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Hannah Maschke

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Use of scientific-sounding language that is meaningless

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Use of scientific-sounding language that is meaningless

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Definition:
Buzz words are used in an attempt to sound scientific and mislead others.

Connection:
This article hosted on Oprah's website is a perfect example of use of scientific-sounding language that is meaningless. The article uses terms such as "positive energy", "spiritual energy", "palpable goodness", "aura", "transformation", "gamma energy", "eternal connection", among many other buzz words. The author claims that the energy inside of us is "the world's greatest renewable power source", which immediately does not give a very scientific impression. The term energy is defined as the ability to do work. When taking this into account, using energy as a buzzword for a mystical power sounds especially asinine. The author misuses the term throughout the article, and is intentionally vague regarding "how to radiate positive energy". We should consider the bias and authority of the author. The bias is to appeal to the demographic of the magazine, middle aged women, who look up to Oprah and consider her to be a truthful source. In reality, Oprah is NOT a reliable source. She has brought Dr. Oz to fame, who is well-known for peddling unproven alternative medicines and faith healing (This entertainer is so problematic that the National Library of Medicine released a journal entitled "What is wrong with Dr. Oz"). They simply peddle pseudoscience and promises of wellness for profit. The only seemingly scientific reference in this article is a reference to a study- The author references another author who once mentioned a study in their writing. When I clicked on the link in hopes of viewing the study, the link brought me to a an Amazon.com link to purchase a book- very likely that this is a paid undercover advertisement. The use of scientific sounding language has long been used as a means for con men to earn their fortunes, and we should all be wary when we encounter it.

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Daniel Goleman first became aware of spiritual energy three decades ago in Asia. The author of the best-selling Emotional Intelligence, Goleman was a Harvard graduate studying meditation in India when he noticed that most seasoned practitioners exuded what he calls "a special quality, magnetic in a quiet sense." Contrary to stereotype, these spiritual types did not seem otherworldly at all. "They were lively and engaged," he says, "extremely present, involved in the moment, often funny, yet profoundly at peace-equanimous in disturbing situations." What's more, it seemed to him that this quality was communicable: "You always felt better than before you'd spent time with them, and this feeling lasted."

Goleman discovered that the components of spiritual energy are as carefully quantified in ancient traditions as waves and particles are in physics. "One of the words used to describe this magnetic state is sukha," he says, a Pali expression denoting a sense of "repleteness, contentment, delight-a calm, abiding joy regardless of external circumstances." Sukha is selfless in nature and connected to a greater purpose-which is why it increases through service to others.

Traditional cultures recognize that spending time with individuals who radiate this quality is nourishing in itself. In the Hindu custom known as darshan ("presence"), people "tune in to someone who is already in that magnificent internal space," Goleman says, "catching it, so to speak, and carrying it out to others."

Such transmission is more palpable than a skeptic might expect, as I found with the Daskalos, and as San Francisco psychologist Paul Ekman saw after spending a week in Dharmsala with the Dalai Lama. "At the airport afterward, my wife looked at me and said, 'You're not the man I married!'" Ekman says with a laugh. "I was acting like somebody who's in love." The foremost authority on the physiology of emotion, Ekman-who is not a Buddhist-had been invited to engage in a cross-cultural dialogue between Western scientists and His Holiness, along with several monks. Ekman left the meeting deeply moved. "These monks were unlike any human beings I had encountered before," he says. "They were joyous in a way I had never seen, except, perhaps, in my daughter at two or three years old."

Ekman detected four characteristics common to people with this energy: a "palpable goodness," first of all, that went far beyond some "warm and fuzzy aura" and seemed to arise from genuine integrity. Next, an impression of selflessness-a lack of concern with status, fame, and ego-a "transparency between their personal and public lives that set them apart from those with charisma, who are often one thing on the outside, another when you look under the surface." Third, Ekman noticed that this expansive, compassionate energy nurtured others. Finally, he was struck by the "amazing powers of attentiveness" displayed by these individuals, and the feeling he had of being seen in the round, wholly acknowledged, and embraced by someone with open eyes.

If these qualities were unique to masters, they wouldn't be half as compelling. What inspired Ekman-the-scientist was witnessing that transformation is possible for the rest of us. "It wasn't luck or culture or genes that created this qualitative difference," he insists. "These people have resculpted their brains through practice." Contrary to the old hardwiring theory that posited the human brain as fixed from birth, the emerging theory of neuroplasticity has revealed that our minds are reshaped through repeated experience.

In his book, Destructive Emotions, Goleman cites a recent study involving a monk being monitored in a laboratory while he meditates on compassion. Among other findings, scientists saw a dramatic increase in gamma energy (sparked in the part of the brain associated with positive emotions), proving that through concern for others we can create measurably greater well-being in ourselves.

Next: How to tap into your spiritual side

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How to Unleash the Magnificent, Unstoppable Energy Inside You

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Have you ever been in the presence of something so lively, engaged, selfless, and utterly radiant, it's left you speechless? Mark Matousek taps into the world's greatest renewable power source.

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Definition: Pseudoscience is often a scam that costs money.

Connection:
I briefly touched on money being involved in my post about using scientific sounding language that is meaningless. There are unfortunately many scams in which the author/salesperson claims to want to help others, and promote health and wellness. This is commonly found with faith healers and unproven alternative medicine. I did some research on local reiki healers in the area. What I found was shocking to me. A local massage parlor is offering reiki- a mystical form of medicine which claims to use energy from within to cure illness. The site offers a bio about the Reiki Masters who provide the care. The first bio I read made claims that the Reiki therapist went into a two week coma and "crossed to the other side", and that she beat cancer without treatment. It did not claim that Reiki was what cured her cancer, but it implied it just enough to imprint the idea into the head of the reader. The site did not give the pricing of sessions. I googled the average price of a Reiki session in Toronto, and it often costs up to $90/ hour per session- that is quite expensive for an unproven therapy that has no scientific basis.
I have personal experience with this. As a young teen I suffered from debilitating migraines which were not responding well to pain killers. My aunt took me to a Reiki Master who performed Reiki on me by humming and putting her hands on and around my head. It (not surprisingly) did not help in the slightest, but it did cost my parents money.

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End-Of-Life-Doula, Reiki Master/Teacher, Psychotherapist Counsellor, Medical Intuitive, Integrated Energy Therapist (LET)

Deborah has 20 years of experience as a Integrative Energy Therapist with many modalities. Her passion is to help others reconnect with their inner self. During the birth of her first child, she was in a coma for 2 weeks and crossed over to the other side. This experience gave her a clearer understanding of her purpose and path in this life. She is also a two-time cancer survivor with a lust for life.

Our life-force can be affected by underlying stress, grief, adrenal fatigue and environmental toxins. She focuses on clearing the energy paths within us to allow our bodies to work at its full potential. When our energies flow, our vibrations rise optimizing internal body function, grounding and healing and leaves us with a greater sense of being centered. She has worked with mentors in all areas of her practice and her native roots. Her life experiences have given her the ability to connect with clients on a mental/emotional, physical and spiritual level.

She specializes in Energy Therapy and Reiki. Integrative Energy Therapy (IET) is a safe, gentle, nurturing way to empower and balance your life by helping you increase your sense of well-being, life purpose, happiness, creativity, and health. Through Energy Therapy, you heal the body by activating its natural healing energies, and by restoring energies that have become weak, disturbed, blocked or out of balance. Being grounded helps you physically, emotionally/mentally and spiritually. Deborah combines these modalities that will help you ground, align, and balance your energies to move freely through your body.

"The only thing that stands between you and you being the greatest version of you is your belief in your own worthiness"

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Whitby Reiki and Energy Work | Whitby Massage

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Whitby Massage Therapy Clinic providing massage therapy, reflexology and other healthcare services to the residents of Durham Region, Ontario since 1987.

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Definition: Pseudoscience often relies on "Ancient wisdom" and traditions. If something relies on Ancient wisdom and has not made any progress since ancient times, it should be questioned.

Connection:
I have attached a link from crystalage.com, a website that promotes crystal healing on the basis that it is an wellness and healing tool used by the Ancient Egyptians, the Ancient Sumerians, and the Ancient Greeks. This belief combines a few of the red flags mentioned in this course, including Ancient wisdom, Mystical energy, and confirmation bias. The use of crystals is a self fulfilling prophecy- if you truly believe it will work, it very well might; but this is not because the crystals actually have healing powers. This is because of confirmation bias. It is similar to how a placebo treatment will cause symptoms during a pharmaceutical trial.
If a treatment has not progressed in any way in the past few hundred or thousand years, that is a massive red flag. Proven medicines and therapies are constantly changing due to the progression of modern technology. If something has not had any updates in this time it is not because it has been perfected. It is not the wheel. It is more likely that there is no  actual science behind it to progress, and it is simply a belief.

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Although no longer in use medicinally, gemstones continued to hold meaning. Until recently, jet was popularly worn by those in mourning, and garnet was often worn in times of war. There is a tradition in a local family here in southwest England: every female descendent wears an antique moonstone necklace for her wedding, which has been in the family for generations. It was only recently that one family member realised this was a fertility symbol.

Many tribal cultures have continued the use of gemstones in healing until very recently, if not through to the present day. The Zuni tribe in New Mexico make stone fetishes, which represent animal spirits. These were ceremonially 'fed' on powdered turquoise and ground maize. Beautiful inlaid fetishes are still made to sell, and are very collectable artefacts or sculptures, although the spiritual practise surrounding them is no longer much in use. Other Native American tribes still hold precious stones, especially turquoise, sacred. Both Aborigines and Maoris have traditions regarding stones and healing or spiritual practise, some of which they share with the rest of the world, while some knowledge still kept private within their communities.

It is interesting to note that there are many examples of gemstones meaning similar things to different cultures, even when there has been absolutely no interaction between these cultures, and no opportunity for crossover. Jade was considered to be a kidney healing stone by the ancient Chinese, and also Aztec and Mayan civilisations, turquoise has been worn to give strength and health all over the world, and jaspers have almost always conferred both strength and calm.

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Definition: Emotion is often used as a basis for arguments in an attempt to persuade the audience. Emotions can be powerful and convincing even with a lack of evidence.

