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Compare and contrast three of the learning theories

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Compare and contrast three of the learning theories

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As others said, it seems that cognitivism was in response to the behaviorist theory. This graphic shows the differences and similarities between behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. It also shows the teachers roles, the learners roles and how it compares to Bloom's taxonomy.
https://portfolium.com/entry/infographic-compare-contrast-learning-theories

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Supporting Cognitive Learners in educational setting. 

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Supporting Cognitive Learners in educational setting. 

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I believe this video was created by another student exploring the theory, however I really like the different supports that she lists for cognitive learners. As a reflective learner and educator I noticed I also am a cognitive learner based on the the descriptions here.

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This came from a book chapter about teaching and learning in the digital age. I really liked this graphic because I felt it was similar to ALA's standards domains.
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/remediateteachingindigitalage/chapter/3-3-cognitivism/

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Teaching and Learning Services- Cognitivism

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Teaching and Learning Services- Cognitivism

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This webpage was really useful for defining the learning theory, but also providing examples of different games and activities. There is also a section on the implications of technology.

-Emily Wilson

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Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually" (Cognitivism) and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence. Cognitive theorists may want to understand how problem solving changes throughout childhood, how cultural differences affect the way we view our own academic achievements, language development, and much more. (Feldman, Cognitivism)
Cognitivism is Seen from Different Viewpoints

Willhelm Wundt started the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He believed in "the development of introspection as a means for studying the mind." (Cognitivism) Though he was not specifically involved in the field of Educational Psychology, he began the study of the mind. Therefore, he is an important name in the history of psychology, educational or otherwise.

Jean Piaget theorized that there are four stages of Cognitive Development. The first is a sensorimotor stage. This stage typically lasts until a child is about two years old. During the sensorimotor stage, a child explores the world through his senses: taste, touch, sight, sound, and smell. A child will develop an awareness that things and people exist even when the child is not there. For example, at the completion of this stage, a child is aware that his toys are still in the living room, even when he is in his room and cannot see them. A child will also develop some motor skills during this time. However, children typically have no understanding of symbolic representation.

The final three stages are operational stages. The preoperational stage occurs when a child begins and continues to develop language and thinking skills, and typically lasts from age two until age seven. The child also becomes focused on himself and how the world relates to him.

The concrete operational stage usually occurs between the ages of seven and twelve. During the concrete operational stage, a child begins to see the world in relation to others, not just himself. Children also begin to develop locigal thinking; they begin to understand that the way objects are set up has nothing to do with the amount of an object. For example, children will begin to understand that in the following pictures, even though they are set up differently, different colors, etc., there are still only four boxes in each picture.

The final stage of Piaget's theory is known as the formal operational stage. The formal operational stage begins around age twelve and lasts throughout our adult lives. During this stage we develop both logical and abstract thinking. Our thought process is ever changing. For example, if you ask a four year old girl why she eat apples, she may say, "they're yummy." Asking the same question to a twelve year old girl may get you a response such as, "they're good for me" Asking a college student in a nutrition class why a person eats apples can lead to an entire discussion on what foods you should eat and what they do for you. During each stage we gain life experiences and increase our knowledge through them. Piaget also believed that a child who hadn't completed certain developmental stages could not learn things from higher developmental stages. For example, a child who has not learned language could not think logically.

Besides his four stages of cognitive development, Piaget influenced the study of cognitivism in many other ways. He believed that the human mind is embedded with specific ways of doing things. For example, a baby knows how to suck his thumb without being taught, we breathe unconsciously, and our hearts beat without being ordered to. There are three major concepts when dealing with changing ingrained schemes. Assimilation occurs when a person perceives a new object in terms of existing knowledge. Accommodation occurs when you modify existing cognitive structures based on new information. Equilibration includes both assimilation and accommodation and is considered the master developmental process. For example, a child who has only been around sports cars will believe that a car is small, has two doors, and is fast. When he sees a minivan, he must change his belief about what a car is. Once he accepts that a minivan is a type of car and a sports car is another type of car, equilibration is achieved. (Blessing, Cherry, Classroom, Computers, Cognitivism, Feldman, Free, Sauers)

Lev Vygotsky had another view on cognitive development. He believed that learning was passed down from generation to generation; that it was a result of guided social interactions in which children worked with their peers and a mentor to solve problems and that cognitive development could only be understood if you took cultural and social context into account. He believed that you were unable to think until you knew and understood a language. Vygotsky came up with the Zone of Proximal Development, which he defined as the difference between the developmental level of a child and the developmental level a child could reach with the right amount of guidance. He called this guidance scaffolding and believed that teachers should foster learning, independence, and growth among students. (Blessing, Cherry, Classroom, Computers, Cognitivism, Feldman, Free, Sauers)

In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to learning. When creating and implementing a learning environment, it is imperative that the teachers not only create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the time to understand each child. Classrooms are widely diverse and complex. Students learn differently and are at various developmental levels. Teachers who properly manage their classrooms and establish expectations will be able to incorporate diverse teaching philosophies and create an excellent learning environment for each student. It is important that teachers create a learning environment that encourages students to do their best and makes learning interesting. This creates a motivational climate within the classroom. There are two factors that are critical to motivate students, value and effort. (Classroom Management) Students must understand that the work they are performing is worthwhile. Value measures the importance of a student's work to himself and others. Effort is the amount of time and energy students put into their work. Understanding the value of academic tasks and the effort needed to complete those tasks can motivate students to perform better in the classroom environment (Classroom Management).

Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom ("Piaget's Theory")

Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's cognitive development and only assign tasks for which the child is prepared. The child can then be given tasks that are tailored to their developmental level and are motivating.

Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that enable them to advance through each developmental stage. This is achieved by creating disequilibrium. Teachers should maintain a proper balance between actively guiding the child and allowing opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn through discovery.

Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather than the end product. For example, the teacher should observe the way a child manipulates play dough instead of concentrating on a finished shape.

Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing others' views can help breakdown egocentrism. It is important for teachers to provide multiple opportunities for small group activities.

Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's learning processes and that the curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and developmental levels.

Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom

Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the brain. These games are used to improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical thinking, and help people learn different patterns of association. Cognitive games are helpful when used to learn a foreign language and memorize new material. Various learning techniques are used in the classroom because there are various learning styles. There are many games that promote and influence cognitive learning.

Examples of cognitive games include:
Educational Websites and Computer Games
Most educational websites computer games focus on stimulating a young child's senses while engaging them in various cognitive tasks. Below are three of the many learning websites that are available to enhance cognitive development in young children.
Sorting Games
Sorting games require individuals to utilize recognition and reasoning. Teachers can engage children in games in which the children sort items by various criteria, such as color, size, texture, and other physical attributes of the items. A more advanced approach to sorting is discussing how the items are similar. This process promotes critical thinking.
Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used various tasks. This involves notecards or even scraps of paper in which two parts of information is written on either side of the notecard. These can be as simple as having cards with a red dot on one side and the word red on the other. Flash cards are typically used in a classroom for drills or in private study. These cards are used to aid memorization. Pre-made flash cards are available for many subjects. Teachers and students may also make homemade flash cards, depending on how and what they are studying. Flash cards may also be personalized and printed from certain websites. ( Flashcards ) Flash cards can be utilized into various games as well.
Board Games
Teachers may include b oard games in their classrooms to promote cognitive development. Unlike computer and video games, boardgames are tangible. Children can manipulate different pieces in the game. Board games can be implemented to enhance mathematical and linguistic skills and enhance a child's ability to understand and follow directions. Monopoly and Bingo are two examples of games that may be considered in the classroom.
Puzzles
Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem solving ability. Puzzles require a child to consider patterns, orders, and associations. Some children are better problem, and puzzle, solvers than others. Children who actively solve puzzles that they are able to touch and piece together are more likely to understand certain concepts and develop their own theories about those concepts.

Implications Related to Technology Use

The introduction of computers into the educational system was led by the assumption, which persisted through the 1970s, that computers would replace teachers. (Computers for Cognitive) This was an innovation that required extensive involvement of teachers to change teaching methods and define their role in the classroom setting. Children are familiar with multiple aspects of computer technology because they have most likely been using it for most of their life. However, many older parents, grandparents, and teachers are unfamiliar with technology. Adults must learn to use new or unfamiliar technology for the safety and education of children. Implementing computer technology in the classroom is best when the teacher can guide the students through unfamiliar technology. The learning process is enhanced when students are guided by teachers.

Computers are an essential part of education and are only becoming more frequent in the classroom. Educational technology is advancing and is becoming easier for children to use. Children are already using websites to practice almost every aspect of learning. Children who use computers should be closely monitored for safety purposes. Children who do use computers should always use computers on a desk and males should never use laptop computers on their laps. This affects physical development in later years. Finding the right balance between computer games and hands on activities is essential when children are in the developmental stages of life. Studies have indicated that computers do not necessarily enhance cognitive development. They have actually found that the use of computers in early childhood may impede the intellectual and social development of young children. (Computers for Cognitive) These studies indicated that computers may prevent children from interacting with classmates, teachers, and adults, and hinders the development of certain social skills.

Mehall, J. (2010, March 17) Cognitivism in Practice [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://jonasmehall.blogspot.com/2010/03/cognitivism-in-practice.html

Blessing, Michelle. "Extracurricular Activities for a Toddler." eHow Contributors. 29 Jan 2001. Web. 04 Feb 2011. < http://www.ehow.com/info_7867707_extracurricular-activities-toddler.html>

Cherry, Kendra. "Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory." Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Web. 02 Feb. 2011. < http://psychology.about.com/od/piagetstheory/a/keyconcepts.htm>.

