. Four...

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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Visit DK Find Out! to learn about dinosaurs, space, animals, nature & more. Fun learning activities for kids with videos, quizzes & galleries at DKFindOut.com

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The Apollo 11 mission took place 8 years after President John F Kennedy announced that the goal was to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s.

Apollo 11 was launched on July 16, 1969. Apollo 11 was to perform the first human landing of the Moon.

On July 20, 1969, Americans landed on the Moon. They were Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin.

When they landed there, Armstrong said: "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."

The Apollo 11 Program

Apollo was a program that sent people to the Moon. There were 11 Apollo flights. The first flight was in 1968.

John Kennedy wanted to land astronauts on the Moon with the Apollo program. This was the first time people had left Earth's orbit and visited another world. These trips allowed NASA to explore other planets in the future.

The spacecraft was put through its paces during the first four flights. The lunar landing of six of the other seven missions was tested.

The first landing was in 1969, and then six more took place in 1972.

Twelve astronauts went to the Moon. They looked at it. They collected rocks from the Moon and brought them back to Earth.

Apollo 11: Mission Objectives

The goal of Apollo 11 was for a crew to set foot on the Moon and come back to Earth.

The astronauts on the Apollo 11 mission also wanted to explore. They wanted to send a space module up.

The Apollo 11 mission also included deploying a television camera to send signals back to Earth. The mission has a solar wind experiment, a seismic experiment, and a laser retroreflector.

Who is Buzz Aldrin?

Buzz Aldrin is a veteran astronaut. He became the second human to set foot on the surface of the Moon.

The name "Buzz" came from Fay Ann's mispronunciation of the word "brother." That became "Buzzer." Then people started to call him that, and it became "Buzz."

By chance, his mom's name was Marion Moon.

The Apollo 11 spaceflight was led by Neil Armstrong. With Buzz on board, they went to the Moon in July 1969. They collected rock samples and took pictures. They set the first American flag on the Moon.

Aldrin was a fighter pilot and an engineer who became a celebrity. He continued to promote space exploration even after he left NASA. In 2016, he also explored Antarctica. That was an experience that nearly killed him.

Who was Neil Armstrong?

Neil Armstrong was in the Boy Scouts of America. Neil flew in an aeroplane when he was 6 years old, making him fall in love with planes.

Before he was an astronaut, Neil worked with aeroplanes. Armstrong helped design planes. One of the planes he flew was called the X-15 rocket plane.

After becoming an astronaut, he was in the second group of people to ever become one. He was in charge of Gemini 8. This trip was with David Scott. They were the first astronauts to connect two spacecraft in space during this mission.

Armstrong was the mission commander for Apollo 11 in 1969.

After the successful landing on the Moon, Neil Armstrong quit his job with NASA. He began teaching at a university.

Later on, he became a businessman. He was active in groups that studied space and aeronautics.

The Launching

Apollo 11 was launched on July 16, 1969. It had three people. The Commander's name was Neil Armstrong, and the two others were Michael Collins and Edwin Aldrin.

The S-IVB stage burned again and put Apollo 11 into a translunar orbit after two hours and 44 minutes. The computers of the Apollo 11 were capable of moving the daring astronauts to and from the Moon and back with only two kilobytes. Any phone available today is far superior.

The command and service module (CSM) were later separated. Then, the CSM docked with the LM.

The first colour TV transmission to Earth from Apollo 11 happened when the crew was in space. The astronauts had a successful launch, so they did not need to make more midcourse corrections.

Moon Exploration

On July 18, Neil and Buzz put on their suits and walked through the tunnel from the spacecraft to the Moon. They were checking out how things looked, and they broadcast their walk.

On July 19, Apollo 11 went behind the Moon, so they could not talk to Earth people. Then they made a move that made them go around the Moon.

On July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin went back into their LM again. They checked to see if everything was in the right place. Then they undocked from the Columbia and separated to inspect it.

An Error in Landing Apollo 11

Landing in the Sea of Tranquility was a good idea. It is flat and safe. But because of an error, Eagle landed 7 kilometres away from where it was supposed to land.

During the 12-minute powered descent, there were five unexpected computer alarms. The alarms said that the Eagle's computer system was overloaded. Mission Control said it was safe to continue the landing in all these cases.

A few minutes before landing, the crew saw an alarm. They were close to the ground and had to go down safely. But there was a problem with their navigation, and they were about to land in a place filled with rocks.

Armstrong flew the ship to a safe landing. They said, "Houston, Tranquility Base. The Eagle has landed."

When the spacecraft landed, people on the ground thought that it had 17 seconds of fuel left. But after the mission, they found out that there was more fuel left than they first thought.

"A Small Step..."

Neil Armstrong was on the Moon with Aldrin. While taking his first step, he said, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." Millions of people watched him live on TV.

The first moonwalk did not last long because there was not much time. The crew could only go 60 meters away from the ship, Eagle.

Armstrong and Aldrin collected rocks from the Moon. They also placed a device to measure how far Earth is from the Moon. They also set a device that can measure moonquakes.

After half an hour, the United States of America president spoke by telephone with the astronauts. They did some ceremonies. They set up an American flag.

Sears made the American flag, but NASA wanted to keep that secret.

When John Glenn was in space, he experimented with how to eat. Astronauts brought Tang with them on their missions. NASA made it cool.

But when Apollo 11 went into space, NASA didn't want any more advertising campaigns based on the astronauts using a commercial product.

The first astronauts on the Moon took pictures of the lunar terrain, the scientific equipment, and each other.

Commemorative coins that remember the three astronauts who died in a fire and two cosmonauts who died were planted on the Moon's surface. The silicon disk that had messages from 73 countries and names of congressional leaders also stayed.

One of the astronauts deployed a package with experiments on it. Armstrong and Aldrin looked at the lunar surface and found rocks to bring to Earth.

After a seven-hour break, the engine for the spaceship fired. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin returned to the CSM with Mike Collins on board.
Read more about the Space Race
Back to Earth

The astronauts would fly a "free-return" trajectory in this Apollo mission. This means that they could abort the mission anytime before they enter lunar orbit.

During the Moon landing, Collins stayed in the orbit of the Moon and Columbia. Eagle's ascent stage was on the Moon for 21.6 hours, and then it joined Columbia again.

Apollo 11 went around the Moon. The astronauts were there for 2.5 days, and they circled it 31 times.

The return to Earth was planned for July 24. The parachute was deployed.

After a flight of more than 195 hours - 36 minutes longer than was expected - Apollo 11 landed down in the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The weather at the place they wanted to land was bad, so they chose a different place.

They landed in the ocean near Hawaii after 8 days and 3 hours on a mission.

Further Investigations

Scientists did not think that the Moon had life on it. But the crew was kept in quarantine for 21 days just in case.

People studied the Apollo 11 samples after they were taken. It was found out that they are made of two types of rocks, basalt and other. Basalt is a type of rock made from molten magma solidifying.

The Apollo 11 basalts were formed 3.6 to 3.9 billion years ago, and they contain a lot of the element titanium. Breccias are made up of pieces from other rocks.

On the Moon, rocks are broken by rocks in space. This happens when there is an impact. Lunar samples show that there is no water, and they are lifeless.

Sources

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Apollo 11 Facts for Kids Apollo 11 Facts for Kids

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Apollo 11 was a mission to achieve the first human landing of the Moon. On July 20, 1969, Americans landed on the Moon. Click for more facts!

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Here are some fascinating moon landing facts for kids. Learn about the astronauts who went to the Moon and what the journey was like.

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July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind

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July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind

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July 1969. It's a little over eight years since the flights of Gagarin and Shepard, followed quickly by President Kennedy's challenge to put a man on the moon before the decade is out.

It is only seven months since NASA's made a bold decision to send Apollo 8 all the way to the moon on the first manned flight of the massive Saturn V rocket.

Now, on the morning of July 16, Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins sit atop another Saturn V at Launch Complex 39A at the Kennedy Space Center. The three-stage 363-foot rocket will use its 7.5 million pounds of thrust to propel them into space and into history.

At 9:32 a.m. EDT, the engines fire and Apollo 11 clears the tower. About 12 minutes later, the crew is in Earth orbit. ( › Play Audio)

After one and a half orbits, Apollo 11 gets a "go" for what mission controllers call "Translunar Injection" - in other words, it's time to head for the moon. Three days later the crew is in lunar orbit. A day after that, Armstrong and Aldrin climb into the lunar module Eagle and begin the descent, while Collins orbits in the command module Columbia.

Collins later writes that Eagle is "the weirdest looking contraption I have ever seen in the sky," but it will prove its worth.

When it comes time to set Eagle down in the Sea of Tranquility, Armstrong improvises, manually piloting the ship past an area littered with boulders. During the final seconds of descent, Eagle's computer is sounding alarms.

It turns out to be a simple case of the computer trying to do too many things at once, but as Aldrin will later point out, "unfortunately it came up when we did not want to be trying to solve these particular problems."

When the lunar module lands at 4:17 p.m EDT, only 30 seconds of fuel remain. Armstrong radios "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Mission control erupts in celebration as the tension breaks, and a controller tells the crew "You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue, we're breathing again." ( › Play Audio)

Armstrong will later confirm that landing was his biggest concern, saying "the unknowns were rampant," and "there were just a thousand things to worry about."

At 10:56 p.m. EDT Armstrong is ready to plant the first human foot on another world. With more than half a billion people watching on television, he climbs down the ladder and proclaims: "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind." ( › Play Audio)

Aldrin joins him shortly, and offers a simple but powerful description of the lunar surface: "magnificent desolation." They explore the surface for two and a half hours, collecting samples and taking photographs.

They leave behind an American flag, a patch honoring the fallen Apollo 1 crew, and a plaque on one of Eagle's legs. It reads, "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the moon. July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind."

Armstrong and Aldrin blast off and dock with Collins in Columbia. Collins later says that "for the first time," he "really felt that we were going to carry this thing off."

The crew splashes down off Hawaii on July 24. Kennedy's challenge has been met. Men from Earth have walked on the moon and returned safely home.

In an interview years later, Armstrong praises the "hundreds of thousands" of people behind the project. "Every guy that's setting up the tests, cranking the torque wrench, and so on, is saying, man or woman, 'If anything goes wrong here, it's not going to be my fault.'" ( › Read 2001 Interview, 172 Kb PDF)

In a post-flight press conference, Armstrong calls the flight "a beginning of a new age," while Collins talks about future journeys to Mars.

Over the next three and a half years, 10 astronauts will follow in their footsteps. Gene Cernan, commander of the last Apollo mission leaves the lunar surface with these words: "We leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace, and hope for all mankind."

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July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind - NASA

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July 1969. It's a little over eight years since the flights of Gagarin and Shepard, followed quickly by President Kennedy's challenge to put a man on the moon

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DK Learning: Make every lesson your best yet

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DK's uniquely visual approach engages students, enhancing their learning experience

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After World War II ended and the mid-20th century began, the Cold War started. The United States and Russia were at war against each other. Space became an arena for this competition as both sides fought with technology, military power, and economic system to prove who was better. Keep reading for more facts about the space race!

Fiction and Trips to Space

Jules Verne's book From the Earth to the Moon and H.G. Wells' book First Men in the Moon is old books about the possibility of going to the Moon.

Robert A. Heinlein also wrote a book about four Americans who flew to the Moon and found people on it. The book became the inspiration for the Space Race.

The Space Race

The Cold War defined much of the early Space Age, including the missile and rocket development in the United States and the Soviet Union.

After the Soviet Union and the Cold War were over, other countries developed their space programs.

The Space Race happened during the Cold War.

The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, partners of these two Superpowers, and the Third World nations whose support both sides sought during the Cold War.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched a satellite. This was the first time that people knew about the Space Age.