Connection:
The object I chose for this post is an article about the claim that vaccines lead to autism. The study that started this rumor was debunked and is now known to be a hoax, but why do so many people still believe in such a prime example of pseudoscience?
The answer is simple- emotion.
Appeal to emotion is the easiest way for some to present their argument. Instead of using actual facts and scientific research to prove a claim, it is easier to use the audience's emotions to win them over. Emotions can obscure rational thought and be a barrier to critical thinking. Regarding the anti-vaccine crowd, they do not have science on their side. They appeal to emotion to get their point across. The emotion they use is fear. They strike fear into the hearts of parents who would do anything to help their children. They cause panic and sow distrust in the medical community, and it is effective. Children are a parents greatest weakness, and using fear around children is the lowest way to win an argument and the easiest way to force anti-vaccine beliefs among the population. This hoax has caused panic and lead to entire epidemics, which goes to show how effective it is to appeal to emotion.

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Researchers long ago rejected the theory that vaccines cause autism, yet many parents don't believe them. Can scientists bridge the gap between evidence and doubt?

Citation: Gross L (2009) A Broken Trust: Lessons from the Vaccine-Autism Wars. PLoS Biol 7(5): e1000114. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000114

Published: May 26, 2009

Copyright: © 2009 Liza Gross. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Until the summer of 2005, Sharon Kaufman had never paid much attention to the shifting theories blaming vaccines for a surge in reported cases of autism. Kaufman, a medical anthropologist at the University of California, San Francisco, knew that the leading health institutions in the United States had reviewed the body of evidence, and that they found no reason to think vaccines had anything to do with autism. But when she read that scientists and public officials who commented on the studies routinely endured malevolent emails, abusive phone calls, and even death threats, she took notice.

"Hecklers were issuing death threats to spokes people," Kaufman exclaims, "people who simply related the scientists' findings." To a researcher with a keen eye for detecting major cultural shifts, these unsettling events signaled a deeper trend. "What happens when the facts of bioscience are relayed to the public and there is disbelief, lack of trust?" Kaufman wondered. "Where does that lead us?"

Struck by how the idea of a vaccine-autism link continued to gain cultural currency even as science dismissed it, Kaufman took a 26-month hiatus from her life's work on aging and longevity to investigate the forces fueling this growing divide between scientists and citizens (see Figure 1). She wanted to understand how parents thought about risk and experts, how these attitudes shaped parents' decisions about vaccination, and what the vaccine wars might teach us about the long-term erosion of public trust in science.

For most of her academic career, Kaufman, a professor of medical anthropology at the University of California, San Francisco, has studied major cultural trends related to health and aging. She saw the vaccine-autism controversy as an opportunity to understand how cultural factors shape issues of trust, risk, and responsibility as they relate to science. (Photo credit: Eliot Khuner).

Key events in the US and Britain led parents in both countries to favor different, unproven vaccine-autism theories. In the UK, confidence in the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine plummeted after British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield held a press conference to promote his hypothesis that the measles virus caused a leaky gut, sending toxic substances into the bloodstream and, ultimately, the brain. Separating the MMR into three individual vaccines would be safer, he said. Wakefield's idea expanded on a finding of intestinal disease in children with autism that was published in a now discredited 1998 Lancet paper [1]. At press time of this Feature, Wakefield faces charges of serious professional misconduct before the General Medical Council (GMC) for allegedly violating ethical research practices on several counts. The GMC is also investigating allegations that Wakefield failed to disclose conflicts of interest-including a pending patent on a rival measles vaccine [2]. (He has denied any wrongdoing.)

In the US, fears centered around the ethylmercury-containing preservative thimerosal after a 1999 government report revealed that three childhood vaccines-diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis (DTaP); Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib); and hepatitis B-might expose infants to more mercury than anyone had realized. (Thimerosal, 49.6% ethylmercury by weight, was never in vaccines with live attenuated virus, including MMR.) Based on this finding, a speculative article published in a fringe medical journal spawned the theory that autism might be a form of vaccine-induced mercury poisoning.

Now, more than ten years after unfounded doubts about vaccine safety first emerged, scientists and public health officials are still struggling to set the record straight. But as climate scientists know all too well, simply relating the facts of science isn't enough. No matter that the overwhelming weight of evidence shows that climate change is real, or that vaccines don't cause autism. When scientists find themselves just one more voice in a sea of "opinions" about a complex scientific issue, misinformation takes on a life of its own.

Evidence-Resistant Theories

Knowing that fears about MMR could easily spread in America, US public health officials had acted quickly to address festering doubts about vaccines. Officials at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), hoping to allay ongoing concerns that the agency couldn't objectively monitor vaccine safety while also advocating immunization, had asked the nation's leading independent advisor on science and health policy, the Institute of Medicine (IOM), for help. The IOM convened a safety review panel in 2000-explicitly excluding experts with a vested interest in vaccine safety-to address "topics of immediate and intense concern" [3].

In its first review, the IOM panel found no evidence of a causal relationship between MMR and autism "at the population level," but couldn't rule out the possibility that it might contribute to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in a subset of children. Moving on to thimerosal, the panel determined that the available evidence was "inadequate to accept or reject a causal relationship between thimerosal and the disorders of autism, attention deficit, and speech and language delay" [4].

Meanwhile, CDC scientists continued their investigations of vaccine safety-prompting an angry backlash. After releasing a 2003 study of more than 140,000 children that showed no relationship between thimerosal and autism, the CDC received such disturbing threats that agency officials called in federal investigators [5]. (The CDC split its advocacy and safety monitoring branches in 2005 in an effort to restore public trust.)

By 2004, the IOM panel had reviewed over 200 epidemiological and biological studies for any link between vaccines and autism. In its eighth and final report, the panel unanimously determined that there was no evidence of a causal relationship between either MMR or thimerosal and autism, no evidence of vaccine-induced autism in "some small subset" of children, and no demonstration of potential biological mechanisms. Considering the matter resolved, the panel recommended that "available funding for autism research be channeled to the most promising areas" [4].

The report should have delivered the final blow to the vaccine-autism theories. Instead, it gave anti-vaccine activists a new target. An online group called Parents Requesting Open Vaccine Education-or PROVE, a not-so-subtle challenge to scientists to "prove" that vaccines don't cause autism-posted a roundup of parents' groups denouncing the IOM panel as "riddled with conflicts of interest" and urged parents to spread the word that panelists conspired "to sweep a generation of children under the rug and maintain current vaccine policy at any and all cost" [6].

Despite overwhelming evidence that vaccines don't cause autism, one in four Americans still think they do [7]. Not surprisingly, the first half of 2008 saw the largest US outbreak of measles-one of the first infectious diseases to reappear after vaccination rates drop-since 2000, when the native disease was declared eliminated (see Figure 2). Mumps and whooping cough (pertussis) have also made a comeback. Last year in Minnesota, five children contracted Hib, the most common cause of meningitis in young children before the vaccine was developed in 1993. Three of the children, including a 7-month-old who died, hadn't received Hib vaccines because their parents either refused or delayed vaccination.

Before 1963, when the measles vaccine became available, each year approximately 3 to 4 million cases, and an average of 450 deaths, were reported in the US. Thanks to the success of vaccination campaigns-publicized with a wealth of quirky promotional materials (above)-measles is no longer endemic in the US, though it is widespread in other countries. Last year, the US saw the largest outbreak of measles since the disease was declared eliminated in 2000; public health officials traced the majority of cases to unvaccinated Americans who imported the disease from Europe. Despite the availability of a safe, cost-effective vaccine, measles remains a leading cause of death among young children worldwide. Vaccination efforts resulted in a 74% global reduction in measles deaths between 2000 and 2007, according to the World Health Organization, yet 197,000 children died in 2007-that's nearly 540 a day.

The same trends have played out in Britain, where one in four parents told pollsters in 2002 that they believed "the weight of scientific evidence supports a link between MMR and autism" [8]. Though state law in the US requires that children be vaccinated to enter school or daycare (although parents may cite philosophical and religious reasons to claim exemptions), vaccination is not compulsory in Britain, and vaccination rates for MMR there dropped from 92% in 1998 to 80% by 2003. Although rates climbed back to 85% in 2006, England and Wales last year saw 1,000 measles cases before winter, breaking a ten-year record [9]. (Immunization rates for other childhood vaccines in Britain were largely unaffected by the MMR scare.)

Outbreaks in both countries involved primarily children who had received only one of the two recommended MMR shots or had not been vaccinated at all. US health officials traced the vast majority of 2008's measles cases to unvaccinated Americans who contracted the infection in Europe-and noted that the spike was due not to a large number of imported cases, but to increased viral transmission among unvaccinated children after importation into the US.

Seeds of Doubt

Kaufman sees the enduring belief in the vaccine-autism theory as an example of what Ludwik Fleck, a clinical microbiologist with a passion for epistemology, called "an event in the history of thought"-a critical step in the way the perception of a scientific fact changes [10]. In the US, that first step came in the form of a simple legislative action that produced new information about what was in vaccines-and quickly fed speculative theories linking them to autism.

In 1997, a US congressman from New Jersey inserted into a funding bill a provision that gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) two years to measure levels of mercury in all products under its jurisdiction, and release its findings to Congress and the public. The FDA's analysis revealed that because several new vaccines were added to the immunization schedule after 1988, some infants could be exposed to as much as 187.5 micrograms of ethylmercury by the time they were 6 months old-if every dose of Hib, hepatitis B, and DTaP contained thimerosal [11].

Based on this new finding, says Kaufman, leading vaccine experts began to investigate the possibility that mercury in vaccines was putting kids at risk. While the ethylmercury levels exceeded the federal safety guidelines for methylmercury, which gains toxicity as it accumulates through the food chain, no guidelines existed for ethylmercury at the time. Its toxicity was largely unknown; however, there was evidence that very high doses of ethylmercury could cause neurological damage. It was also known that methylmercury can cause subtle neurological effects in infants born to mothers who eat large amounts of fish and whale meat. Studies have since shown that ethylmercury is eliminated much faster than methylmercury and is unlikely to accumulate. But in 1999, no one knew what dose to consider safe for the developing brain.

Given the uncertainty about ethylmercury's toxicity, Neal Halsey, director of the Institute for Vaccine Safety at Johns Hopkins University, urged vaccine policymakers at the CDC and American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) to remove thimerosal from vaccines as a precautionary measure and to maintain public confidence in their safety. The agencies agreed, and vaccine manufacturers responded quickly; by March 2001, no children's vaccines contained thimerosal.

Anticipating the FDA's release of its findings, the AAP issued a statement explaining its decision as an effort to minimize children's exposure to mercury, asserting that "current levels of thimerosal will not hurt children, but reducing those levels will make safe vaccines even safer" [12]. Unfortunately, Kaufman says, "rather than reassuring parents, the statement fueled public fears and prompted all sorts of questions."

To Halsey, one of the most respected figures in the vaccine world, simply ignoring the FDA's findings was not an option. He hoped the rapid response would demonstrate the government's "commitment to provide the safest vaccines possible" [13]. But it was too late for reassurances. Several months later, Medical Hypotheses-an unconventional journal that welcomes "even probably untrue papers"-received and later published a purely speculative article called "Autism: a novel form of mercury poisoning" [14]. Two of the authors, Sallie Bernard, a marketing consultant, and Lyn Redwood, a nurse, had just launched the parents' advocacy group SafeMinds to promote their thimerosal hypothesis. Although their now debunked theory appeared in a journal that openly eschews peer review and evidence-based observations, several parent advocacy groups still cite it as evidence that mercury in vaccines causes autism.

No one disputes that methylmercury can cause subtle neurological effects under specific conditions. But "these effects were grossly exaggerated," Halsey says. "It was a very large leap of logic to the hypothesis that thimerosal caused autism."

Had the discovery about thimerosal come at a different time, it might have gone unnoticed, suggests Jeffrey Baker, a pediatrician and the director of the Program in the History of Medicine at Duke University. He argues that rising autism rates, an expanded vaccine schedule, and contemporary attitudes toward environmental risk combined to create what he terms "a perfect storm" [15].

Since the 1980s, autism diagnoses in the US rose from about 0.47 per 1,000 children to about 6.7 per 1,000 today-about 1 in 150 kids. There's a perception that environmental factors explain this rapid increase, says Baker, but you don't have to go back very far to see how much the definition has expanded since Leo Kanner first described autism in 1943 (see Box 1). Asperger disorder wasn't even part of the classification scheme until 1994. "Some people say that Asperger's accounts for 50% of cases," says Simon Baron-Cohen, director of the Autism Research Centre at Cambridge University. "If that's true, that's added at least half of the increase."

Parents who think environmental factors are behind rising rates of autism see vaccines as the most obvious environmental exposure to have changed, Baker says. In 1983, infants were vaccinated against seven diseases; today, they receive 14 vaccinations, for a total of 26 shots by age two. "This is the single most important factor that drives parents to suspect vaccines," Baker says.

In January, Baker appeared on an Oregon radio call-in show that featured several parents who shunned vaccination. While over 95% of Oregon parents vaccinate their children, only 70% did so last year in Ashland, a small town known for its Shakespeare festival. Nearly 60% of Ashland residents polled told the CDC, in town to hear parents' concerns, they "would expect serious consequences" from vaccines. Such low vaccination rates worry public health officials because they could signal the next epicenter of an epidemic: when vaccination rates drop below a critical percentage, called the "herd immunity threshold," infection can swiftly spread among unprotected individuals. This threshold varies depending on the vaccine and target disease; for example, the target for measles, one of the most contagious human diseases, is 90% [16].

After hearing several parents explain why they don't vaccinate, Baker pointed out that parents who claim nonmedical exemptions seem to become so focused on their own children that they "lose the bigger picture," not accepting responsibility for the impacts their actions may have on the health of the community. Reflecting on the radio show, Baker says, "it really hit me hard. Many of these parents who aren't vaccinating their children are just convinced that there's something in the vaccines that is poisoning their children."

Fanning Fears

The same month Kaufman learned that vaccine experts were getting death threats, an inflammatory piece alleging a dark conspiracy to cover up a vaccine-autism "scandal" ran simultaneously in Rolling Stone and the online magazine Salon-both of which subsequently corrected " several inaccuracies." Written by Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., son of the slain US senator and presidential candidate, "Deadly Immunity" accused government officials of concealing evidence that mercury in vaccines "may have caused autism in thousands of kids" to protect drug companies from lawsuits.

The article came on the heels of a book called Evidence of Harm, by David Kirby, that dramatized the story of a small group of parents who "never abandoned their ambition to prove that mercury in vaccines is what pushed their children, most of them boys, into a hellish, lost world of autism." Among the parents profiled were Medical Hypotheses authors Bernard and Redwood. That summer, Kennedy and Kirby hit the media circuit, leveraging RFK Jr.'s celebrity to explain why parents should fear vaccines. Remarkably, the major US public health institutions-including the Surgeon General, Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), and National Institutes of Health-made no effort to reassure the public that vaccines are safe and could not cause the complex neurodevelopmental problems associated with autism. As Kennedy and Kirby trumpeted their largely uncontested claims, more parents filed lawsuits in federal court claiming that vaccines injured their children.

By June 2007, the parents of nearly 5,000 children with autism had sued for compensation under the Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP). The program was created in 1986, after numerous lawsuits prompted by a pertussis vaccine scare forced manufacturers to flee what they considered a low-profit, high-liability market. It aimed to safeguard the nation's vaccine supply by limiting companies' liability while compensating those who experienced an adverse reaction. Although vaccines can cause several known side effects (listed in a vaccine injury table), including anaphylactic shock and even death, such events are extremely rare. For example, the risk of a serious allergic reaction, the most severe side effect for MMR, is less than 1 in a million. The risks of not vaccinating are far greater: before the measles vaccine became available in the US in the mid-1960s, 450 people died and 4,000 suffered acute inflammation of the brain each year. DHHS doctors decide whether a "table injury" was likely caused by a vaccine. Claims regarding conditions that are not listed in the table, like autism, are heard by lawyers.

The DHHS conceded in November 2007 that vaccines aggravated an underlying mitochondrial disorder in the baby girl of a Georgia couple, Terry and Jon Poling, ultimately causing "regressive encephalopathy with features of autism spectrum disorder." Their decision was in line with previous table injury rulings that a measles-containing vaccine can exacerbate an existing encephalopathy-in this case, caused by a mitochondrial enzyme deficit. The condition shares symptoms with ASD, but is distinct.

The previous year, a case study published in the Journal of Childhood Neurology [17] described developmental regression and mitochondrial dysfunction in a child with autism. Jon Poling, a neurologist, was the lead author. He failed to disclose that the patient was his daughter or that he had a claim pending before the vaccine court [18]. Although the DHHS did not concede that vaccines contributed to autism, the Polings told CNN in March 2008 that the "case may well signify a landmark decision with children developing autism following vaccinations."

Activists welcomed the case as proof that vaccines cause autism and several mainstream news outlets reported their opinions as a legitimate side of the ongoing "controversy." In April of 2008, CNN's Larry King hosted a show on the vaccine-autism "debate" featuring Jenny McCarthy, a celebrity "autism mom" promoting a book about her son Evan's "recovery" from autism. McCarthy told King that she speaks to thousands of moms every weekend who relay the same experience: "I came home, he had a fever, he stopped speaking, and then he became autistic." "It's time to start listening to parents who watched their children descend into autism after vaccination," she urged, because "parents' anecdotal information is science-based information." McCarthy said the Poling decision proved that "vaccines can trigger autism." No scientists were on hand to challenge her.

"There's a lot of good autism research out there," says Paul Offit, chief of infectious diseases at Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and head of the hospital's Vaccine Education Center (see Figure 3). "But you never hear about it because the anti-vaccine movement has taken this issue hostage." Offit has turned down requests to appear on any show with McCarthy. "Every story has a hero, victim, and villain," he explains. "McCarthy is the hero, her child is the victim-and that leaves one role for you."

Offit's outspoken defense of vaccines, and especially his recent book, Autism' s False Prophets, has made him public enemy number one to many who think vaccines harmed their children. Even before writing the book, Offit's advocacy work earned him hate mail and death threats. His critics especially malign him for co-inventing and patenting the rotavirus vaccine, developed after a 25-year quest to prevent a disease that annually kills 600,000 children worldwide. "If you want to make a vaccine, you have to go to a pharmaceutical company," he says. "But that instantly makes you evil."

When researchers announced in 1955 that a nationwide trial showed that the first polio vaccine was safe and effective, inventor Jonas Salk was greeted as a national hero. Today, rotavirus vaccine inventor Paul Offit (right, with co-inventor H. Fred Clark) routinely endures vitriolic attacks on his credibility, along with death threats, for defending the safety of vaccines. (Photo credit: The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia).

A Bridge Too Far?

Kaufman sees the persistence of the vaccine-autism theory as a consequence of how individuals manage risk in modern society. People must trust experts to protect them from risk, whether they're getting on an airplane or vaccinating their kids, she explains. When faith in experts erodes, personal responsibility prevails. "People think if you blindly follow experts, you're not taking personal responsibility," she adds.

Offit blames the media for keeping the myth alive by following the "journalistic mantra of 'balance,' " perpetually presenting two sides of an issue even when only one side is supported by the science. And shows like "Larry King Live" have been "just awful on this issue," he adds, placing ratings and controversy above public health by repeatedly giving McCarthy and other "true believers" a platform to peddle fear and misinformation. But Offit also wishes scientists would do a better job of communicating theoretical risk and the difference between coincidence and causation. Once you raise the notion of a possibility of harm, he says, "it's hard for people to get that notion out of their head."

Kaufman thinks the problem is more immediate than bridging the gap between lay and expert understanding of risk. Parents treated theoretical risk as fact even as scientists tested, and ultimately rejected, the possibility that thimerosal might harm children. Thinking the institutions that were supposed to protect them from risk failed, Kaufman says, people now do their own research. But instead of leading to more certainty, she explains, "collecting more information actually increases doubt."