Sputnik I and II

The launch of the first Sputnik satellite marks when space flight went from being just a thought to something that exists.

The Soviet Union launched the first Sputnik satellite. The next day, they put an article about it in the newspaper that said,

The first artificial satellite was created as a result of very intensive work by scientific research institutes and design bureaus. On October 4, 1957, this first satellite was successfully launched in the USSR. According to preliminary data, the carrier rocket has imparted the required orbital velocity of about 8000 meters per second to the satellite.

Rocket R-1 was the carrier for the satellite Sputnik I. It caused a lot of concern in Western countries.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had a powerful rocket and achieved space flight before the West. This shows that they are ahead in the Space Race by making the first move.

People were afraid that the Soviets would attack the United States in outer space. They also thought that powerful Soviet rockets might be used to launch missiles.

Then the Soviets successfully launched their second satellite, Sputnik II. It had a dog named Laika on it.

The success of Sputnik made people think about space. People paid attention to the military rockets.

Vanguard and Explorer I

Two months ago, the United States tried to launch a rocket with an important satellite. But they couldn't because something went wrong.

Finally, an Army team led by the German immigrant Wernher von Braun succeeded in launching the first American satellite. It was called Explorer I.

The Explorer was a spacecraft that carried some instruments. These instruments helped to find out about radiation belts. They are named after the scientist James A. Van Allen.

He wrote these words,

We were treated like heroes, rescuing the honour of the United States in this great Cold War with Russia by having a successful satellite.

The launch of the Sputnik I had started the development of communication for satellites. It also helped create two space agencies in the United States, one civilian and one military.

The First Astronauts

Then the space projects started including people in their flights. The programs were called:

Vostok (East) (USSR program for one astronaut. He was Yuri Gagarin, the first man ever in space)

Voshkod (Rise) (USSR program for two astronauts)

Soyuz (Union) (USSR lunar program)

Mercury (American program for one astronaut)

Gemini (American program for two astronauts)

Apollo (American lunar programs)

Both countries first used the one-person spaceship. It was good for them because they got lots of experience.

As spacecraft got larger, people could go outside. Spacewalks are when people go out of the spacecraft. It is also called an extravehicular activity.

The first spacewalk was done by a Russian astronaut called Alexei Leonov. He was tethered to a Voskhod capsule.

American astronaut Edward H. White did the first spacewalk in a Gemini space capsule three months later.

The Soviets began achieving a lot of records in the Space Race:

Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman to go to space in 1963

Luna 9 was the first landing on the Moon

Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 made the first automatic docking on the Moon

Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 made the first docking in space by astronauts

Then US President John F. Kennedy announced,

I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.

The Space Race: Reaching the Moon

The US won the race to put a man on the Moon. This happened when Neil Armstrong did it on July 20, 1969.

The Apollo 11 mission used a Saturn V rocket, the Columbia command module, and the Eagle landing module.

More Apollo missions went to the Moon. They were Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17. In three years, twelve American astronauts travelled to the Moon.

Afterwards, other American firsts happened until 1983, when Sally Ride went to space for the first time. She was the first American woman in space. Guion Bluford also went to space that year, and he was the first black astronaut there.
Read more about Apollo 11
Spacial Accidents

There were some accidents in the early days of testing. These accidents happened before we were able to test safely.

Three astronauts died in a fire during the Apollo 1 spacecraft test. Virgil "Gus" Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger Bruce Chaffee.

The Soviets lost their first Soyuz spacecraft, and Vladimir Komarov died in space.

The deaths prompted the Apollo spacecraft and safety program to be redesigned. The first human-crewed Apollo flight occurred in 1968 when the vehicle travelled around the Earth 163 times during its mission.

Space Programs to Other Planets

Besides manned spaceflight, NASA and the Soviet space program sponsored unmanned programs that sent probes to different planets and the solar system.

The first Soviet Salyut (Salute) space station was put into orbit. The Soviets launched nine Salyut modules during the eleven-year program, six of which were research stations and three of which were military reconnaissance stations.

The American Skylab 1, 2, and 3 orbited the planet. These space stations enabled the astronauts to spend extended periods in space and conduct research while there. Furthermore, the stations had plenty of room for weightless floating within the spacecraft.

Reusable Spacecraft

The Soviet Mir (Peace) space stations and American reusable Space Shuttle programs, both of which incorporated several missions, helped to expand our knowledge. The Soviets built a reusable spaceflight vehicle called the Buran (Snowstorm) and successfully sent it into orbit unmanned.

The United States designed and operated a fleet of reusable spacecraft, including Columbia, Challenger, Enterprise, Discovery, and Atlantis. In 1981, Columbia was the first to reach space.

After that, space shuttles flew missions to find satellites and bring people. They could even get other spaceships.

The Space Shuttle program was created without an escape system, resulting in two major disasters. On January 28, 1986, the Challenger exploded shortly after takeoff. The crew of five men and two women perished in the tragedy.

Then Columbia went on its 114th mission in 2003. It came back to Earth, and then the spacecraft fell apart, and the seven astronauts on board died.

The End of the Space Race

After the destruction of the space shuttle Columbia, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Space Race ended.

The Space Race had no meaning after the Cold War ended. When the military stopped, there was no reason to compete. Politicians and people didn't care about it anymore.

Many countries want to be better and have more power. They build mega space programs to do this.

Other Countries in Space

The European nations worked together on various initiatives to develop their technologies and space programs.

When the European Organization selected Moomera for the launch test site, Australia joined the European Launcher Development Corporation (ELDO). Still, a satellite could not be launched in any of the four tests. They moved then to the South American country of French Guiana.

China has been making space missions since the 1950s. They have received help from Russia as a young communist country.

The Chinese completed a manned space mission in 2003 when Yang Liwei circled the Earth 14 times in the Shenzhou 5.

Today's Space Race

Today's world is far more complicated than during the Cold War, when there were only two major superpowers competing for ascendancy.

Now, new companies want to show off their spaceflight abilities. They are following the steps of Elon Musk's SpaceX and Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin.

Tomorrow's space race will not be the same as the old days. There are more actors in it, and everyone can win or lose.

Sources

P.S. If you enjoyed what you read and are a teacher or tutor needing resources for your students from kindergarten all the way up to high school senior (or even adults!), check out our partner sites KidsKonnect, SchoolHistory, and HelpTeaching for hundreds of facts, worksheets, activities, quizzes, courses, and more!

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The Space Race Facts for Kids The Space Race Facts for Kids

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After World War II ended and the mid-20th century began, the Cold War started. The United States and Russia were at war against each other. Space became an arena for this competition as both sides fought with technology, military power, and economic system to prove who was better.

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The Space Race was a competition of space exploration between the Soviet Union and the United States, which lasted from 1957 to 1969. It had to do with the efforts to explore outer space with artificial satellites, to send humans into space, and to land them on the Moon.

The Space Race began after the Soviet launch of on 4 October 1957. The term "Space Race" started as a comparison to the arms race. The Space Race became an important part of the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Space technology became an extra important area in this rivalry, because of possible military uses.

First artificial Satellite in Orbit

On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to enter the Earth's orbit. This started the Space Race.

First Man in Orbit

One part of the space race was the race to put a man into space. This first was won by the Soviet Union when Major Yuri Gagarin orbited the earth on 12 April 1961.

First Men on the Moon

On May 25 1961, in a speech to a joint sitting of congress, President John F Kennedy of the United States of America set the impossible goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. This also implied a challenge to the Russians to try to do it first. The Americans won this part of the race in 1969 when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on the Moon and returned safely to the Earth.

Images for kids

William Hayward Pickering, James Van Allen, and Wernher von Braun display a full-scale model of Explorer 1 at a Washington, DC news conference after confirmation the satellite was in orbit

Commemorative plaque and the Fallen Astronaut sculpture left on the Moon in 1971 by the crew of Apollo 15 in memory of 14 deceased NASA astronauts and USSR cosmonauts

Space Shuttle (US) docked to Mir (USSR/Russia) (1995), both products of the ending competition, joined in the Shuttle-Mir program (1993-1998) which facilitated the ongoing International Space Station programme.

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The Space Race was a competition of space exploration between the Soviet Union and the United States, which lasted from 1957 to 1969. It had to do with the efforts to explore outer space with artificial satellites, to send humans into space, and to land them on the Moon.

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The space race was a 20th Century struggle between two nation-states, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US). The pursuit for both was the domination of space flight technologies. The competition began on 2 August 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement of their similar intent to launch artificial satellites.

The space race has its origins in the nuclear arms race between the two nations following the Second World War. Both sides were aided by German missile technology and scientists from their missile programme. The technological advantages required for such power were seen as necessary for national security and political superiority. The space race produced groundbreaking efforts to launch artificial satellites; space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human space voyages in low Earth orbit and lunar missions.

The space race between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) was a remarkable time in history with many far-reaching achievements in science, space exploration, and technology. This timeline shows the twenty-year competition between the two nations.

Space race timeline

2 August 1955: The USSR responds to the US announcement that they intend to launch the first artificial satellite into space with a satellite of their own.

4 October 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 1, the first Earth-orbiting satellite in history.

3 November 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 2, carrying a dog named Laika into space. They become the first nation to successfully send a living organism into orbit.

31 January 1958: The US enter the space race by launching Explorer 1, the first US satellite to reach orbit. It carried experimental equipment that led to the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belt.

1 October 1958: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is created in the US, replacing the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA).

18 December 1958: The US launch SCORE, the world's first communications satellite. It captured world attention by broadcasting a pre-recorded Christmas message from US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, becoming the first broadcast of a human voice from space.

2 January 1959: The USSR launches Luna 1, known as the first "cosmic rocket" as it accidentally escaped the orbit of the Moon due to the object having too much speed. Luna 1 becomes the first human-made object to leave the orbit of the Earth and orbit the sun instead.

2 August 1959: The US launches Explorer 6, the world's first weather satellite and obtains the first pictures of Earth from space.

12 September 1959: The USSR launches Luna 2 and accomplishes its mission of creating the first spacecraft to reach the surface of the Moon.

4 October 1959: The USSR launches Luna 3 and succeeds in their mission of sending an object into orbit around the Moon and photographing the far side of the Moon.

19 August 1960: Aboard the Soviet Union's Sputnik 5, the first animals (two dogs, Belka and Strelka) and a range of plants are returned alive from space.

31 January 1961: Ham, a US chimpanzee, becomes the first hominid (or great ape) in space and the first to successfully survive the landing.

12 April 1961: The Soviet Union achieve a clear triumph in the space race. Aboard the Vostok 1, Yuri Gagarin makes a single orbit around the Earth and becomes the first man to reach space. He remained in space for one hour and forty-eight minutes before landing in Saratov Oblast, west Russia.

5 May 1961: The US achieve the first pilot-controlled journey and first American in space with Alan Shepard aboard the Mercury-Redstone 3 (or Freedom 7) spacecraft. On this flight, Shepard did not orbit Earth. He flew 116 miles high. The flight lasted about 15 minutes.

16 June 1963: Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first civilian and first woman in space. She spends almost three days in space, orbiting the Earth 48 times aboard her spacecraft, Vostok 6.

18 March 1965: Alexei Leonov leaves his spacecraft, the Voskhod 2, in a specialized spacesuit and conducts a twelve-minute spacewalk, the first of its kind.

14 July 1965: The US satellite, Mariner 4, performs the first successful voyage to the planet Mars, returning the first close-up images of the Martian surface.

1967: This year proves the most deadly of the space race for both the US and Soviet Union. In January, American astronauts Ed White, Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee die when a fire ignited in their Apollo 1 capsule on the launch pad. Only a few months later the Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov is also killed when the parachute on his Soyuz 1 capsule fails to open on his reentry into Earth's atmosphere.