With the explosion of "contrary" expertise online, Kaufman says, "many parents see even the most respected vaccine experts' perspective on the issue as just one more opinion." The bulk of antivaccination Web sites present themselves as legitimate sources of scientific information, using pseudoscientific claims and emotional appeals, according to a 2002 study in Archives of Disease in Childhood [19]. Making matters worse, the study found, nearly all sites adopted an "us versus them" approach, casting doctors and scientists as either "willing conspirators cashing in on the vaccine 'fraud' or pawns of a shadowy vaccine combine." Parents' intuitive views about vaccines were elevated above "cold, analytical science." Accounts of children "maimed or killed by vaccines" were common-a finding that may help explain why those who advocate immunization receive death threats.

And scientists on TV and radio are hard-pressed to compete with the emotional appeals of activists. It doesn't help that science can't provide what some parents are looking for: the definitive study to prove that vaccines did not cause their child's autism. "You can never say a theory's been completely disproved, but that's just the nature of science," observes Baron-Cohen. "So for parents, that provides something to hold on to, gives hope that the theory might one day be supported."

As well-organized groups exploit hope and fear, parents wondering about vaccines share the fruits of their online investigations-and doubts-with moms' groups, listservs, chat rooms, and friends. Even parents who ultimately decide to vaccinate, Kaufman says, "only feel safe if they're on some sort of schedule that isn't set by science." "Dr. Bob" Sears wrote a book that gives parents a formula to delay, withhold, separate, or space out their vaccines: The Vaccine Book: Making the Right Decision for Your Child sold over 100,000 copies in just two years.

These untested, "made-up" schedules just increase the window of risk for children by exposing them to potentially deadly vaccine-preventable diseases with no benefit, warns Offit. Though overall vaccination rates in the US are high, vaccine-resistant communities like Ashland have emerged in several states, including Colorado, Washington, and California, as more parents adopt alternative schedules or seek exemptions to avoid vaccination. Recent studies have shown that exempt children in Colorado were 22 times more likely to contract measles and about 6 times more likely than vaccinated children to contract pertussis, while exempt children nationwide were 35 times more likely than vaccinated children to contract measles [20].

Sadly, studies suggest that the burden of lowered immunization rates will likely fall disproportionately on poor people living in crowded conditions, hotbeds of disease transmission, and exacerbate existing health disparities among minority populations-where kids go unvaccinated not by choice but because of limited access to health services. Exemptions also pose a threat to children who can't be vaccinated because of a medical condition or who didn't mount an immune response to the vaccine, as well as to hundreds of thousands of people on chemotherapy, recovering from organ transplants, or struggling with compromised immunity.

Information technology has transformed the way trust and knowledge are produced, Kaufman says: "Scientists have to consider their role in this changed landscape and how to compete with these other sources of knowledge." As science chips away at the genetic sources of this collection of conditions we call autism, she adds, it will chip away at the idea of a connection between vaccines and autism.

Until researchers get a better handle on the causes of autism, Baker thinks scientists need to find a way to make dry scientific results as compelling as anecdotal case studies. The studies that are "most elegant to a scientist," he says, are just much harder for most parents to understand than what happens to an individual child.

Rachel Casiday, a medical anthropologist at the Centre for Integrated Health Care Research at Durham University, UK, who studied British parents' attitudes toward MMR, says scientists should not underestimate the importance of narrative. People relate much more to a dramatic story-"he got his vaccination, he stopped interacting, and he hasn't been the same since"-than they do to facts, risk analyses, and statistical studies. "If you discount these stories, people think you have an ulterior motive or you're not taking them seriously," she explains. Casiday suggests providing an alternative, science-based explanation or relating emotionally compelling tales about counter-risk-such as helplessly watching a young child die of a vaccine-preventable disease-in the same narrative format.

McCarthy emerged as a hero for some parents by telling her story. Personal stories resonate most with those who see trust in experts as a risk in itself-a possibility whenever people must grapple with science-based decisions that affect them, whether they're asked to make sacrifices to help curb global warming or vaccinate their kids for public health. Researchers might consider taking a page out of the hero's handbook by embracing the power of stories-that is, adding a bit of drama-to show that even though scientists can't say just what causes autism or how to prevent it, the evidence tells us not to blame vaccines. As news of epidemics spreads along with newly unfettered infectious diseases, those clinging to doubt about vaccines may come to realize that several potentially deadly diseases are just a plane ride, or playground, away-and that vaccines really do save lives.

Box 1. Autism at a Glance

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a collection of conditions characterized by stereotyped behaviors and narrow interests and pervasive problems with communication and social interactions. Symptoms typically emerge before age three and range from a severe form, called autistic disorder, to a much milder form, Asperger disorder. Though researchers can't point to any one cause of autism, mounting evidence implicates genetic factors. "We're seeing a new gene association published almost every month," says Simon Baron-Cohen (see Figure 4). "We know it's not a single-gene disorder, but we don't know if it's ten genes or a hundred genes." Researchers also don't know how these genes function or interact with environmental factors. Preliminary evidence suggests that autism may result from disruptions in brain development caused by defects in genes involved in regulating brain growth and neuron communication [21].

(Photo credit: Brian Harris).

In a 100-word definition published in the British Journal of Psychiatry last year [22], Baron-Cohen noted that children with Asperger disorder have average or above average IQ and "average or even precocious age of language onset." In ASD, he wrote, many areas within the "social brain" are atypical, so that children may have "a profile of impaired empathy alongside strong 'systemising'. Hence, [ASD] involves disability (when empathy is required) and talent (when strong systemising would be advantageous)." Baron-Cohen recommended developing interventions that harness systemizing to enhance empathy to help keep children on track. A number of behavioral and educational interventions may also minimize symptoms.

Because autism is far more common in males, Baron-Cohen has been exploring factors that affect sex differences in behavior to explain male vulnerability. Looking at individual variations in sociability in typically developing children, his group examined fetal testosterone (FT) levels from amniotic samples and found that the higher the children's FT levels, the less eye contact they made, the slower they developed language, and the more difficulty they had with empathy [23]. None of these differences presented at clinical levels. Now that these kids are old enough to tolerate getting into a brain scanner, Baron-Cohen can start looking at brain structure and function to see how the results relate to FT levels.

"One strategy will be to identify which brain regions differ between males and females," he explains, "and which ones seem to be associated with testosterone. That will provide a set of regions to study in autism to see if you find the same pattern of sex differences in autism."

Thanks to a collaboration with a group in Denmark, Baron-Cohen now has access to enough amniotic fluid samples to ask whether children diagnosed with autism have elevated FT levels. He hopes to have the results next year, but is careful to point out that FT will likely be just one piece of a very complicated jigsaw. "We're still in early days," he says.

References and Further Reading

10. Kaufman SRNov. 2007 An event in the history of thought: Autism and vaccine safety doubt. Paper presented at the American Anthropological Association conference, Washington, DC.

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A Broken Trust: Lessons from the Vaccine-Autism Wars

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Researchers long ago rejected the theory that vaccines cause autism, yet many parents don't believe them. Can scientists bridge the gap between evidence and doubt?

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Definition: A red flag of pseudoscience is Suppression by Authorities. This is the belief that a claim with no proof is true, and that it is a conspiracy hidden by the government.

Connection:
Suppression by Authorities is a common red flag found in pseudoscience and conspiracy theories. It is a convenient way for some to explain why there isn't proof to back up their claims. An example of this red flag is how many people believe in the existence of aliens, and believe that aliens have visited Earth before; and that the government is involved in a massive cover-up- yet they have no proof to explain why they believe this. The object I chose for this post is a post I found on reddit. This thread demonstrates Suppression by Authorities, because the poster believes that there is a cure for all types of cancer and it is being withheld by the government. The reasoning behind this conspiracy theory is that by withholding the cure, the pharmaceutical companies are able to make billions selling treatments instead. There is more money to be made by treating a disease over many years than by selling a one time cure. The author of this reddit post believes that in addition to withholding the cure for cancer for profits, it is also being suppressed as a means of solving over population. When we consider the steps to critical thinking, we can see that there is no basis behind this claim. There is no proof behind this claim whatsoever. It is simply an opinion- skepticism should always be applied when considering any claims or opinons. The reddit author does not have any authority regarding the matter, although this is a very popular conspiracy theory that is believed by many.

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CMV: There is an effective cure for all types of cancer, but the government and health care systems do not use this on the general public. : r/changemyview

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If cancer was a natural selection on society, then we have no choice but to assume that it’s very clumsy. We keep losing top scientists, artists, politicians (on every side, left, right, top, bottom, and diagonals), bankers, you name it.

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CMV: There is an effective cure for all types of cancer, but the government and health care systems do not use this on the general public.
by u/kyle_w in changemyview

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Definition: Correlation and Causation is an event in which two events appear to be closely linked because they both exhibit a similar pattern. It is a fallacy where someone believes that event 1 is influenced or caused by event 2, even though the correlation is a coincidence and the events may be completely unrelated. It is often used in pseudoscience to be used as proof to back up a claim.

Connection:
The object I chose for this post is an article I found on science.howstuffworks.com. This article gives many real life examples of correlation being confused for causation. One of the examples in the article is that eating breakfast will help with weight loss. There were two studies that showed that regularly eating breakfast was correlated with weight loss, but there was no proof that eating breakfast was the cause of the weight loss. The studies did not take other factors into account that may explain the causation. The red flag Confusion of Correlation and Causation is something to look out for when faced with a claim. There are many weight loss supplements that have not been FDA approved yet claim to cause weight loss. However if you read the directions on the bottle, it will state that the supplement is to be used in addition to exercise and eating healthy. Any weight loss results from this supplement can be attributed to the exercise and healthy eating, it is unlikely that the supplement actually had any effect.

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Because the human brain tends to seek out causal relationships, scientists are extra careful about creating highly controlled experiments - but they still make mistakes. Here are ten examples illustrating how hard it is to identify causation.

10. The Trouble With Henry (and Hawthorne)

People are a pain to research. They react not only to the stimulus being studied, but also to the experiment itself. Researchers today try to design experiments to control for such factors, but that wasn't always the case.

Take the Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois. In a series of experiments from 1924 to 1932, researchers studied worker productivity effects associated with altering the Illinois factory's environment, including changing light levels, tidying up the place and moving workstations around.