21 December 1968: US spacecraft Apollo 8 becomes the first human-crewed spacecraft to reach the Moon, orbit it, and successfully return to Earth.

20 July 1969: Neil Armstrong and later Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin become the first men to walk on the Moon while their crewmate Michael Collins continues to orbit the Moon aboard the Apollo 11. This secured a victory for America in the space race with a televised landing witnessed around the world by 723 million people.
Find out more about Apollo 11
11 April 1970: The US Apollo 13 mission is known as the first explosion onboard a spacecraft where the crew survived.

19 April 1971: The USSR launches the first space station. Parts of this spacecraft will become core segments of the International Space Station (ISS) almost thirty years later in November 2000.

1 August 1971: David Scott, commander of the Apollo 15 mission, becomes the first person to drive on the Moon. He's also remembered for paying tribute to the Soviet Union and US astronauts who died in the advancement of space exploration. When walking on the Moon, Scott places a plaque with a list of the dead. Alongside this, he leaves a small aluminium sculpture of an astronaut in a spacesuit, created by Belgian artist Paul Van Hoeydonck.

15 July 1975: With tensions between the US and USSR softening, the first cooperative Apollo-Soyuz mission is launched. With two separate flights, the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft dock in space and the two commanders Tom Stafford and Alexei Leonov exchange the first international handshake. This act can be seen to symbolically end the space race, paving the way for future joint missions, such as the International Space Station and the Shuttle-Mir programme.

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Explore and learn about the key events and achievements that shaped almost twenty years of competition between the United States and the Soviet Union

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Aboard the Soviet's Sputnik 2, Laika, a dog, became the very first living creature to enter orbit on November 3, 1957. However, since the Soviets did not create a re-entry plan, Laika died in space. Laika's death sparked debates about animal rights around the world.

Three Weeks to Build a Rocket

The Cold War was only a decade old when the space race between the Soviet Union and the United States began. On October 4, 1957, the Soviets were the first to successfully launch a rocket into space with their launch of Sputnik 1, a basketball-sized satellite.

Approximately a week after Sputnik 1's successful launch, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev suggested that another rocket should be launched into space to mark the 40th anniversary of the Russian Revolution on November 7, 1957. That left Soviet engineers only three weeks to fully design and build a new rocket.

Choosing a Dog

The Soviets, in ruthless competition with the United States, wanted to make another "first;" so they decided to send the first living creature into orbit. While Soviet engineers hurriedly worked on the design, three stray dogs (Albina, Mushka, and Laika) were extensively tested and trained for the flight.

The dogs were confined in small places, subjected to extremely loud noises and vibrations, and made to wear a newly created space suit. All of these tests were to condition the dogs to the experiences they would likely have during the flight. Though all three did well, it was Laika who was chosen to board Sputnik 2.

Into the Module

Laika, which means "barker" in Russian, was a three-year-old, stray mutt that weighed 13 pounds and had a calm demeanor. She was placed in her restrictive module several days in advance.

Right before launch, Laika was covered in an alcohol solution and painted with iodine in several spots so that sensors could be placed on her. The sensors were to monitor her heartbeat, blood pressure, and other bodily functions to understand any physical changes that might occur in space.

Although Laika's module was restrictive, it was padded and had just enough room for her to lay down or stand as she wished. She also had access to special, gelatinous, space food made for her.

Laika's Launch

On November 3, 1957, Sputnik 2 launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome (now located in Kazakhstan near the Aral Sea). The rocket successfully reached space and the spacecraft, with Laika inside, began to orbit the Earth. The spacecraft circled the Earth every hour and 42 minutes, traveling approximately 18,000 miles per hour.

As the world watched and waited for news of Laika's condition, the Soviet Union announced that a recovery plan had not been established for Laika. With only three weeks to create the new spacecraft, they did not have time to create a way for Laika to make it home. The de facto plan was for Laika to die in space.

Laika Dies in Space

Although all agree that Laika made it into orbit, there had long been a question as to how long she lived after that.

Some said that the plan was for her to live for several days and that her last food allotment was poisoned. Others said she died four days into the trip when there was an electrical burnout and the interior temperatures rose dramatically. And still, others said she died five to seven hours into the flight from stress and heat.

The true story of when Laika died was not revealed until 2002, when Soviet scientist Dimitri Malashenkov addressed the World Space Congress in Houston, Texas. Malashenkov ended four decades of speculation when he admitted that Laika had died from overheating just hours after the launch.

Long after Laika's death, the spacecraft continued to orbit the Earth with all its systems off until it reentered Earth's atmosphere five months later, on April 14, 1958, and burned up on reentry.

A Canine Hero

Laika proved that it was possible for a living being to enter space. Her death also sparked animal rights debates across the planet. In the Soviet Union, Laika and all the other animals that made space flight possible are remembered as heroes.

In 2008, a statue of Laika was unveiled near a military research facility in Moscow.

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How Did Laika the Dog Wind Up Being the First Animal in Space?

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Laika the dog became the very first living creature to enter orbit after being launched on board the Soviet's Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957.

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Meet the Heroic Animals That Traveled to Space Before Humans Ever Did

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These dogs, monkeys and other animals were sent into space decades ago to test whether it was safe

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How do we know that we went to the Moon?

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How do we know that we went to the Moon?

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Moon landing conspiracy theories, debunked

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Moon landing conspiracy theories, debunked

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Conspiracy theory 2: Apollo astronauts could not have survived Earth's radiation field

Earth is surrounded by a zone of charged particles known as the 'Van Allen' radiation belt.

"These are regions surrounding the Earth in our magnetic field where high energy trapped particles from the Sun tend to get confined," Prof Ojha says. "What that means is if you are going into these regions, there are extremely high radiation concerns."

If that is the case, how did the Apollo astronauts travel through the Van Allen radiation belt and out of Earth's orbit unharmed? Surely the amount of radiation would have killed them? Doesn't this prove that the Moon landings were a hoax?

Prof Ojha has a killer reply.

"My answer to that is... firewalking," he says.

"If you've ever done firewalking, you'll know the one thing you don't do is linger around in the middle of the firepit. You cross as quickly as you can. From a science point of view, as long as you walk across quite quickly, looking at the thermal conductivity of your feet, you are not going to have enough thermal energy going into the soles of your feet to burn you. You're absolutely fine. Just don't hang around in the middle!

"In a similar way, the transit time through the Van Allen radiation belt right at the beginning of the Apollo voyages was incredibly short. Travelling through the Van Allen radiation belt if you are going fast enough - which you need to be if you're going to the Moon - is no problem whatsoever."

Conspiracy status: debunked

Conspiracy theory 3: why are there no stars in pictures of the NASA Moon landings?

Here is another Moon landing photograph which has caught conspiracy theorists' eye.

Buzz Aldrin carries experiment equipment during the Apollo 11 Moon landing (NASA)

If the image really was taken on the Moon, shouldn't the sky be filled with stars? After all, there is no atmosphere to distort the image, no clouds to interrupt that glorious view.

Conspiracy theorists argue that the lack of stars in the Apollo 11 mission photographs prove that the event was staged. NASA could not have faked the full wonder of the lunar sky, and so they simply chose not to include any stars at all.

Here's another solution: both the astronauts and the lunar landscape itself are brightly lit by the Sun. The sky may look black, but remember, this is in fact daytime on the Moon.

If you're going to take a photo of a brightly lit scene, your camera's shutter speed needs to be fast and your aperture incredibly small. In that situation, faint objects like stars simply aren't going to show up.

Conspiracy status: debunked

Conspiracy theory 4: the Apollo 11 US flag is waving in the wind... but there's no wind on the Moon

"One of the crowning moments in terms of US national pride was seeing the Stars and Stripes on the surface of the Moon," Prof Ojha says.

Buzz Aldrin salutes the US flag during the Apollo 11 Moon landing (NASA)

Buzz Aldrin saluting the proudly waving American flag on the Moon remains one of the iconic images of the Apollo 11 mission, a declaration of US supremacy over space race rivals the Soviet Union.

But if there is no atmosphere on the Moon, there is no wind - so why is the flag waving? Is this the proof that conspiracy theorists have been seeking?

Look again at the image, and in particular along the top edge of the flag, and you will find the answer. A telescopic pole has been extended along the top in order to make the flag fly proudly (yes, NASA really did think of everything).

"Because it's been set up like this, it appears to be waving in the wind," Ojha explains. "All the wrinkles are there because it's literally been screwed up for four days en route to the Moon."

Conspiracy status: debunked

Conspiracy theory 5: if we really went to the Moon in 1969, why have we never been back?

Apollo 17, the last Apollo mission to land astronauts on the Moon, took place in 1972. Since then, humans have never returned.

Maybe that's because we never went to the Moon in the first place?

Apollo 17 wasn't meant to be the end of the story, of course. Throughout the 1970s there were ambitions to establish a permanent lunar base before turning to the next major space exploration challenge: Mars.

It never happened. But this was no grand conspiracy; this was geopolitics.

"The answer is we changed our priorities," Ojha says. "From a combination of the Vietnam War, but also there was this geopolitical element of thinking, 'We've won the race'. Just as we'd got good at doing science on the Moon, we abandoned it."

Instead, attention turned to the Space Shuttle programme and, latterly, the International Space Station, which has been permanently inhabited by teams of astronauts since November 2000. But that doesn't mean humans couldn't return to the Moon in the future...

Conspiracy status: debunked

Apollo 11 50 years on: leaving our mark on the Moon

The Moon landings were not a hoax. Apollo 11 did happen. Humans really did set foot on the Moon.

We have countless images, videos, lunar samples and scientific data to prove it. But more than that, human exploration has literally left its mark on the Moon's surface.

"In 2009 we sent a lunar reconnaissance orbiter to map the lunar surface in three or four orders of magnitude more resolution than had ever been managed before," Prof Ojha says. "Every single Apollo landing site was pictured. Absolutely stunning.

"What really strikes me about these images is that those footprints, those tracks of the lunar vehicles - they're going to maintain their integrity for millions of years," he says. "No matter what we do to ourselves as a civilisation, we've really left our mark on the cosmos."

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Moon landing conspiracy theories, debunked

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The Moon landings were faked. Apollo 11 didn't happen. Humans never set foot on the Moon. Heard all this before?

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Cosmetic Animal Testing Is Cruel – But There Are Alternatives

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Cosmetic Animal Testing Is Cruel – But There Are Alternatives

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Every year millions of animals fall victim to human vanity, thanks to the many cosmetic products that are still safety tested using living animals. These victims of testing suffer as chemicals are applied to their skin, injected into their bodies, and placed on their eyes, all so that we can have our favorite shade of lipstick or scent of deodorant. Thankfully, this doesn't have to be the case. In response to increasing public awareness surrounding the issue, numerous countries have already taken steps toward banning both animal testing and the sale of products that have been tested on animals.

What Is Animal Testing in Cosmetics?

Shampoos, makeup, hair dye, and deodorant are just a few examples of cosmetics that might be tested on animals. Animal testing in the cosmetics industry is typically done to ensure the safety of the products and their ingredients. In most countries around the world, whether products are tested on animals is up to the manufacturer.

The History of Animal Testing in Cosmetics

Animal testing rose to prominence in the United States in 1938, following the signing of the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act into law. The new law required that cosmetic products be safety-tested before being sold. This change drove the widespread use of animal testing by cosmetics companies. The Draize irritancy tests, which expose the eyes and/or skin of subject animals to harsh chemicals, were developed in 1944 and quickly became the gold standard for the safety testing of cosmetics.

In 1980, campaigners successfully ended Revlon's use of Draize testing. The Leaping Bunny cruelty-free certification program was launched in 1996 in Canada and the U.S., following a cooperative effort by a number of animal protection organizations. Shortly thereafter, in 1998, the United Kingdom banned animal testing for all cosmetics and ingredients.