Just when they thought they were on to something, they noticed a problem: The observed increases in productivity dropped almost as soon as the researchers left the works, indicating that the workers' knowledge of the experiment - not the researchers' changes - had fueled the boost. Researchers still call this phenomenon the Hawthorne Effect [source: Obrenović].

A related concept, the John Henry effect, occurs when members of a control group try to beat the experimental group by kicking their efforts into overdrive. They need not know about the experiment; they need only see one group receive new tools or additional instruction. Like the steel-driving man of legend, they want to prove their capabilities and earn respect [sources: Saretsky; Vogt].

9. Always Bet on Black?

The titular characters of Tom Stoppard's film " Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead" begin the film baffled and finally frightened as each of 157 consecutive flips of a coin comes up heads. Guildenstern's explanations of this phenomenon range from time loops to "a spectacular vindication of the principle that each individual coin, spun individually, is as likely to come down heads as tails ... "

Evolution wired humans to see patterns, and our ability to properly process that urge seems to short-circuit the longer we spend gambling. We can rationally accept that independent events like coin flips keep the same odds no matter how many times you perform them.

But we also view those events, less rationally, as streaks, making false mental correlations between randomized events. Viewing the past as prelude, we keep thinking the next flip ought to be tails.

Statisticians call this the gambler's fallacy, aka the Monte Carlo fallacy, after a particularly illustrative example that occurred in that famed Monaco resort town.

During the summer of 1913, bettors watched in increasing amazement as a casino's roulette wheel landed on black 26 times in a row. Inflamed by the certainty that red was "due," the punters kept plunking down their chips. The casino made a mint [sources: Lehrer; Oppenheimer and Monin; Vogt].

8. The Hot Hand and the Monkey's Paw

No discussion of streaks, magical thinking or false causation would be complete without a flip through the sports pages. Stellar sports seasons arise from such a mysterious interplay of factors - natural ability, training, confidence, the occasional X factor - that we imagine patterns in performance, even though studies repeatedly reject streak shooting and "successful" superstitions as anything more than imaginary.

The belief in streaks or slumps implies that success "causes" success and failure "causes" failure or, perhaps more reasonably, that variation in some common factor, such as confidence, causes both. But study after study fails to bear this out [source: Gilovich, et al].

The same holds true for superstitions, although that never stopped retired NBA player and Dallas Mavericks guard Jason Terry from sleeping in the opposing teams' game shorts before each game, or NHL center and retired Ottawa Senators player Bruce Gardiner from dunking his hockey stick in the toilet to break the occasional slump [source: Exact Sports].

The sophomore slump, too, typically arises from a too-good first year. Performance swings tend to even out in the long run, a phenomenon statisticians call regression toward the mean [source: Barnett, et al]. In sports, this averaging out is aided by the opposition, which adjusts to counter the new player's successful skill set.

7. Hormonal Imbalance

Randomized controlled trials are the gold standard in statistics, but sometimes - in epidemiology, for example - ethical and practical considerations force researchers to analyze available cases.

Unfortunately, such observational studies risk bias, hidden variables and, worst of all, study groups that might not accurately reflect the population. Studying a representative sample is vital; it allows researchers to apply results to people outside of the study, like the rest of us.

A case in point: hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for women. Beyond treating symptoms associated with menopause, it was once hailed for potentially reducing coronary heart disease (CHD) risk, thanks to a much-ballyhooed 1991 observational study [source: Stampfer and Colditz].

But later randomized controlled studies, including the large-scale Women's Health Initiative, revealed either a negative relationship, or a statistically insignificant one, between HRT and CHD [source: Lawlor, et al.].

Why the difference? For one thing, women who use HRT tend to come from higher socioeconomic strata and receive better quality of diet and exercise - a hidden explanatory relationship for which the observational study failed to fully account [source: Lawlor, et al].

6. Super Bowl Stock Market Shuffle

In 1978, sports reporter and columnist Leonard Koppett mocked the causation-correlation confusion by wryly suggesting that Super Bowl outcomes could predict the stock market. It backfired: Not only did people believe him, but it worked - with frightful frequency.

The proposal, now commonly known as the Super Bowl Indicator, went as follows: If one of the 16 original National Football League teams - those in existence before the NFL's 1966 merger with the American Football League - won the Super Bowl, the stock market would rise throughout the rest of the year. If a former AFL team won, it would go down [source: Bonsal].

From 1967 to 1978, Koppett's system went 12 for 12; up through 1997, it boasted a 95 percent success rate. It stumbled during the dot-com era (1998-2001) and notably in 2008, when the Great Recession hit, despite a win by the New York Giants (NFC). Still, as of 2022, the indicator had a 73 percent success rate [source: Chen].

Some have argued that the pattern exists, driven by belief; it works, they say, because investors believe it does, or because they believe that other investors believe it.

This notion, though clever in a regressive sort of way, hardly explains the 12 years of successful correlations predating Koppett's article. Others argue that a more relevant pattern lies in the stock market's large-scale upward trend, barring some short-term major and minor fluctuations [source: Johnson].

5. Big Data, Little Clarity

Big data - the process of looking for patterns in data sets so large they resist traditional methods of analysis - rates big buzz in the boardroom [source: Arthur]. But is bigger always better?

It's a rule that's drummed into most researchers in their first stats class: When encountering a sea of data, resist the urge to go on a fishing expedition. Given enough data, patience and methodological leeway, correlations are almost inevitable, if unethical and largely useless.

After all, the mere correlation between two variables does not imply causation; nor does it, in many cases, point to much of a relationship.

For one thing, researchers cannot use statistical measures of correlation willy-nilly; each contains certain assumptions and limitations that fishing expeditions too often ignore, to say nothing of the hidden variables, sampling problems and flaws in interpretation that can gum up a poorly designed study.

But big data is increasingly being used and hailed for its invaluable contributions to areas such as creating customized learning programs; wearable devices that provide real-time feed to your electronic health records; and music streaming services that give you targeted recommendations [source: IntelliPaat]. Just don't expect too much out of big data in the causality department.

4. Minimum Wage Equals Maximum Unemployment

Any issue dealing with money is bound to be deeply divisive and highly politicized, and minimum wage increases are no exception. The arguments are varied and complex, but essentially one side contends that a higher minimum wage hurts businesses, which drives down job availability, which hurts the poor.

The other side responds that there's little evidence for this claim, and that the 76 million Americans working at or below minimum wage, which some argue is not a living wage, would benefit from such an increase. They argue that the federal minimum wage for covered, nonexempt employees ($7.25 per hour in September 2023) has lowered Americans' purchasing power by more than 20 percent [sources: U.S. Department of Labor; Cooper, et al].

As literary critic George Shaw reportedly quipped, "If all the economists were laid end to end, they'd never reach a conclusion," and the minimum-wage debate seems to bear that out [source: Quote Investigator]. For every analyst who says minimum wage increases drive jobs away, there is another who argues against such a correlation.

In the end, both sides share a fundamental problem: namely, the abundance of anecdotal evidence many of their talking heads rely on for support. Secondhand stories and cherry-picked data make for weak tea in any party, even when presented in pretty bar charts.

3. Breakfast Beats Obesity, Dinner Denies Drugs

Between fitness apps, drugs and surgeries, weight loss in the United States is a $78 billion-per-year industry, with millions of Americans bellying up to the weight-loss bar annually [source: Research and Markets]. Not surprisingly, weight loss studies - good, bad or ugly - get a lot of press in the U.S.

Take the popular idea that eating breakfast beats obesity, a sugar-frosted nugget derived from two main studies: One, a 1992 Vanderbilt University randomized controlled study, showed that reversing normal breakfast habits, whether by eating or not eating, correlated with weight loss; the other, a 2002 observational study by the National Weight Control Registry, correlated breakfast-eating with successful weight-losers - which is not the same as correlating it with weight loss [sources: Brown, et al.; Schlundt, et al.; Wyatt, et al.].

Unfortunately, the NWCR study failed to control for other factors - or, indeed, establish any causal connection from its correlation. For example, a person who wants to lose weight might work out more, eat breakfast or go whole-hog protein, but without an experimental design capable of dialing in causal links, such behaviors amount to nothing more than commonly co-occurring characteristics [source: Brown, et al].

A similar problem plagues the numerous studies linking family dinners with a decreased risk of drug addiction for teens. Although attractive for their simple, appealing strategy, these studies frequently fail to control for related factors, such as strong family connections or deep parental involvement in a child's life [source: Miller, et al].

2. The Suicidal Sex

We often hear that men, especially young men, are more likely to commit suicide than are women. In truth, such statements partake of empirical generalization - the act of making a broad statement about a common pattern without attempting to explain it - and mask several known and potential confounding factors.

Take, for example, a Youth Risk Behaviors Survey from 2021 found that girls in grades 9-12 attempted suicide almost twice as often as male students (13 percent vs. 7 percent) [source: American Foundation for Suicide Prevention].

How, then, can a higher correlation exist between the opposite sex and suicide? The answer lies in suicide attempts by methodology: While the most common method of suicide for both sexes in 2020 was by firearm (57.9 percent for men and 33.0 percent for women), women were almost equally likely to die by poisoning or suffocation [source: National Institute of Mental Health].

Even if we could dispose of such confounding factors, the fact would remain that maleness, per se, is not a cause. To explain the trend, we need to instead identify factors common to men, or at least suicidal ones.

The same point applies to the comparatively high rates of suicide reported among divorced men. Divorce doesn't cause men to commit suicide; if anything, it's more indicative of an underlying causal relationship with factors such as male role inflexibility, their social networks, the increasing importance of child care and men's desire for control in relationships [source: Scourfield and Evans].

1. Vaccination Vexation

No correlation/causation list would be complete without discussing parental concerns over vaccination safety. Before the COVID-19 pandemic hit the world in 2020, the main issue was a fear among some parents that the measles, mumps and rubella vaccination was causally linked to autism spectrum disorders. This notion was popularized by celebrities like Jenny McCarthy.

Despite the medical community debunking the 1998 Andrew Wakefield paper that inspired the falsehood, and despite subsequent studies showing no causal link, some parents remain fearful of an autism connection or other vaccine-related dangers [sources: Park; Sifferlin; Szabo].