The 2000s saw a lot of progress in reducing animal testing of cosmetics around the world. The ICCVAM Authorization Act (Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods) was signed into law, committing U.S. government agencies to a concerted effort to consider alternative methods of safety testing that do not involve animals. Meanwhile, the European Union passed a law that phased out the production and sale of cosmetics tested on animals. In Japan, the Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods was established. Israel took the step to ban animal testing for cosmetics in 2007 and strengthened the rule in 2013 by banning the sale of any cosmetics that have been tested on animals. Also in 2013, Norway banned both animal testing of cosmetics and the sale of products that have been tested on animals.

Successes continued over the next several years and in 2014/15 India, São Paulo, Brazil, New Zealand, Turkey, and South Korea implemented bans of various types on animal testing and animal-tested products. This movement continued to gain momentum, and corporations began to take greater notice. In 2018 and 2019 several large cosmetics companies such as Unilever announced their support for the #BeCrueltyFree campaign. Several countries and U.S. states have recently begun passing bans or partial bans on animal testing and animal-tested cosmetics.

Is Animal Testing for Cosmetics Still Happening?

Unfortunately, animal testing is still taking place. In the U.S., the decision of whether or not to test cosmetics on animals is largely left up to the manufacturing company. In the European Union, there is a conflict of laws and regulations between requirements on safety testing to protect workers and a directive to avoid animal testing unless absolutely necessary, causing confusion for companies seeking to market their products in the region. China required animal testing for cosmetics being sold within its borders up until 2019. Since then progress has been made and testing is no longer required for most cosmetic products, whether produced domestically or internationally.

What Cosmetics Tests Are Performed on Animals?

Dermal Penetration

The purpose of dermal penetration testing, also called skin absorption testing, is to determine the impact of a chemical when applied to the skin. Animals, typically rats, have their backs shaved and various chemicals spread across their bare skin. The rats are then killed at various times in order to analyze their blood and tissue for changes related to the chemicals. These tests can be done effectively using in vitro methods, which do not involve entire animals but rather parts of living organisms such as cells.

Skin Sensitization

Like skin absorption testing, skin sensitization testing consists of the application of chemicals to the skin of animals. Instead of being interested in the absorption of the chemicals being tested, skin sensitization focuses on the response of the skin, specifically any allergic reactions that take place. There are several methods of performing skin sensitization testing without the use of live animals.

Acute Toxicity

Acute toxicity testing generally consists of animal subjects being exposed to a chemical once. The chemical can be given orally, on the skin, or inhaled. The goals of such testing are to determine the amount of danger that exposure to the test substance has, and any organs that are particularly impacted by the substance, as well as which species are at greatest risk.

Draize Test

The goal of Draize testing is to determine the level of irritation that a chemical can cause when exposed to one's eyes. Chemicals are directly placed into the eyes of the test animals to evaluate their response. Rabbits are most commonly used for this test due to their large eyes and the ease with which they can be handled.

Skin Corrosivity or Irritation

Skin corrosivity and irritation testing is an umbrella term used to refer to a variety of cosmetics animal tests including the Draize test. These tests have largely fallen out of public favor due to their ineffectiveness in translating to humans as well as their use of live animals.

What Products Are Tested on Animals?

All cosmetic products can be tested on animals. This is why it is important to intentionally search for and purchase those that don't use animal testing for their final products, or for the ingredients that are used in production.

Why Is Animal Testing for Cosmetics Bad?

Using animals for testing cosmetics causes a large amount of pain and suffering. Aside from this, however, animal testing also lacks efficacy. In fact, animal testing predicts human applications only 40 to 60 percent of the time, whereas there are alternative testing methods available that successfully translate from testing to people 80 percent of the time.

Is Animal Testing for Cosmetics Even Necessary?

Animal testing for cosmetics is unnecessary due to scientific advancements in safety testing, which have created new and more effective alternatives. Animal testing also isn't practical: it's a long and costly process for safety testing that could be performed more quickly and cost-effectively using other in vitro methods.

Cosmetics Animal Testing Facts and Statistics

In the U.S., 68 percent of respondents to a nationwide survey were aware of animal testing of cosmetics and 67 percent opposed the practice.

Most U.S. citizens would feel safe using cosmetic products that have not been safety tested on animals.

In Canada in 2020, over 5 million animals were used for research, teaching, and testing. The most frequently used were birds, mice, and fish.

What Are the Alternatives to Animal Testing?

In vivo testing is that which utilizes entire animals or living organisms. Alternatives include in vitro, which uses parts of animals or cells to achieve the same goals. Testing on humans is another alternative to animal testing but is widely acknowledged to be unethical.

Cosmetics Brands That Test on Animals

While it is important to research your favorite brands to determine whether or not they are tested on animals or use ingredients that are tested on animals, lists of some popular brands that still employ animal testing are available. Included on this list are Always feminine hygiene, CeraVe skincare, Johnson & Johnson skincare, and Redken haircare.

Where Can I Buy Cruelty-Free Products?

With the increasing knowledge and popularity surrounding cruelty-free products and testing practices, finding items that have not been tested on animals has become a lot easier. In fact, many cruelty-free brands and products can be acquired from drugstores such as CVS Pharmacy or larger retailers such as Target or Walmart. A good first step in ensuring the products we use are cruelty-free is to research those we like the most. Though labeling can sometimes be deceptive, another good step is to seek out specific cruelty-free logos and certifications that are associated with specific guidelines.

The Road Ahead

Animal testing is an outdated method of testing the safety of cosmetics. In addition to causing vast amounts of suffering for millions of animals around the world, it also fails on efficacy and economic viability. Thankfully, the popularity of cruelty-free products that use other methods of safety testing has been rising with more and more governments banning the sale of animal-tested products and the use of animal testing.

Sentient Media Podcast: Dr. Aysha Akhtar on the End of Animal Testing These Big Brands Still Test Makeup on Animals Why Do Humans Still Experiment on Animals?

Grace Hussain

Grace is an animal advocate with a passion for social justice within the animal protection movement.

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What Is Animal Testing in Cosmetics and Why Is It Bad?

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Every year millions of animals fall victim to human vanity, thanks to the many cosmetic products that are still safety tested using living animals. These victims of testing suffer as chemicals are applied to their skin, injected into their bodies, and placed on their eyes, all so that we can have our favorite shade of lipstick or scent of deodorant.

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10 Ways Space Exploration Benefits Earth Part I

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10 Ways Space Exploration Benefits Earth Part I

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When we think about space exploration, it's not uncommon to imagine glorious spectacles of blue-marbled Earth or orange-glowing galaxies stationed billions of lightyears away. We think of the vast expense of endless stars but rarely consider how it impacts our lives here on Earth.

As humanity works to discover what lies far beyond Earth's orbit, we synergistically improve the lives of the beings existing beneath it. As we launched the first satellites into space, to first get our sea legs in the ether, that knowledge and capability enabled the GPS constellation, accurate weather forecasting and modern telecommunications. Three technologies our modern day civilization could not live without.

Space exploration has played a crucial role in the innovation and advancement of humanity for decades. Still, as technology (and let's face it, billionaire funding) continues to evolve, the benefits of investing in space exploration have never been more apparent. Let's look at how space exploration benefits our home planet.

1. Advanced Robotics and AI

Space, and everything outside of Earth's atmosphere, is a harsh environment. Robots and AI are our mechanisms of exploration, and the best minds are always at work developing the technology that allows us to roam the surface of Mars and beyond. Those same technologies trickle down to be used on the third planet as well, from supporting mobility for disabled persons to aiding in search and rescue efforts.

2. Safer Food

The challenge of providing safe, contaminant-free food for astronauts was a vast undertaking that led to some pretty unconventional methods (space ice cream just doesn't hit quite the same). The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point concept that Pillsbury developed for NASA to eliminate microorganism contamination aboard spacecraft is now used by the FDA to ensure the safety of store-bought foods.

3. Cleaner Water

One of the most significant contributions space exploration has given planet Earth comes in liquid form. The need to properly filter water for space travelers prompted NASA to develop a way to filter water in a simple, portable manner efficiently. As a result, inexpensive, easy-to-use water filtration systems were designed and used worldwide to provide clean drinking water or grow crops in otherwise barren soil.

4. Asteroid Aversion

Earth-bound asteroids are nothing to scoff at; ask any prehistoric creature. The truth is, the collision of Earth with any meteor any larger than 100 meters across would cause an apocalyptic disaster. Attentive space presence and the existing technology of spacecraft-driven nuclear explosions could be enough to keep humankind from experiencing the same fate as our mammoth predecessors.

5. Medical Innovation

Aboard the International Space Station, astronauts have been able to experiment with and finetune medical innovations that have transformed healthcare on Earth. From life-saving cancer treatments to delicate robotic surgery performed inside an MRI machine, the future of advanced medicine is happening in conjunction with space exploration.

6. Sourcing of Critical Raw Materials

We already know that meteorites deliver rare, often unheard of metals and elements to Earth or leave dustings of gold across their paths. But other rare earth elements can be found as close by as the moon. Helium-3, for example, is used for some specific MRIs and is a potential fuel for nuclear power plants. Like europium and tantalum, other elements are used in advanced electronics and solar panels.

7. Combating Climate Change

One of the primary challenges of space travel is the removal of carbon dioxide from the air in space stations and planetary outposts. As powerful brains get to work on cleaning the air aboard spacecraft, we're learning more about how we could potentially reduce the presence of the same damaging compound in our environment. Additionally, satellites that circle our home planet can provide precise data that helps us understand and moderate climate change.

8. World Peace

The International Space Station has hosted astronauts and spacecraft from eighteen countries during its time in orbit. Space exploration may be the key to international cooperation, forging greater trust and stronger diplomatic relationships between otherwise distant countries. Just recently, this international cooperation has been strained due to the conflict in Ukraine, but so far those ties have bent, not broken and there are reasons to be hopeful that the international partnership will continue to endure and inspire.

9. Nurturing Human Curiosity

Human beings are naturally curious creatures, and our desire to explore and learn sets us apart from other life on Earth. Space exploration paints an insightful picture of our small place in the universe and gives us a glimpse of inexplicable magic. With each new galaxy discovered and every black hole detected, our human curiosity is satisfied and propelled and keeps us asking, Is there another life out there in the universe?

10. Inspiring Future Generations

As the youngest person to ever fly to space joined a SpaceX mission, kids worldwide suddenly saw an impossible dream become a reality. Space travel is no longer pure science fiction or just for the lucky few. For the first time in human history, children can see the possibility of experiencing space, encouraging science education and careers that will build a global capacity for astonishing innovation.

While space exploration is largely about discovering the unknown frontier, its pursuit has proven beneficial for so many facets of our life here on Terra Firma. In fact, those glowing rockets jetting into the atmosphere have a greater impact on our daily lives than many of us realize.

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10 Ways Space Exploration Benefits Earth Part I

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When we think about space exploration, it's not uncommon to imagine glorious spectacles of blue-marbled Earth or orange-glowing galaxies stationed billions of lightyears away. We think of the vast expense of endless stars but rarely consider how it impacts our lives here on Earth.

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Space exploration pros and cons: Are space programs a waste of money?

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Space exploration pros and cons: Are space programs a waste of money?

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Space exploration is a hugely expensive affair. Should we spend money on space exploration when we have so many problems on planet Earth? We debate the pros and cons of space exploration and the reasons for investing in space agencies and programs.
Should we spend money on space exploration?

The launch of SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket into has brought back media attention to space exploration. Elton Musk's private aerospace company is in the process of becoming a major player and a partner for many space programs. However, most of the efforts to discover whats out still depend mostly on public funding.

Space exploration is costly, and many argue that in times of belt-tightening, we should focus on solving problems here on Earth, especially since the knowledge gained from space exploration has few immediate benefits. On the other hand, pronponents of space exploration argue that the knowledge to be gained is invaluable, and that it is in the very nature of humankind to explore. In addition, proponents of these programs argue that they have had significant benefits and resulted in the discovery or popularisation of many useful new technologies. Furthermore, space exploration could be the only way to escape human extinction in case living conditions become unsustainable on Earth.

Today there are six big government space agencies with the capacity to create, launch and recover satellites: the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA), Russian Federal Space Agency ( Roscosmos or RFSA),the China National Space Administration ( CNSA), the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA) and the European Space Agency ( ESA) which integrates several European space agencies. Among them only NASA, ROSCOSMOS and CNSA have full capacity for human spaceflights and lunar soft-landing. In addtition to these there are many other government space agencies with variable capabilities, most of them have only the capacity to operate satellites, a few of them also have launch capabilities and can operate extraterrestrial probes. Some of these space agencies are competing to be the first to send humans to Mars and investigating if there is intelligent life on other planets.

These space programs and agencies are very costly. It is estimated that the total annual budget of space agencies is $41.8 billion. Among them the highest budgets correspond to:

NASA (USA, $19.3 billion)

Roscosmos (Russia, $5.6 billion)

ESA (Europe, $5.5 billion)

CNES (France, $2.5 billion)

JAXA (Japan, $2.5 billion)

DLR (Germany, $2 billion)

ASI (Italy, $1.8 billion)

CNSA (China, $1.8 billion)

ISRO (India, $1.2 billion)

Are all these costs justfified? Are there better ways to spend public funding? Should we mainly rely on private investors such as Elton Musk to promote space expliration? Will capitalistic incentives lead the way towards space exploration? In order to help make up your mind we outline next the most important benefits and problems of space exploration.

Space exploration pros and cons

Knowledge generation. Thanks to space exploration programs we are discovering many things that help us understand the universe. For instance, learning about planets, comets, stars, etc. can help us find solutions for some of the problems our civilization will face, such as overopulation and the need to colonize other planets.

Exploration and discovery are beneficial. Humans have always engaged in exploration to satisfy their sense of curiosity and look for opportunities. During the Age of Discoveries in the 15th and 16th centuries, countries such as Spain and Portugal heavily invested in expeditions, but thanks to them they became super-powers and gained many riches. Later, during the second age of explorations in the 18th and 19th century, the discoveries of pioneers such as Captain Cook or Livingstone heavily contributed to scientific discovery.

Artificial satellites are crucial tools in modern society. For instance they are used for defence purposes and to fight against terrorism. Satellites help us also monitor the effects of global warming and detect wildfires. Space agencies are necessary to operate satellites.

Scientific advancement and by-products. Space exploration programs help introduce and test new technologies. Much of the research carried out to find solutions for space travel have applications elsewhere. For instance NASA research has contributed to develop velcro, fire-resistant materials, medical devices to relieve muscle and joint pain, new precise thermometers, artificial limbs, new air conditioning systems, land mine removal systems, improved radial tires, etc.

Space race may save humanity. Life on Earth may be threatened by climate change, pollution, depletion of resources, infectious diseases or nuclear war. Further, space exploration is necessary to find another planet on which humans could pursue their lives. Space programs help also find solutions to adapt human lives to the space or other planets.

Space industry jobs. The space industry employs directly about 120,000 people in the OECD countries and 250,000 in Russia.

Few direct benefits to space exploration. True, space technology has helped us launch satellites and introduce many useful products, but do we need to keep pushing forward? The direct intellectual gains from learning about far away planets or satellites such as the moon can hardly compensate the costs. Historical exploration on Earth allowed collect and trade resources. Bringing resources to Earth is not possible with the current technology.

Space travel is hazardous. Many lives have been lost in space expeditions. Space missions are very dangerous and can often cost lives and stress to the families of the astronauts or cosmonauts. Should highly qualified professionals and scientists risk their lives traveling outside Earth?

Failure is common. Many of the space exploration fail. Probes and satellites crash, exploration robots are lost, rockets blow up in the air, etc. It is frustrating to see how so much money and time are wasted in unsuccessful missions.

Danger of establishing contact with alien life. One of the main goals of space exploration is to find out if there is life outside Earth. However, establishing contact with other civilizations can be extremely dangerous and could jeopardize human life. If we flag our existence to technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilizations, we may be somehow exposing ourselves to their attacks and invasion. The wanna-be colonizers could be colonized. Primitive life-forms such as virus and bacteria could also provoke epidemic diseases.

New source of international tensions. The space race is not over. There is a growing international competition to be the first in fulfilling some challenges in space exploration. Sovereignty over other planets and satellites, and over their resources, will become a controversial issue. With the advancement of technology domination of the outer space may tip the balance of power on a bipolar or multipolar Earth.

Priorities and opportunity costs. Even if there are benefits to space exploration, spending so much money and effort in reaching other planets is highly questionable. That money and brain power could be used to solve other more important problems for us. For instance governments could invest much more to prevent global warming, reduce crime rates and find a cure for cancer or Alzheimer's Disease.

Space exploration pros and cons: are space programs a waste of money or a good investment? Vote and share with us your experiences and ideas about publicly funded space exploration programs. Please invite others interested in science and technology to join the debate

If you change your mind, you can change your vote simply by clicking on another option.

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Space exploration pros and cons: a waste of money?

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Is space exploration a waste of money? Pros and cons of space exploration. Debate: should we spend money on space travel, missions and agencies like NASA?

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Why space exploration is always worthwhile

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Why space exploration is always worthwhile

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The Planetary Society * Aug 30, 2021

Your guide to advocating for space in a complicated world

Most people who love space and believe in exploration have probably heard this once or twice: "We shouldn't waste money on space exploration when there are problems to deal with here on Earth."

While public health concerns, social injustices, climate change, and other urgent issues are important to address, solving these problems doesn't depend on defunding space programs.

This can be a difficult conversation to navigate, so we've outlined a few ideas here that you can share when advocating for space.

Space spending pays off

If someone is arguing that public funds should be spent on solving the world's problems, they should know that money spent on NASA positively impacts the U.S. economy. We get the same kind of payoff for space spending in other countries. Spending on space supports highly skilled jobs, fuels technology advancements with practical applications, and creates business opportunities that feed back into the economy. This in turn grows the pool of public money that can be spent on solving the world's most pressing problems.

Space research directly impacts Earthly problems

When people apply themselves to the challenges of exploring space, they make discoveries that can help the world in other ways too. Studying how we might grow food in orbit or on Mars yields insights into growing food in extreme conditions on Earth, generating knowledge that can help mitigate the impacts of climate change. Medical research conducted on the International Space Station helps us understand the human body in new ways, helping save lives and improve quality of life.

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Studying space helps us understand our own world

Studying the cosmos gives us an important perspective shift. When we learn about what lies beyond Earth, it gives us context for understanding our own planet. Studying the other worlds of our solar system and beyond makes it clear that Earth is a precious oasis for life. When we sent spacecraft to Venus we saw how a runaway greenhouse effect turned the world from a habitable planet to an absolute hellscape. When astronauts travel into space they see just how thin and tenuous Earth's atmosphere is, appreciating the fragile balance in which we live. A cosmic perspective underscores the importance of protecting our planet's habitability and encourages investment in that effort.

Studying space may one day save us all

All the social and environmental progress in the world won't help us if an asteroid impacts the Earth. We have to explore space to find and study the asteroids and comets in our cosmic neighborhood if we want to make sure we can defend our planet if an object ever heads our way.

NEO Surveyor Artist's Concept The NEO Surveyor mission will look for asteroids and comets with orbits that come close to EarthImage: NASA/JPL-Caltech/The Planetary Society

Space is inspiring

Not every child who dreams of becoming an astronaut will get that opportunity. This is a sad truth that many of us know from experience. But to be inspired to aim for something so grand gives kids the motivation to study hard and gain skills in science, engineering, medicine, or other fields that benefit humanity and directly help overcome problems that we face as a species.

And inspiration isn't just for kids. When we marvel at the beauty of Jupiter's clouds or the mystery of Enceladus' oceans, we get an opportunity to appreciate the wonder and majesty of this cosmos that we inhabit. The idea that life might exist elsewhere in the universe reminds us that we might not be the only planet struggling to achieve balance, justice, and sustainability. And even in the bleakest of times, there's something beautiful about still striving to achieve something great and discover something that could change how we see ourselves and our cosmos forever.

The plumes of Enceladus The mysteries of the cosmos are waiting to be solved. What new insights will the future of exploration uncover?Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech / SSI / Gordan Ugarkovic

There's plenty of room at the table

There's no denying that there are many important issues facing humanity that need fixing. But to deal with those problems doesn't mean we have to stop looking up, stop exploring, and stop making discoveries.

Human civilization has astonishing capacity, and we can do more than one important thing at a time. If someone thinks that a particular issue should get more attention and investment, they can and should advocate for that. The problems we face don't persist because we're spending money on space science and exploration. And there's no reason to pit our aspirations against one another.

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Why space exploration is always worthwhile

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A toolkit to help you advocate for the value of exploring space even when there are important problems to be solved here on Earth.

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Human beings in space: debate and consequences

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Human beings in space: debate and consequences

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By the early 2020s more than 500 people, coming from more than 40 different countries and more than 10 percent of whom were women, had flown in space. As of that same time, only Russia, China, and the United States had the capability of carrying out human spaceflights. With the retirement of the space shuttle in 2011, the United States lost its independent human spaceflight capability. Such capability was not regained until 2020, when a new private commercial spacecraft, SpaceX's Crew Dragon, was ready for use.

Risks and benefits

Human spaceflight is both risky and expensive. From the crash landing of the first crewed Soyuz spacecraft in 1967 to the breakup of the shuttle orbiter Columbia in 2003, 18 people died during spaceflights. Providing the systems to support people while in orbit adds significant additional costs to a space mission, and ensuring that the launch, flight, and reentry are carried out as safely as possible also requires highly reliable and thus costly equipment, including both spacecraft and launchers.

From the start of human spaceflight efforts, some have argued that the benefits of sending humans into space do not justify either the risks or the costs. They contend that robotic missions can produce equal or even greater scientific results with lower expenditures and that human presence in space has no other valid justification. Those who support human spaceflight cite the still unmatched ability of human intelligence, flexibility, and reliability in carrying out certain experiments in orbit, in repairing and maintaining robotic spacecraft and automated instruments in space, and in acting as explorers in initial journeys to other places in the solar system. They also argue that astronauts serve as excellent role models for younger people and act as vicarious representatives of the many who would like to fly in space themselves. In addition is the long-held view that eventually some humans will leave Earth to establish permanent outposts and larger settlements on the Moon, Mars, or other locations.

Selecting people for spaceflights

Most of the individuals who have gone into space are highly trained astronauts and cosmonauts, the two designations having originated in the United States and the Soviet Union, respectively. (Both taikonaut and yuhangyuan have sometimes been used to describe the astronauts in China's crewed space program.) Those governments interested in sending some of their citizens into space select candidates from many applicants on the basis of their backgrounds and physical and psychological characteristics. The candidates undergo rigorous training before being chosen for an initial spaceflight and then prepare in detail for each mission assigned. Training centres with specialized facilities exist in the United States, at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas; in Russia, at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre (commonly called Star City), outside Moscow; in Germany, at ESA's European Astronaut Centre in Cologne; in Japan, at JAXA's Tsukuba Space Center, near Tokyo; and in China, at Space City, near Beijing.