Then COVID-19 arrived, and to date has killed millions around the globe. Scientists raced to create an effective vaccine and they succeeded; the first U.S. COVID-19 vaccine was available in December 2020 under the FDA's emergency use authorization [source: FDA]. But it also quickly became intertwined with the extreme polarization of U.S. politics and misinformation.

Many parents, especially Republicans, feared the vaccines were unsafe because they were developed so quickly, and because there might be as-yet-unknown long-term side effects. There were also incorrect fears about the vaccine affecting future fertility. Those have now been proven false [source: Kelen and Maragakis].

As of January 2022, just 28 percent of 5- to 11-year-olds had received at least one dose of the vaccine, disappointing many in the medical field [sources: Hamel, Kates]. The number of vaccinated children is growing; by May 2023, 40 percent of 5- to 11-year-olds had received at least done dose [source: CDC].

These are no harmless misunderstandings. Despite debunking a link between autism and childhood vaccines, many parents remain leery of the shots. In 2019, there were 1,282 cases of measles in 31 states, the highest number in the U.S. since 1992. The majority of these cases were among the unvaccinated [source: CDC].

Whether that correspondence is coincidental, correlative or causal is well worth considering. And the effects of the current COVID-19 vaccination hesitation remain to be seen.

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Causation vs. Correlation Explained With 10 Examples

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If you step on a crack, you'll break your mother's back. Surely you know this jingle from childhood. It's a silly example of a correlation with no causation. But there are some real-world instances that we often hear, or maybe even tell?

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Definition: Confirmation bias is a fallacy in which people tend to look for information that supports their beliefs and ignore information that does not support their beliefs.

Connection:
The object I chose for this post is an article composed of true ghost stories sourced from Reddit, my favourite website to browse. The people that posted these ghost stories truly believe that an apparition was present, which makes this a perfect example of confirmation bias. The mind can play tricks on us when we believe in something strongly. We tend to notice and remember small things that may or may not be related to our belief, and ignore rational thought in favour of the claim. It is very likely that there is a reasonable explanation behind the scenarios in the article. The apparition sightings could be debunked, but confirmation bias caused the posters to ignore any critical thinking because they truly wanted to believe.

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11 Of The Scariest Ghost Stories From Reddit

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Leave the lights on when you read these bone-chilling stories of average people encountering the paranormal.

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Definition: Red Herring is a red flag which occurs when someone tries to defend a claim by distracting their audience with unrelated information. Scapegoating is a form of the red herring fallacy.

Connection:
The object I chose for this post is a YouTube video. It is a clip from the Simpsons which demonstrates the red flag Red Herring. In this episode, the mayor distracts an angry mob of citizens from the actual issue at hand by using illegal immigrants as a scapegoat. The illegal immigrants are a separate issue which has nothing to do with why the citizens were upset in the first place, but it effectively distracted the audience. It is important to use critical thinking and skepticism when faced with a new claim, and to question the authority of the person making the claim. What is their source for the claim, what evidence do they present? Debates in particular are a hot spot for Red Herring. Someone may argue their position by using the Red Herring fallacy to distract their opponent and audience.

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Simpsons Logical Fallacies:  Red Herring

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Definition: All Natural is a common red flag to look out for when dealing with alternative medicines. The seller of an untested supplement may claim it is safe and that it has many health benefits because it is made with all natural ingredients.

Connection:
The object I chose for this post is an article from the Federal Trade Commission. The article warns consumers about supplements and alternative medicines that are not FDA approved and regulated. There are many healthcare scams that claim to cure and treat illness with all natural supplements. The reality is that just because something is natural, it does not mean it is safe. Hemlock, sumac, and foxglove are all natural plants that occur in the wild; but are toxic if ingested. When faced with a claim that something is beneficial because it is natural, one should be skeptical. Critical thinking and evidence is especially important when it comes to anything that is meant to be consumed. It may be dangerous and have toxic side effects if there has been no studies or pharmaceutical trials performed on the drug. It is also important to consider the authority of the seller- are they known for selling reputable products? It would be safer to purchase a supplement from Walmart rather than from someone that makes their own supplements at home from 'all natural' ingredients.

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People spend billions of dollars a year on products and treatments in the hope of improving their health and fitness. But a lot of that money goes to companies that make fake claims about those products and treatments, cheating people out of their money, their time - even their health. If you're thinking about buying a health product or service, here are some things to keep in mind to get the best outcomes for you and your family.

Learn to Spot Common Health Scams

Dishonest companies will say almost anything to get you to buy their product or service. They'll often make a wide range of fake health claims, but they tend to follow a few common patterns.

They claim one product does it all and cures a wide variety of diseases and health problems. (It won't.)
Example of a bogus claim:
"proven to treat rheumatism, arthritis, infections, prostate problems, impotency, ulcers, cancer, heart trouble, hardening of the arteries, and more!"
They use undocumented testimonials from patients or doctors claiming, "you'll get miraculous results." (You won't.) Example of a bogus claim:
"My husband has Alzheimer's disease. He began taking a teaspoonful of this product each day. And now, in just 22 days, he mowed the grass, cleaned out the garage, weeded the flower beds, and we take our morning walk again."
They say "get results in 30 days or we'll send your money back." (They won't do either.)
Example of a bogus claim:

"If, after 30 days, your pain hasn't stopped, your uncashed check will be returned to you."
They claim their special product will cure your ailment. (It won't.) Example of a bogus claim:
They may use bogus phrases like, "scientific breakthrough," "miraculous cure," "secret ingredient," "exclusive product," or "ancient remedy," that give a misleading impression, or are simply not true.
They claim you must "act now." (You don't.) Example of a bogus claim:
"Hurry. This offer will not last. Order now."

They use phony, scientific-sounding terms or refer to prestigious prizes. ( Don't take their word for it; do your own research.)
Examples of bogus promotions:
They use phrases like "molecule multiplicity," "glucose metabolism," "thermogenesis," "insulin receptor sites," "Nobel Prize winning technology," or "developed by two Nobel prize winners."

Six Ways to Avoid Health Scams

If you're thinking about buying a health product or service to treat an illness or ailment, here are some steps to take to get the best outcomes for yourself and your loved ones.

Do your research. Search for the name of the treatment or product online, plus the words "review," "complaint," or "scam."

1. Ask your doctor first. If you're curious about a treatment, talk to your doctor or health care provider about it. Here are some questions to ask.

Does this product or treatment actually work?

What's the scientific evidence?

Are you familiar with this brand?

Can you tell me about the ingredients in this product?

How will it interact with other supplements or drugs I take?

What are the side effects?

If it's safe to take, what's the right amount?

2. Know that unproven products and treatments are dangerous. Taking unproven products might mean that you stop or delay taking proven medical treatments ordered by your health care provider. Unproven products might cause bad interactions with your treatments. They also might delay you making other important changes to help your condition - say in your diet or lifestyle.

Don't let any company take advantage of your hope. Be skeptical about any treatment or product that makes guarantees or promises about your health, and check with your doctor or health care provider.

1. "Natural" doesn't mean either safe or effective. In fact, "natural" can mean both harmful and ineffective. And some "natural" products might interfere with proven treatments recommended by your doctor.

2. Federal law says sellers that peddle cures must have scientific proof to back up their claims. Ads must be truthful - not misleading. But whenever you see or hear an ad, know that no government agency approves those ads before they go public.

Common Health Scams

If you or a loved one are facing health issues, you may be feeling anxious and overwhelmed as you sort through information and make decisions about treatment options. Scammers often take advantage by using these stressful times to steal your money and personal information. Here are some ideas to help you spot and avoid common health scams people report to the FTC.

Addiction Treatments

Scammers promote fake treatments and unproven products that promise amazing cures or fast results for opioid dependence and withdrawal. These products can cost precious time and money, lead to relapse, and could even be dangerous.

Dietary supplements- like herbal blends, vitamins, and minerals - have not been scientifically proven to ease withdrawal or to treat opioid dependence.

Dietary supplements are not reviewed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for safety and effectiveness.

Kratom, and products like it which some claim can help, are not proven treatments. They can be addictive and dangerous to your health.

If you or someone you know is considering treatment for opioid dependence or withdrawal:

Use the confidential treatment locator operated by the Department of Health and Human Services' (HHS) Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) to find a treatment facility near you,

Call SAMHSA's national helpline: 1-800-662-HELP (4357) to get live help. This free, confidential, 24/7, 365-day-a-year treatment referral and information service (in English and Spanish) helps people and families facing substance use disorders.

Alzheimer's Disease, Dementia, and Memory Loss

Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and memory loss are conditions for which science has no cure. The FTC and the FDA have issued warning letters to some companies that have made claims - with no proof - that their products can treat or cure Alzheimer's disease and other conditions. The truth is:

Unproven products using phony claims about treating memory loss can be dangerous. They might cause you to delay or stop proven medical treatment ordered by - or available from - your physician. They might also keep you from making important dietary and lifestyle changes to help your condition. Always talk to your doctor, pharmacist, or other healthcare professional before you try any new treatment.

Just because you can buy them without a prescription doesn't mean they're safe or effective. Many products claiming to help with memory loss or dementia are called "dietary supplements" or "natural remedies." But they're not regulated or reviewed for safety by the FDA. Some examples of dietary supplements which show no evidence of treating memory loss include: ginkgo biloba, fish oil, grape seed extract, curcumin, Asian ginseng, and vitamins B and E.

Anti-Aging Products

Despite claims about pills and treatments leading to the fountain of youth, there's nothing you can buy that has been proven to slow or reverse the aging process. And many companies selling these lotions, creams, and supplements don't have sufficient scientific evidence to show they work.

One common anti-aging health scam involves human growth hormone (HGH), a substance released by the pituitary gland that spurs growth in children and adolescents. But here's the main thing to know about HGH: The FDA says there is no clear proof to support anti-aging claims for over-the-counter pills and sprays that supposedly contain HGH. The agency has not approved any these products for anti-aging or any other purpose.

Arthritis

Symptoms of arthritis can come and go, so it can be tempting to believe that so-called "treatments" or "supplements" are the answer. But there's no cure for arthritis. And, in fact, some products could be harmful, expensive, and not likely to help.any arthritis remedies simply don't have adequate scientific proof that they provide relief. Those so-called remedies that lack scientific backing include: mussel extract, desiccated liver pills, shark cartilage, CMO (cetylmyristoleate), honey and vinegar mixtures, and gimmicks like magnets and copper bracelets.