Astronauts and cosmonauts who undertook multiple spaceflights traditionally fell into one of two categories. The first consisted of pilots, often with military backgrounds, who had extensive experience in flying high-performance aircraft. They were responsible for piloting space vehicles such as the space shuttle and Soyuz. The other category included scientists and engineers who are not necessarily pilots. They had primary responsibility for carrying out the scientific and engineering activities scheduled for a particular mission. They were known in the U.S. space program as mission specialists and in the Russian space program as flight engineers. With the development of long-duration space stations such as Mir and the ISS, the distinction between pilot and nonpilot astronauts and cosmonauts has become less clear, because all members of a space station crew carry out station operations and experiments.

A third category of individuals who have gone into space was called variously payload specialists or guest cosmonauts. These individuals include scientists and engineers who accompany their experiments into orbit; individuals selected to go into space for political reasons, such as members of the U.S. Congress or persons from countries allied with the Soviet Union or the United States; and a few nontechnical people-for example, the rare journalist or teacher or the private individual willing to pay substantial amounts of money for a spaceflight. These people are intensively trained for their particular flight but usually go into space only once. The first orbital spaceflight with a crew of private individuals, one of whom had chartered the spacecraft, Inspiration4, launched in 2021. At some future time, the costs and risks of human spaceflight may become low enough to accommodate a booming business of space tourism, in which many people would be able to experience spaceflight. Until then, access to orbit will be restricted to a comparatively small number of people. However, several firms have planned for paying customers brief suborbital flights that would provide a few minutes of weightlessness and dramatic views of Earth as they are launched on a trajectory carrying them just below 100 km (62 miles) in altitude, the generally recognized border between airspace and outer space.

Biomedical, psychological, and sociological aspects

Human beings have evolved to live in the environment of Earth's surface. The space environment-with its very low level of gravity, lack of atmosphere, wide temperature variations, and often high levels of ionizing radiation from the Sun, from particles trapped in the Van Allen radiation belts, and from cosmic rays-is an unnatural place for humans. An understanding of the effects on the human body of spaceflight, particularly long-duration flights away from Earth to destinations such as Mars, is incomplete.

Many of those going into space experience space sickness ( see motion sickness), which may cause vomiting, nausea, and stomach discomfort, among other symptoms. The condition is thought to arise from a contradiction experienced in the brain between external information coming from the eyes and internal information coming from the balance organs in the inner ear, which are normally stimulated continually by gravity. Space sickness usually disappears within two or three days as the brain adapts to the space environment, although symptoms may reappear temporarily when the space traveler returns to Earth's gravity.

The virtual absence of gravity causes loss of tissue mass in the calf and thigh muscles, which are used on Earth's surface to counter the effect of gravity. Muscles that are less involved with gravity, such as those used to bend the legs or arms, are less affected. Some loss of muscle mass in the heart has been observed in astronauts on long-duration missions. In the absence of gravity, blood that normally pools in the body's lower extremities initially shifts to the upper regions. As a result, the face appears puffy, the person experiences sinus congestion and headaches, and blood production decreases as the body attempts to compensate. In addition, in the space environment, some weight-bearing bones in the body atrophy.

Although the changes in muscle, bone, and blood production do not pose problems for astronauts in space, they do so on their return to Earth. For example, in normal gravity, a person with decreased bone mass runs a greater risk of breaking a bone during normal strenuous activity. Countermeasures, particularly various forms of exercise while in space, have been developed to prevent these effects from causing health problems later on Earth. Even so, people recovering from long-duration flights require varying amounts of time to readjust to Earth conditions. Light-headedness usually disappears within one or two days; lack of balance and symptoms of motion sickness, in three to five days; anemia, in one to two weeks; muscle atrophy, in three to five weeks; and bone atrophy, in one to three years or more.

Except for the Apollo trips to the Moon, all human spaceflights have taken place in near-Earth orbit. In this location, Earth's magnetic field shields humans from potentially dangerous exposure to ionizing radiation from recurrent major disturbances on the Sun and interplanetary cosmic rays. The Apollo missions, which were all less than two weeks long, were timed to avoid exposure to anticipated high levels of solar radiation. If, however, humans were sent on journeys to Mars or other destinations that would take months or even years, such measures would be inadequate. Exposure to high levels of solar radiation or cosmic rays could cause potentially fatal tumours and other health problems ( see radiation injury). Space engineers will need to devise adequate radiation shielding for interplanetary crewed spacecraft and will require accurate predictions of radiation damage to the body to ensure that risks remain within acceptable limits. Biomedical advances are also necessary to develop methods for the early detection and mitigation of radiation damage. Nevertheless, the effects of radiation may remain a major obstacle to long human voyages in space.

In addition to the biomedical issues associated with human spaceflight are a number of psychological and sociological issues, particularly for long-duration missions aboard a space station or to distant destinations. To be in space is to be in an extreme and isolated environment. Mission planners will have to consider issues relating to crew size and composition-particularly if the crews are mixtures of men and women and come from several nations with different cultures-if interpersonal conflicts are to be avoided and effective teamwork achieved.

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Space exploration - Human, Debate, Consequences

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Space exploration - Human, Debate, Consequences: By the early 2020s more than 500 people, coming from more than 40 different countries and more than 10 percent of whom were women, had flown in space. As of that same time, only Russia, China, and the United States had the capability of carrying out human spaceflights.

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20 Breakthroughs from 20 Years of Science aboard the International Space Station

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20 Breakthroughs from 20 Years of Science aboard the International Space Station

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For 20 years, the astronauts aboard the International Space Station have conducted science in a way that cannot be done anywhere else. Orbiting about 250 miles above our planet, the space station is the only laboratory available for long-duration microgravity research.

During the past two decades, the space station has supported numerous discoveries, scientific publications, unique opportunities, and historic breakthroughs. This research not only helps us explore farther into space, it also benefits us back on Earth.

To mark 20 years of science, take a look at 20 scientific and technological breakthroughs we have achieved as a result of space station science.
Click on each breakthrough in the list below to learn more about it, why we conducted the research in microgravity, and why it matters.
20 Breakthroughs from 20 Years

Fundamental disease research: Alzheimer's Disease. Parkinson's Disease. Cancer. Asthma. Heart Disease. If any of these conditions has affected your life, so has space station research.

Discovery of steadily burning cool flames: When scientists burned fuel droplets in the Flame Extinguishing Experiment (FLEX) study, something unexpected occurred. A heptane fuel droplet appeared to extinguish, but actually continued to burn without a visible flame at temperatures two-and-a-half times cooler than a typical candle.

New water purification systems: Water is vital for human survival. Unfortunately, many people around the world lack access to clean water. At-risk areas can gain access to advanced filtration and purification systems through technology that was developed for the space station, enabling the astronauts living aboard to recycle 93% of their water.

Drug development using protein crystals: Protein crystal growth experiments conducted aboard the space station have provided insights into numerous disease treatments, from cancer to gum disease to Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Methods to combat muscle atrophy and bone loss: Space studies have contributed greatly to our knowledge of bone and muscle loss in astronauts - and how to mitigate those effects. The knowledge gained also applies to people on Earth dealing with diseases such as osteoporosis.

Exploring the fifth state of matter: 25 years ago, scientists first produced a fifth state of matter, called a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), on Earth. In 2018, NASA's Cold Atom Lab became the first facility to produce that state of matter in space. This achievement may provide insight into fundamental laws of quantum mechanics.

Understanding how our bodies change in microgravity: When humans head to Mars, we need to know what challenges we face. Long-term stays aboard the space station have uncovered unexpected ways that the human body changes in microgravity.

Testing tissue chips in space: Tissue chips are roughly thumb-drive-sized devices that contain human cells in a 3D matrix, representing functions of an organ. Chips have been sent to station, seeking to better understand the impact of microgravity on human health and to translate that understanding to improved health on Earth.

Stimulating the low-Earth orbit economy: From satellite deployment to in-space research, a vibrant commercial space economy has developed, with a value that now exceeds $345 billion. The space station has been a key part of supporting that growth.

Growing food in microgravity: The ability to grow supplemental food can help humans explore farther from Earth. Many techniques for growing plants have been explored aboard the space station to prepare for these missions. On August 10, 2015, astronauts sampled their first space-grown salad, and astronauts now are growing radishes in space.

Deployment of CubeSats from station: CubeSats are one of the smallest types of satellites and provide a cheaper way to perform science and technology demonstrations in space. More than 250 CubeSats have now been deployed from the space station, jumpstarting research and satellite companies.

Monitoring our planet from a unique perspective: The capacity to host varying complements of instruments, both internal and external, has evolved the station into a robust platform for researchers studying Earth's water, air, land masses, vegetation, and more while providing them additional views beyond those of NASA's typical Earth remote-sensing satellites.

Collecting data on more than 100 billion cosmic particles: The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 has provided researchers around the globe with data that can help determine what the universe is made of and how it began.

A better understanding of pulsars and black holes: Two tools installed on the outside of the space station, NICER and MAXI, have worked in tandem to advance our knowledge of pulsars and black holes.

Student access to an orbiting laboratory: Companies and professors are not the only ones using the space station for microgravity research. Station has given elementary- to college-aged students access to science in space and the opportunity to study microgravity's effects.

Capability to identify unknown microbes in space: Having the ability to identify microbes in real time in space without the need to send them back to Earth for identification would be revolutionary for the world of microbiology and space exploration. The Genes in Space-3 team turned that possibility into reality in 2017.

Opening up the field of colloid research: Toothpaste, 3D printing, pharmaceuticals, and detecting shifting sands on Mars may not seem related to each other at all, yet each stands to benefit from improvements made thanks to research on colloids aboard the space station.

The evolution of fluid physics research: Fluids cover our planet, but sending them to space can help us better understand how they flow. The study of fluids in space has progressed from fundamental research into the testing of technology applications ranging from advanced medical devices to heat transfer systems.

3D printing in microgravity: The first item was 3D printed on the space station in 2014. Since then, we have explored 3D printing using recycled materials and even printing human tissue.

Responding to natural disasters: With crew handheld camera imagery as a core component, the station has become an active participant in orbital data collection to support disaster response activities both within the U.S. and abroad.
Explore all of these breakthroughs in more detail below
Fundamental disease research

Alzheimer's Disease. Parkinson's Disease. Cancer. Asthma. Heart Disease. If any of these conditions have impacted your life, space station research has also affected you. Microgravity research has provided new insights to scientists studying these diseases. Without the interference of Earth's gravity, Alzheimer's researchers have studied protein clusters that can cause neurodegenerative diseases. Cancer researchers studied the growth of endothelial cells on the space station. Endothelial cells help supply blood in the body, and tumors need that blood to form. Space station-grown cells grow better than those on Earth and can help test new cancer treatments.

Why do this in space? Studying cells, organoids, and protein clusters without the influence of gravity - or even the forces of container walls - can help researchers get a clearer understanding of their properties, behaviors, and responses to treatments.

Why does it matter? The space station is a tool that provides new perspectives to the fight against diseases affecting millions of people that we have been working to combat for generations.
Learn more: Space Station Cell Study Seeks Causes of Major Diseases NASA, Industry Partner for Space-based Study of Potential Alzheimer's Key Understanding Asthma from Space Vascular Studies in Space: Good for Everyone's Heart
Discovery of steadily burning cool flames

When we think about fire, we typically think about heat, but special flames created aboard the space station keep things a bit cooler.

When scientists burned fuel droplets in the Flame Extinguishing Experiment (FLEX) study, something unexpected occurred. A fuel droplet appeared to extinguish but actually continued to burn without a visible flame. The fire went out twice-once with and once without a visible flame. This is the first time scientists observed large droplets of heptane fuel that had dual modes of combustion and extinction. The second stage was sustained by what is known as cool flame chemical heat release.