For the most up-to-date and reliable information on arthritis treatments and alternative therapies, visit the Arthritis Foundation or call 1-800-283-7800 or consult the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Cancer

If you or someone you love has cancer, know that scammers often try to take advantage of the anxiety and worry that often comes with a diagnosis. You may be tempted to try supposed "miracle" cancer-fighting products - like pills, powders, and herbs - that you've seen advertised or heard about from family and friends. Maybe you've even heard about some foreign clinics offering supposed "miracle" treatments not available in the U.S. Whether you're looking in the U.S. or abroad, know this:

No single device, remedy, or treatment can treat all types of cancer. All cancers are different, and no one treatment works for everybody, or for every cancer. Even two people with the same diagnosis may need different treatments.

Scammers promote unproven - and potentially dangerous - substances like teas, salves, and pills containing ingredients that can be toxic. Don't use these substances.

Be skeptical of ads for products that claim to treat cancer. Decide on treatments with your doctor, who knows the science and your treatment needs.

If you or someone you know has cancer and is interested in experimental treatments, talk with your doctor about joining a clinical study. The FDA reviews clinical study designs to help ensure that people are not subjected to unreasonable risks.

For more information about cancer treatments, visit the American Cancer Society or call the National Cancer Institute's Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), or visit cancer.gov, where you can get free publications on cancer research and treatment, or to learn about clinical trials.

Chronic Pain

Chronic pain has many causes, including injuries, illness, and prolonged physical or emotional stress. Some companies market products and devices by claiming they treat chronic pain throughout the body, but without the scientific proof to back up their claims. Some also claim they're clinically proven and cleared by the FDA, but they're not. If you or someone you know is experiencing chronic pain and is considering using a product or device to treat it, here are some things to keep in mind:

Do your research and ask your doctor if a product or treatment you're considering will work for you.

If you get a robocall offering treatment for chronic pain, hang up. Scammers often call to ask about any chronic pain you may be struggling with and then offer to solve your problem to get you to hand over money or your personal information. Don't do it.

Check out treatment options for chronic pain, and look at the evidence and results of studies at National Institute of Health (NIH) National Center of Complementary and Integrative Health.

Diabetes

Like many chronic diseases, diabetes requires individualized treatment by a physician. There isn't a cure yet for diabetes, but losing weight, eating healthy food, and being active can help. Taking medicine as needed, getting diabetes self-management education and support, and keeping health care appointments can also reduce the impact of diabetes on your life.

Relying on unproven products or treatments for diabetes can be dangerous. If you - or someone you know - is thinking about using a nonprescription product to treat diabetes:

Be skeptical about amazing health claims. According to the American Diabetes Association, and the NIH, there's no clear proof that any dietary supplement - including vitamins or products with herbs or minerals - will treat diabetes and high blood sugar.

Remember that supplements can be dangerous - especially if they cause you to delay or stop effective, proven treatments for diabetes.

Talk with your health care provider first. If you're tempted to use a nonprescription product to treat diabetes, high blood sugar, or any other serious health condition, talk with your health care provider before you act.

For more information about diabetes treatments, visit The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and The American Diabetes Association.

Vitamins and Dietary Supplements

Vitamins and dietary supplements can offer health benefits, but claims that they treat or cure diseases are unproven and not allowed under federal law. Dietary supplements are largely unregulated, so some companies feel free to make unsupported claims about the effectiveness of their products.

Supplements Claiming to be Cures

Under federal law, no one can promote dietary supplements for the treatment of a disease. That's because supplements aren't proven to be safe and effective. Dishonest companies may make false claims like: "Helps prevent Alzheimer's disease," "stop arthritis pain forever," "cures eye disease," "traditional remedy for heart disease, prostate cancer, erectile dysfunction," and "prevents allergies." If you spot those claims, stop and tell the FTC at ReportFraud.ftc.gov.

Learn More About Dietary Supplements

While dietary supplements might seem similar to drugs, and some even have drug-like effects, there are big differences. Here are some things to know about supplements.

Unlike drugs, dietary supplements are not evaluated or reviewed by FDA for safety and effectiveness.

Even "natural" supplements can be risky. In fact, "natural" can mean both harmful and ineffective. And some "natural" products could interfere with proven treatments recommended by your doctor.

Talk with your doctor or health provider - your best and most important source of information on whether a supplement is safe for you - and ask questions like

Does this product or treatment actually work?

What's the scientific evidence?

Are you familiar with this brand?

Can you tell me about the ingredients in this product?

How will it interact with other supplements or drugs I take?

What are the side effects?

If it's safe to take, what's the right amount?

Safety Concerns about Dietary Supplements

Increasingly, many so-called dietary supplements contain illegal drugs or hidden substances ( see substance list, below) that could cause serious harm. This is especially true for weight loss, sexual enhancement, and bodybuilding "supplements." People who've taken these dangerous products have suffered serious health consequences, including strokes, acute liver injury, kidney failure, and pulmonary embolisms (artery blockage in the lung). Some people have died.

Dangerous supplements are often sold with false and misleading claims like "100% natural" and "safe." To recognize dangerous products, look for:

Products claiming to be alternatives to FDA-approved drugs or claiming to have effects similar to prescription drugs.

Products claiming to be legal alternatives to anabolic steroids.

Products with ads or product packaging and marketing information primarily in a foreign language.

Products that promise rapid effects or results.

To learn more about vitamins and dietary supplements visit, the FDA's pages on dietary supplements, buying medicines and medical products online, and health fraud. Also, visit the NIH's resources on dietary supplements.

Reliable Sources of Information about Diseases and Treatments

To find reliable sources of information about diseases and their treatments, visit MedlinePlus.gov, a site operated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Healthfinder.gov. Information about alternative and complementary medicine is available through the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.

Report Health Scams

If you think you've spotted a scam, tell your friends and family about it so they can protect themselves. Then report it to the FTC at ReportFraud.ftc.gov. Your reports help the FTC and our law enforcement partners build cases and stop scammers.

To report side effects, bad reactions, or illnesses related to the use of a supplement or other health care product, call a doctor or other health care provider immediately. Then, report it to the FDA's MedWatch site or call 1-800-FDA-1088 (1-800-332-1088). Patients' names are kept confidential.

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People spend billions of dollars a year on products and treatments in the hope of improving their health and fitness.

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Definition: Unexplained is a Reason for Belief in which we believe in something that cannot be explained.

Connection:
For this post I chose a website hosted by a company that claims to investigate hauntings. Many people believe in ghosts, spirits, apparitions and the supernatural because these concepts cannot be explained. There may not be proof that ghosts exist, but as long as there is not solid evidence that ghosts do not exist people will still believe. This reason for belief ties into confirmation bias. Those that believe in ghosts will look for any event that signals that a supernatural presence is in the room. They may cause themselves to believe that unrelated events are a sign of ghosts, and ignore any proof that disproves their beliefs. Another example of the unexplained is the belief of an afterlife. Nobody knows if there is an afterlife, because we cannot communicate after we die. Nobody alive knows what will happen after death, so many of us have our own ideas as to what will happen to us after we pass away. It is especially important to be skeptical of the unexplained as there is no evidence to back up these claims, and nobody has the authority to make these claims.

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TORONTO PARANORMAL RESEARCH AND INVESTIGATION

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HOW WE WORK

FIRSTLY, we establish the nature of the paranormal experience.

SECONDLY, we provide recommendations on how to respond effectively to the paranormal event.

SECONDLY, we provide recommendations on how to respond effectively to the paranormal event.

Paranormal experiences include a range of unusual events that seem unexplainable or outside normal human experience. These include unusual perceptual experiences such as seeing ghosts, spirits, and apparitions, hearing sounds or voices, unexpected odors, a strong feeling that your home is haunted, unexplained movement or destruction of ob

Paranormal experiences include a range of unusual events that seem unexplainable or outside normal human experience. These include unusual perceptual experiences such as seeing ghosts, spirits, and apparitions, hearing sounds or voices, unexpected odors, a strong feeling that your home is haunted, unexplained movement or destruction of objects in the home and many other experiences. You (or someone you know) may have also experienced sudden or unexplained changes in emotions, behaviors or personality that suggest the presence of a spiritual or supernatural force. In some cases you are (or someone you know is) believed to be haunted by or harassed by spirits, ghosts or demons. What is common to all of these experiences is a sense of fear, confusion, and loss of control. Often there may not be any other witnesses which can lead others to doubt that such events are even real. Or if there are witnesses there may be much disagreement about what is occurring. So the first thing we do is to describe in detail what exactly is occurring that has led you to contact us.

SECONDLY, we provide recommendations on how to respond effectively to the paranormal event.

SECONDLY, we provide recommendations on how to respond effectively to the paranormal event.

SECONDLY, we provide recommendations on how to respond effectively to the paranormal event.

In some cases what are thought to be paranormal events are natural events such as noisy pipes, a dead animal caught in the chimney, rodents in the attic, electrical phenomena, a loose window frame and so on. In some cases, someone may be playing a hoax or engaging in mischief. Sometimes one may be suffering from emotional conflicts and

In some cases what are thought to be paranormal events are natural events such as noisy pipes, a dead animal caught in the chimney, rodents in the attic, electrical phenomena, a loose window frame and so on. In some cases, someone may be playing a hoax or engaging in mischief. Sometimes one may be suffering from emotional conflicts and symptoms that may explain changes in personality rather than the influence of a spiritual entity. Based on what we discover about the nature of the paranormal experience we develop a specific plan of action. This could be as simple as repairing any physical or natural source of what was thought to be a paranormal event. It could also include a suggestion to pursue psychological treatment or assessment if the unusual behavior is emotional in nature. And it may include a spiritual intervention that focuses on removing from, neutralizing of, or cleansing the home of any spiritual or supernatural entity that may be present consistent with your spiritual beliefs and practices.

THIRDLY, we stay in touch with you until the paranormal events has resolved or subsided.

SECONDLY, we provide recommendations on how to respond effectively to the paranormal event.

THIRDLY, we stay in touch with you until the paranormal events has resolved or subsided.

It is important to state that we do not conduct specific healings, cleansings, exorcisms or purifications that go beyond what might be considered normal (e.g., praying, saging, blessing, etc). But we will assist you to find a professional who can work specifically with the paranormal experience you have encountered. And we are committed

It is important to state that we do not conduct specific healings, cleansings, exorcisms or purifications that go beyond what might be considered normal (e.g., praying, saging, blessing, etc). But we will assist you to find a professional who can work specifically with the paranormal experience you have encountered. And we are committed to staying in touch with you until you feel the situation has resolved itself as best as it can. We do this through regular contact, keeping detailed notes and records, and organizing any assistance that may be of benefit to you. Please note that there is NO COST for our services. And it is important to stress that we hold everything you share with us in the strictest confidence and we will never communicate what you share with anyone else. Our goal is to be a support and a source of understanding in a situation that can be frightening, unpredictable, confusing and stressful.

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WE ASSESS HAUNTINGS, SPIRITS, GHOSTS, PARANORMAL AND SUPERNATURAL EVENTS

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Experiencing a haunting, spiritual force or paranormal activity can be very frightening. We can help you understand your experience and how to best cope.

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Definition: People are more likely to believe a claim if they have an emotional connection.

Connection:
The object I chose for this post is a video from YouTube. Matt Fraser is a self claimed psychic who claims that there is an afterlife not only for humans, but for pets as well. Pets are family and we have deep emotional ties to our pets, so when they pass away it is very difficult to cope with that loss. Believing in an afterlife is a tool for many to assist in the grieving process. Those that believe in the afterlife truly want to believe in it. Rational thought and critical thinking are obscured when emotional connection is added to the equation. Those that believe in this claim do not question it, because skepticism and disproving this claim would be too painful.

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Definition: Perception and observation is a reason for belief that states that we cannot always rely on our memory as concrete proof of a claim.

Connection:
For this post I chose an article from the Canadian Broadcasting Company. The article is about a man whose father claims to have had a run in with aliens and sustained burns caused by the UFO. The human mind is powerful, and not yet fully understood. During a traumatic event, our minds can obscure memories, repress memories, and even change memories over time. Our minds often interpret stimuli differently than how it actually appears. An example of this would be our blind spot, the spot in the back of the retina where the optic nerve is connected. All humans have a blind spot, and the brain fills in the blanks with what it believes should be there. There is no way to know what actually happened that night in Falcon Lake. What we do know is that this man was traumatized and faced horrific injuries. His claim should not be accepted at face value. We should be skeptical as memories are not reputable or sufficient evidence.  If we cannot trust our own perception, how can we trust the perception of an injured man who endured trauma? Critical thinking needs to be introduced when considering a claim as bizarre as this. His claim was questionable when the event occurred over 50 years ago, memories deteriorate over time. In addition, the claim is presented by his son- it is not even a first hand anecdote. Anecdotes are also not sufficient evidence. Unless the claim is proven with evidence, it is simply a claim.

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Stan Michalak can still vividly remember when his dad came home sick and injured after something happened in the Falcon Lake woods in Manitoba on the May long weekend of 1967.

It was something that put his family life into upheaval and remains one of the world's best-known UFO encounters.

"I recalled seeing him in bed. He didn't look good at all. He looked pale, haggard," said Michalak, who was nine years old at the time and was allowed to see his dad for a couple of minutes on the day after what soon become known as the Falcon Lake incident.

Then there was the smell.

"When I walked into the bedroom there was a huge stink in the room, like a real horrible aroma of sulphur and burnt motor. It was all around and it was coming out of his pores. It was bad," said Michalak, who co-authored the book When They Appeared with Winnipeg UFO researcher Chris Rutkowski.

The book will be launched on Saturday in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the incident.

"I was very afraid. My dad had been injured and I didn't know anything about it," Michalak told CBC News in recalling that Saturday 50 years earlier.

Within a couple of days, however, not only did he know more - so did much of the public.

The story about his dad being burned by a UFO ran in the Winnipeg Tribune newspaper "and that's when everything pretty much hit the fan," Michalak said.

The encounter

Stefan Michalak was an industrial mechanic by trade and an amateur geologist who liked to venture into the wilderness around Falcon Lake - about 150 kilometres east of Winnipeg - to prospect for quartz and silver.

He had staked some claims the prior year and set out on the May long weekend in 1967 to explore some more.

On May 20, 1967, Stefan was near a vein of quartz along the Precambrian Shield in the area when the 51-year-old was startled by a gaggle of nearby geese that erupted into a clattering of honks.

According to his accounts, as reported in newspapers at the time and since repeated in books, magazines and on TV shows like Unsolved Mysteries, Stefan looked up and saw two cigar-shaped objects with a reddish glow hovering about 45 metres away.

One descended, according to Stefan's account, landing on a flat section of rock and taking on more of a disc shape. The other remained in the air for a few minutes before flying off.

Believing it to be a secret U.S.military experimental craft, Stefan sat back and sketched it over the next half hour. Then he decided to approach, later recalling the warm air and smell of sulphur as he got closer, as well as a whirring sound of motors and a hissing of air.

He also noted a door open on the side with bright lights inside, and said he heard voices muffled by the sounds from the craft.

He said he called out, offering mechanical help to the "Yankee boys" if they needed it. The voices went quiet but did not answer, so Stefan tried in his native Polish, then in Russian and finally in German.

Only the whirr and hiss of the craft responded.

He claims he went closer and noted the smooth metal of the ship, with no seams. He then looked into the bright doorway, pulling on the welding goggles he used to protect his eyes while chipping at rocks during prospecting.

Inside, Stefan said he saw light beams and panels of various-coloured flashing lights, but could not see anyone or any living thing. When he stepped away, three panels slid across the door opening and sealed it.

He reached to touch the craft, which he said melted the fingertips of the glove he was wearing.

The craft then began to turn counter-clockwise and Stefan says he noticed a panel that contained a grid of holes. Shortly afterward, he was struck in the chest by a blast of air or gas that pushed him backward and set his shirt and cap ablaze.

He ripped away the burning garments as the craft lifted off and flew away.

Disoriented and nauseous, Stefan stumbled through the forest and vomited. He eventually made his way back to his motel room in Falcon Lake then caught a bus back to Winnipeg.

He was treated at a hospital for burns to his chest and stomach that later turned into raised sores on a grid-like pattern. And for weeks afterwards, he suffered from diarrhea, headaches, blackouts and weight loss.

'It just flipped our lives over'

Once the story was out, the RCMP, the air force, the media, various government agencies, and hordes of gawking members of the public descended on the Michalaks's small River Heights bungalow in Winnipeg.

That's who Michalak refers to in the title of the book - those endless visitors and phone calls, the media and people camping on the lawn, the people who would follow Michalak to school one day peppering him with questions.

"It just flipped our lives over," he said. "It took several years before it finally died down."

After that, and until the day he died in 1999 at the age of 83, Stefan believed he never should have said a thing, Michalak said.

But at the time, he felt it was a duty. He wanted others, if they were to see the same thing, to avoid it and not get hurt, Michalak said.

In Poland, before Stefan moved his family to Canada, he was a military policeman with a set of moral guidelines that he lived by - that is, if something happened, it should be reported, Michalak said.

In addition to constant probing from authorities, the family endured condemnation and criticism in the public, Stefan's sanity was questioned and Michalak was bullied in school.

Though he wished he hadn't said anything, Stefan never backed away from the story, either. He also never claimed to have seen aliens and still considered it a secret military craft.

"If you asked him what it was he saw, he could describe it in intimate detail but he would never say, 'Oh, it was definitely extraterrestrials,' because there was no evidence to prove that," said Michalak.

"He might ask, 'What do you think I saw?' but right up until he died, his story never changed one iota - nothing about it or how he told it."

In all those years since and with some 300 pages of documentation on the encounter, "there's nothing so far that has flawed his story," Michalak said.

So what does he think?

"I'm not so close-minded that I can't entertain the possibility that it's otherworldly. I can't discount that. But without specific evidence to show me that it is, I don't know," Michalak said.

"What I can tell you is that I'm an aviation fanatic, a huge aviation buff, and I am very familiar with how aviation technology has advanced in the past 50 years. And there was nothing even close to that in the works anywhere at that time."

Intensely investigated

The case was investigated intensely by a number of levels of government and the official conclusion, even from the United States Air Force, was that the case was unexplained, Rutkowski noted.

"The Falcon Lake incident is possibly Canada's best-documented UFO case," he said.

"It even beats Roswell [the alleged flying disc that landed in New Mexico in 1947] because the United States still doesn't recognize that anything happened in Roswell out of the ordinary."

If Dad hoaxed this - remember we're talking about a blue-collar, industrial mechanic - if he hoaxed it then he was a freakin' genius. - Stan Michalak

Items were later retrieved from the encounter site, including Stefan's glove and shirt and some tools, which were subjected to extensive analysis at an RCMP crime lab. No one could determine what caused the burns.

At the landing site was a circle about 15 feet in diameter, devoid of the moss and vegetation growing in other areas of the same rock outcropping. Soil samples, along with samples of clothing, were tested and deemed to be highly radioactive.

So were pieces of metal that were chipped out of cracks in the rock about a year after the incident. The metal had somehow been melted into the cracks.

Many of the items have long since been lost as they were transferred through various authorities and agencies. However, Rutkowski and Michalak still have one of the pieces of metal, which remains radioactive.

Still sick in 1968 with recurrences of the burns showing up on his chest and suffering from blackouts, Stefan went to the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn.

Doctors did a thorough investigation and even sent him to a psychiatrist "who came back with the report that this is a fellow who's very pragmatic, very down to earth - pardon the pun - and does not make up stories," Rutkowski said.

"If Dad hoaxed this - remember we're talking about a blue-collar, industrial mechanic - if he hoaxed it then he was a freakin' genius," said Michalak.

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Falcon Lake incident is Canada's 'best-documented UFO case,' even 50 years later | CBC News

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Stan Michalak can still vividly remember when his dad came home sick and injured from something that happened in the Falcon Lake woods on the May long weekend of 1967.