Why do this in space? Removing gravity from studies of combustion allows for exploration of the basic principles of flames. Cool flames have been produced on Earth, but they quickly flicker out. On station, cool flames can burn for minutes, giving scientists a better opportunity to study them.

Why does it matter? Typical flames produce soot, carbon dioxide, and water. Cool flames produce carbon monoxide and formaldehyde. Learning more about the behavior of these chemically different flames could lead to the development of more efficient, less-polluting vehicles.
Learn more: ScienceCasts: Strange Flames on the International Space Station An Old Theory Goes up in Cool Flames Cool flame research aboard space station may lead to a cleaner environment on Earth
New water purification systems

The space station's life support system was developed to provide the crew with clean air and water. The Water Recovery System purifies and filters the station's water, recovering and recycling 93% of the water astronauts use in space. This technology has been licensed to adapt it into an Earth-based water treatment system. The first of many ground-based water filtration systems using NASA technology was installed in Iraq in 2006. Station research studies like AquaMembrane have also tested out other innovative water systems.

Why do this in space? Efficiently recycling wastewater aboard the space station reduces the need to provide water through resupply missions. As we travel deeper into space, resupply would be unachievable, making these systems a necessity. The restrictions imposed by the requirements of space prompted innovation that was applied to Earth.

Why does it matter? Water is vital for human survival. Unfortunately, many people around the world lack access to clean water. At-risk areas can gain access to advanced filtration and purification systems through technology developed for the space station, making a lifesaving difference in these communities.
Learn more: NASA Marshall Engineers Refine Hardware, Apply Innovative Solutions to More Reliably Recycle Space Station Wastewater Life Support Upgrades Arrive at Station, Improve Reliability for Moon, Mars Missions ECLSS More Efficient, Lightweight Water Filtration Technologies in Space and on Earth Advanced NASA Technology Supports Water Purification Efforts Worldwide
Drug development using protein crystals

Humans contain more than 100,000 types of proteins. Each protein provides information related to our health. Studying these proteins by crystallizing them helps us learn more about our bodies and potential disease treatments. Protein crystal growth experiments conducted aboard the space station have provided insights into numerous diseases, from cancer to gum disease.

One of the most promising results of these station experiments has come from the study of a protein associated with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), an incurable genetic disorder. A treatment for DMD based on this research is in clinical trials.

Another investigation, PCG-5, sought to grow the therapeutic antibody Keytruda® in a more uniform crystalline form. The goal was to improve the drug such that it can be delivered by injection as opposed to IV treatment.

Why do this in space? Protein crystals grown on Earth are affected by gravity, which may alter the way the molecules align on the crystal. Researchers have discovered that growing crystals aboard the space station allows for slower growth and higher quality crystals. This high-quality crystallization allows us to identify the structures of disease-causing proteins to develop a new medications and effective treatments.

Why does it matter? The space station is a tool that could be key in the fight against diseases the medical community has been working to combat for generations. DMD alone affects 1 in 3,600 young boys.
Learn more: ISS Benefits for Humanity: Hope Crystalizes Getting to the Bottom of Humans' Greatest Infection: Periodontal Disease Improving Treatments with Tiny Crystals Finding the Keys in Space to Treat Diseases on Earth
Methods to combat muscle atrophy and bone loss

The effect of microgravity on bones and muscles provides unique opportunities for research. Space studies have contributed greatly to our understanding of bone and muscle loss in astronauts, and in people on Earth. Scientists have developed an exercise routine and diet regimen that significantly reduce the bone and muscle loss astronauts otherwise would experience during their stays on station. These findings inform the physical activity and nutrition required on deep space missions.

Why do this in space? Our bodies evolved within the constant pull of Earth's gravity. In microgravity, bones and muscles do not have to support the body's mass. This can cause bone and muscle loss without proper exercise. This response to microgravity provides an opportunity for better understanding these changes.

Why does it matter? Understanding how to mitigate the effects of microgravity on bones and muscles is important for future exploration in the partial gravity environments of the Moon and Mars. On Earth, bone and muscle atrophy occurs from normal aging, sedentary lifestyles, and illnesses. This condition may cause serious health issues from injuries due to falls or osteoporosis. Studying these losses in microgravity can help us better understand them and potentially create treatments for people back on Earth.
Learn more: Rodents and a rocket carried these researchers' dreams to space Implantable Device That Helped Grow Muscles of Mice in Space Could Change Lives on Earth Bone and Muscle Loss in Microgravity Fishing For Answers on Bone Loss in Space Preventing Bone Loss in Spaceflight with Prophylactic use of Bisphosphonate
Exploring the 5th-state of matter

25 years ago, scientists on Earth first produced a fifth state of matter with properties totally unlike solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas. The achievement garnered a Nobel Prize for those scientists and changed the field of physics.

In 2018, NASA's Cold Atom Lab became the first facility to produce that fifth state of matter, called a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), in Earth's orbit. The Cold Atom Lab lowers atoms to ultracold temperatures in order to study their properties in ways not possible on Earth.

Why do this in space? Chilling atoms is the only way to produce a BEC. Ultracold atom facilities in space should be able to reach colder temperatures than labs on Earth. Additionally, scientists produce BECs in a vacuum, so on Earth the atoms are pulled down by gravity and fall quickly toward the floor. This movement typically limits observation times to less than a second without the help of magnetic or optical fields that influence the atoms' behaviors. In microgravity, BEC's can float, providing longer observation times.

Why does it matter? BECs serve as a valuable tool for scientists studying quantum physics. BECs collectively exhibit properties typically displayed only by individual atoms, making those microscopic characteristics visible at a much larger scale. This study can provide insight into fundamental laws of quantum mechanics and could support the development of quantum technologies such as ultraprecise sensing and timekeeping.

Example experiments: Cold Atom Lab - Bose-Einstein Condensate Bubble Dynamics, Cold Atom Lab - Few-Body Physics
Learn more: Cold Atom Lab: The Coolest Spot in the Universe NASA's Cold Atom Lab Takes One Giant Leap for Quantum Science The Space Station's Coolest Experiment Gets Astronaut-Assisted Upgrade
Understanding how our bodies change in microgravity

Before humans head to Mars, we want to know what challenges we will face. Long-term stays aboard the space station have allowed us to uncover and begin solving challenges that could be presented by the human body's response to space. For example, some space station astronauts unexpectedly developed vision changes, now known as Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-Ocular Syndrome (SANS). Findings include swelling at the optic disc and flattening at the back of the eyeball. After helping discover the issue, space station research has served as a platform to better understand SANS.

NASA's Twins Study compared astronaut Scott Kelly during his year in space with his Earth-bound twin brother Mark Kelly. It provided insights into the many ways long-term spaceflight affects a human body. showed that Scott's gene expression changed and his body reacted appropriately to vaccines while in space.

Why do this in space? The space station currently is the only place for performing research in long-duration microgravity. There is no substitute for actually sending humans into orbit where they can serve as test subjects for the science.

Why does it matter? Traveling deep into space means spending long periods of time in microgravity. To figure out how to make those trips safer and more comfortable, it is important to study humans closer to Earth in a controlled environment.
Links International Space Station Research Keeps an Eye on Vision Changes in Space NASA's Twins Study Results Published in Science Journal Andrew Morgan: Last Man in Fluid Shifts NASA Investigates How Dormant Viruses Behave during Spaceflight
Testing tissue chips in space

Tissue chips are roughly thumb-drive-sized devices that contain human cells in a 3D matrix, representing functions of an organ. They represent a big step in the ability of scientists to test how those cells respond to stresses, drugs, and genetic changes.

The Tissue Chips in Space initiative seeks to use these devices in microgravity to better understand and improve human health and disease treatment on Earth. Chips simulating lung, kidney, brain, and intestine behavior all have been sent to the space station by a branch of the National Institutes of Health and the ISS U.S. National Lab.

Why do this in space? Many of the changes in the human body caused by microgravity resemble the effects of diseases associated with aging on Earth, such as bone and muscle loss. In space, these changes occur much faster than they do on Earth. That means scientists may be able to use tissue chips in space to model changes that might take months or years to happen on Earth.

Why does it matter? These studies can provide insights into diseases that affect organs on Earth and in space, and potentially help inform the creation of treatments for them.
Learn more: Small Tissue Chips in Space a Big Leap Forward for Research Houston We Have a Podcast: Organs on Chips in Space Tissue Chips In Space
Stimulating the low-Earth orbit economy

From satellite deployment to in-space research, a vibrant commercial space economy has developed. Through the ISS U.S. National Lab, many companies are able to access the space station and conduct research and technology development investigations in microgravity. They include well-known corporations like Procter & Gamble, which has used the station to study colloids with a goal of improving products such as shampoo and fabric softener. Smaller companies like LambdaVision have leveraged the microgravity environment on the space station to improve the processes used to create retinal implants.

Supporting research activities on station is becoming a significant business too. Companies like Nanoracks and TechShot operate commercial research facilities housed on the station. A cadre of 40 companies help researchers translate their experiments into hardware small and light enough to be housed on station.

Commercial resupply contracts to bring science and supplies to the space station also have helped support the development of launch services for companies such as Northrop Grumman and SpaceX.

Why do this in space? Expanding use of the space station to commercial companies provides a new market, sparks economic development, and allows more groups to take advantage of this platform.

Why does it matter? All of these commercial activities validate business models and expand the numbers of entities with experience in conducting business in space. Commercialization of low-Earth orbit frees up resources NASA needs to continue its exploration of space. By having companies join forces with government agencies, space exploration can continue, while providing access to a platform that helps create jobs, build revenues, and create new products and services for people on Earth.

Example experiments: Advanced Colloids Experiments, Optical Fiber Production in Microgravity, Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Protein-Based Artificial Retinas in Microgravity
Learn more: A Growing Market at Gravity's Edge International Space Station Research on Tiny Colloid Particles Yields Big Results Enabling Commercial Launch Providers NASA Moving Forward to Enable a Low-Earth Orbit Economy NASA Report Details How Agency Significantly Benefits US Economy
Growing food in microgravity

As humans explore farther from Earth, the ability to grow food is a solution to several challenges of long-duration missions. Fresh produce provides nutritious meals over multiple years and reduces cargo requirements for the trip. Many techniques for growing plants have been explored on station to prepare for these missions. On August 10, 2015, astronauts sampled their first space-grown salad. Eight types of leafy greens have been grown in the Veggie facility for astronauts to eat, fine tuning the best techniques.

Why do this in space? New solutions for watering, lighting, and growing plants have to be tested to create a food crop in microgravity. The space station has served as a platform for performing these tests, and for verifying what conditions allow the plants to grow most effectively.

Why does it matter? The packaged diet used by crews in low-Earth orbit works well, but relies on frequent resupply missions. During a mission to Mars, the vitamins and quality of packaged food would degrade over time, and couldn't easily be restocked. Supplementation with fresh crops provides necessary nutrients while giving astronauts more variety in their diet.
Learn more: Veggie Plant Growth System Activated on International Space Station Historic Veggie Moment on the Space Station Growing Plants in Space Veggie Fact Sheet Plant Growth on the International Space Station has Global Impacts on Earth
Deployment of CubeSats from station

CubeSats are one of the smallest types of satellites; they provide an inexpensive way to perform science and technology demonstrations in space. One way these compact cubes can reach Earth orbit is hitching a ride to the space station, where they are deployed from an airlock. Sharing the cost of a rocket launch with the other groups launching payloads to the space station can make deploying a CubeSat more affordable.

Some of the first CubeSats released from the station were thrown by Russian cosmonauts while they performed a spacewalk. In 2012, crew members began using the Japanese Kibo module airlock to deploy CubeSats. Soon after, American company NanoRacks started operating a more robust deployer. One of NanoRacks' first customers, Planet, deployed CubeSats to take high resolution photos of the entire Earth each day. Planet deployed several generations of CubeSats, demonstrating the viability of their technology and business model. NASA's CubeSat Launch initiative provides a pathway to conduct research in space for CubeSats developed by educational institutions, non-profit organizations as well as NASA Centers and programs.

Why do this in space? Putting these satellites into low-Earth orbit gives researchers and companies a unique perspective on our planet. More than 250 CubeSats have been deployed from station, performing numerous technology demonstrations, providing internet services, and more.

Why it matters? Deploying CubeSats from the space station provides a more accessible way to get new technologies to space.
Learn more: JEM Small Satellite Orbital Deployer Jumpstarting the CubeSat Revolution with Reliable Launch From the ISS Largest Flock of Earth-Imaging Satellites Launch into Orbit From Space Station Small to Big: Enabling a Growing SmallSat Marketplace
Monitoring our planet from a unique perspective

The view of Earth from the space station is life-changing for the few who get to see and photograph it in person. But this vantage point does more than create beautiful images: photos taken by astronauts can help track the evolution of our planet alongside the suite of tools inside and outside the space station. The orbiting lab has evolved into a robust platform for researchers studying Earth's water, air, land masses, vegetation, and more. analyzes water stress in plants, while looks at the same areas of Earth, analyzing carbon stored in forests. Though the many experiments collect data individually, together they provide a set of measurements that pushes the leading edge of environmental research.

Why do this in space? At about 250 miles above Earth on a 90-minute orbit and an orbital path over 90 percent of Earth's population, the station affords a unique perspective that cannot be obtained on the ground, and it can provide improved spatial resolution and variable lighting conditions compared to the sun-synchronous orbits of typical Earth remote-sensing satellites.

Why it matters: When scientists can better comprehend and monitor water and energy cycles, ecosystem changes, geological hazards, and population migrations, they can offer useful information regarding climate changes, as well as assist with natural disaster response.
Learn more: Earth Observation From the Space Station The Combined Power of Remote Earth Observations aboard the International Space Station A Researcher's Guide to: Earth Observations Houston We Have a Podcast: The View from Above
Collecting data on more than 100 billion cosmic particles

Many scientists theorize that stars, planets, and the molecules that comprise them are less than five percent of the mass-energy content of the universe. The rest is dark matter, invisible matter that cannot be detected directly but can be inferred. The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) has been looking for evidence of this substance from the space station since 2011, collecting data on more than 100 billion cosmic particles.

AMS-02 has provided researchers around the globe with data that can help determine what the universe is made of and how it began. It also has collected data on cosmic rays, how these rays travel through space, and what produces them.

Why do this in space? AMS-02's core is a massive magnet that bends incoming charged particles. The direction they bend reveals their charge, which helps identify the type of particle. Earth's atmosphere has a significant effect on these particles, so a space-based observatory is essential to get accurate information.

Why it matters: In addition to helping unravel scientific mysteries of the universe, AMS-02 may also allow scientists to get a more complete picture of radiation in space. It is collecting data over a complete solar cycle, which provides more information about the potential radiation exposure for astronauts headed to Mars.
Learn more: NASA ScienceCasts: Finding the Invisible Studying Dark Matter In Space: It Matters! A Series of Spacewalks Four Years in the Making Will Attempt to Revive a Scientific Experiment
A better understanding of pulsars and black holes

Two tools installed on the outside of the space station have worked in tandem to advance our knowledge of pulsars and black holes: NASA's Neutron star Interior Composition Explorer () and the Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image () from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).

In 2018, MAXI detected a new X-ray source in the sky and named it "MAXI J1820+070". Shortly after, NICER began monitoring the source and determined it to be a black hole binary system containing a black hole with a mass several times that of our Sun.

Within days, MAXI J1820+070 became one of the brightest X-ray sources in the sky. NICER tracked the evolution of this system. Its measurements helped us understand how the inner edge of a black hole's accretion disk (and the corona above it) change in size and shape as a black hole consumes material from a star.

Why do this in space? From above Earth, we can get a better look at the rest of the universe. Mounting multiple tools like NICER and MAXI on the same orbiting platform gives us more data on a large swath of the space around us.

Why it matters: NICER and MAXI enable new studies of neutron stars and other astrophysical sources of X-rays, advancing scientific understanding and technical development for the benefit of people on Earth.
Learn more: NASA's NICER Catches Record-setting X-ray Burst NASA's NICER Mission Finds an X-ray Pulsar in a Record-fast Orbit NASA's NICER Mission Maps 'Light Echoes' of New Black Hole Unlocking Secrets of Neutron Stars with NICER
Student access to an orbiting laboratory

Numerous programs have given elementary- to college-aged students access to space and the chance to take advantage of the microgravity environment aboard the space station. More than 950,000 students have participated in the program, taking pictures of Earth using a station camera. has partnered with schools around the country to send more than 1,300 student-made items to station. The Genes in Space and Guardians of the Galaxy Space Station Challenge competitions have given high school students the opportunity to design experiments flown into orbit. Millions of children have also participated in Tomatosphere™, which provides students with tomato seeds exposed to space or space-simulated environments and seeds that have not, allowing classrooms to compare how the seeds grow. In addition, students have the opportunity to talk with astronauts in space through NASA's STEM on Station and amateur radio on the International Space Station.

Why do this in space? Increasing access to space gives students the opportunity to develop new skills, gives them space research experience, and instills an appreciation of exploration. Students also create meaningful datasets and results.

Why this matters: Providing students with access to an orbiting laboratory inspires the next generation of space researchers and explorers and creates an appreciation for science.
Learn more: A Generation Researching in Space: Twenty Years aboard the Space Station High School Students Build Lockers for Trip to the International Space Station Tomatosphere™: Sowing the Seeds of Discovery through Student Science HUNCH about Student Success in Engineering? Genes in Space-3 Successfully Identifies Unknown Microbes in Space Students Photograph Earth from Space
Capability to identify unknown microbes in space

Why do this in space? Technology and scientific tools can behave differently in microgravity than on Earth. Designing DNA and microbial sequencers for use in space and testing these devices aboard the space station is crucial to ensuring their reliability on long-duration missions.

Why it matters: A space-based DNA sequencer is an important tool to help protect astronaut health during long duration missions on the journey to Mars, aiding in the ability to diagnose and treat astronaut ailments in real time. Future explorers also could use the technology to identify DNA-based life forms beyond Earth.
Learn more: Sequencing the Station: Investigation Aims to Identify Unknown Microbes in Space Genes in Space-3 Successfully Identifies Unknown Microbes in Space First DNA Sequencing in Space a Game Changer Sequencing DNA in the Palm of Your Hand
Opening up the field of colloid research

Toothpaste, 3D printing, pharmaceuticals, and detecting shifting sands on Mars may not seem related to each other at all, yet each stands to benefit from improvements made thanks to years of research on colloids aboard the space station.

Mixtures of tiny particles suspended in a liquid, colloids occur in many forms. These forms include natural mixtures such as milk and muddy water as well as a range of manufactured products from shampoo to medicine to salad dressing. Space station research has explored subjects such as stabilizing these mixtures and colloid behaviors that can be applied to products on Earth.

Why do this in space? Studying colloids on Earth is complicated by gravity, which causes some particles to rise and others to sink. Microgravity removes that complication and makes possible research that can help companies design better products.

Why it matters: This colloid research can help to improve products used in our everyday lives and create entirely new products, including some that could enable exploration farther into space. Companies such as Procter & Gamble have used station research to study how to keep a product liquid enough to dispense easily and yet prevent ingredients, or particles, from clumping together and settling.
Learn more: International Space Station Research on Tiny Colloid Particles Yields Big Results Of Strawberry Jelly and Earthquakes: Space Station Investigation Studies Colloids in Microgravity Advanced Colloids Experiments (ACE)
The evolution of fluid physics research

Fluid covers our planet, but sending fluids to space can help us better understand them. Space station fluid research began with the fundamental analysis of how fluids behave in microgravity. That research has evolved into the testing of advanced medical devices and heat transfer systems.

Why do this in space? On Earth, gravity is one of the main factors that affects how fluid flows. However, there are additional smaller forces acting on fluids. Studying fluids in space, where gravity is not a factor, helps us to better understand these small forces and use them to our advantage.

Why does it matter? An understanding of fluid physics in microgravity can influence everything from medical technologies and heat transfer systems on Earth to life support systems in space.
Learn more: Fruit Punch and Foam Could Help Us Learn to Manage Liquids in Space Implantable Device That Helped Grow Muscles of Mice in Space Could Change Lives on Earth Keeping Our Cool in Space Space-tested Fluid Flow Concept Advances Infectious Disease Diagnoses
3D printing in microgravity

The first 3D printer flew to the space station in 2014. Developed by Made in Space, the printer produced dozens of parts that researchers analyzed and compared with those made on the ground. Analysis revealed that microgravity had no significant effects on the process, demonstrating that a 3D printer works normally in space.

Later experiments tested using recycled plastic to print objects and using a specialized bioprinter to print human tissue. The BioFabrication Facility (BFF) took small steps toward printing human organs and tissues in microgravity, using ultra-fine layers of bioink.

Why do this in space? Testing printers on the station paves the way for future space missions to be more independent of Earth. Needed items could be 3D printed rather than sent from Earth and carried for the entire journey.

Why does it matter? Using recycled material for printing could make use of material that otherwise would take up limited stowage space on long-duration missions and allow it to be used for creating needed parts.

Printing human tissue is a part of a long-term plan to manufacture entire human organs in space using refined biological 3D printing techniques. This effort could help provide increased access to organs for transplants on Earth.
Learn more: Solving the Challenges of Long Duration Space Flight with 3D Printing NASA ScienceCasts: Cutting-edge Biomanufacturing Aboard the International Space Station 3-D Printer Could Turn Space Station into 'Machine Shop' Space Station 3-D Printer Builds Ratchet Wrench To Complete First Phase Of Operations
Responding to natural disasters

With crew handheld camera imagery as a core component, the station has become an active participant in orbital data collection to support disaster response activities both within the U.S. and abroad. Astronauts snap images of disasters such as storms and fires throughout their progression, documenting cloud cover, flooding, and changes to the land. Pictures also are taken using mounted station cameras like the and . SS-HDTV, developed to take night images of Earth, can be used to check if power has been restored to cities after a disaster.

The Lightning Imaging Sensor () mounted on station also detects the distribution and variability of lightning in order to improve severe weather forecasting. The ISS SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization System () has helped developing countries enhance their environmental decision-making processes.

Why do this in space? The space station has an inclined, low-Earth orbit that provides variable views and lighting over more than 90 percent of the inhabited surface of the Earth. This is a useful complement to sensor systems in higher-altitude polar orbits for collecting imagery. These pictures are referenced by teams on the ground.

Why does it matter? These data allow for more informed responses to disasters from a perspective you cannot get on Earth, and assists with forecasting for future storms.
Learn more Clear High-definition Images Aid Disaster Response Space station camera captures Earthly disaster scenes Investigation of Earth Catastrophes From the International Space Station: Uragan Program NASA Tracking Florence From Every Angle and Wavelength Benefits for Humanity: After the Storm International Space Station Imagery for Disaster Response International Space Station Program Research Office

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20 Breakthroughs from 20 Years of Science aboard the International Space Station - NASA

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For 20 years, the astronauts aboard the International Space Station have conducted science in a way that cannot be done anywhere else. Orbiting about 250

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After Going to Space, You Need to Spend At Least Three Years on Earth Recovering From Brain Damage

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After Going to Space, You Need to Spend At Least Three Years on Earth Recovering From Brain Damage

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A new study shows that astronauts who spend over 6 months in space suffer brain swelling-and it can take as long as 3 years on Earth to recover.