Cherry, Kendra. "Lev Vygotsky - Biography of Lev Vygotsky." Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Web. 02 Feb. 2011. http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesmz/p/vygotsky.htm.

Cherry, Kendra. "Wilhelm Wundt - Biography of Wilhelm Wundt." Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Web. 02 Feb. 2011. < http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/wundtprofile.htm>.

"Classroom Management." Answers.com. Web. 04 Feb 2011. < http://www.answers.com/topic/classroom-management>

"Computers for Cognitive Development in Early Childhood-the Teacher's role in the Computer Learning Environment." Goliath Business Knowledge. 01 Jan 2004. Web. 04 Feb 2011. < http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-4707650/Computer-availability-and-use-by.html>

Feldman, Robert S. Child Development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.

"Free Essay Compare and Contrast the Theories of Piaget and Vygotsky." ECheat - Free Essays, Free Term Papers, Custom Essays. Web. 04 Feb. 2011. http://www.echeat.com/essay.php?t=26240.

Gahan, Sarah."Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Applied to the Classroom." University of Leicester, School Education Social Science Resource. 09 Mar 2001. Web. 04 Feb 2011. < http://www.le.ac.uk/education/resources/SocSci/piaget.html>

Johnson, Charlotte. "Cognitive Learning Games for Toddlers." eHow Contributors. n.d. Web. 04 Feb 2011 < http://www.ehow.com/way_5293023_cognitive-learning-games-toddlers.html>

"Learning Theory-Cognitivism." Simon's Website - Home. Web. 05 Feb. 2011. < http://simonlin.info/learningtheory/cognitivism.htm>.

Rom, Noa. "Puzzles and Cognitive Development." Conceptis Puzzles. 07 Sep 2001. Web. 04 Feb. 2011. < http://www.conceptispuzzles.com/index.aspx?uri=info/article/167>.

Sauers, Kay. "Piaget's Constructivism - Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology." Projects Server Introduction. Web. 03 Feb. 2011. < http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget's_Constructivism>.

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Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually" (Cognitivism) and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence.

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The Cognitive Perspective on Learning: Its Theoretical Underpinnings and Implications for Classroom Practices

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The Cognitive Perspective on Learning: Its Theoretical Underpinnings and Implications for Classroom Practices

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I found this article to not only provide a decent overview on cognitivism, but how it's implemented in the classroom.

-Emily Wilson

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I found this comprehensive presentation from Prezi on our learning theory. Not only is it detailed with an interactive interface, it provides references to the information presented.

-Emily Wilson

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Cognitivism learning theory Key points Student Centered Approach By Zainab Lara ,Rasha,Ahmed,dawand,Nermin Learning is the process of acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge behavior or skills .1 What is learning Learning Learning Humans learn before birth and continue to

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Many of you posted more in dpeth looks into Cognitivism. I wanted to focus more on strategies and how it can be explained in a classroom or library setting. This link is on strategies found to help with learning.
-Stephanie

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The use of cognitive strategies can increase the efficiency and confidence with which the learner approaches a learning task, as well as his/her ability to develop a product, retain essential information, or perform a skill. While teaching cognitive strategies requires a high degree of commitment from both the teacher and learner, the results are well worth the effort.

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To Blake's point earlier about cognitivism being a little overbearing, I think the thing to remember is that when their is ample processing and reflecting time, there is more of a cognitive balance. I hope this illustration from Twitter is helpful in showing how cognitivism can be done the right way.
-Stephanie

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I think this infographic is helpful in showing four of the learning theories and how they are divided by focus.
-Stephanie

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After looking at the resources here, and knowing that cognitivism was constructed as a response to behaviorism, I think that cognitivism is definitely a valuable learning theory for complex processes.  As noted in one of the sources I shared, in cognitivism, the knowledge is just as important as the process of getting there.  However, I think that for simple tasks, cognitivism may be a little overbearing.  Additionally, what happens when a learner is in a new environment and has no information connections to draw on?-Blake

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This is a relatively short, simple video on the differences between Behaviorism and Cognitivism, which was formed as a response to Behaviorism. I think it does well making the concepts of each theory easily understandable.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hSAIv1O2P9o
-Blake

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I think that this dovetails nicely with the discussions we've been having on ID, since it gives more specific context for the theory.

http://instructionaldesign.io/learning-theories/cognitivism/
-Blake

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The video showcases how  the cognitive learning theory can be applied in the classroom. It's easy to understand, and the visual and audio components may be more accessible  for some learners.

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Cognitive Theories of Learning: Information Processing

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Cognitive Theories of Learning: Information Processing

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An explanation of the information processing theory is very helpful in understanding cognitivism. From an instructional technology perspective, it's interesting to see the relationship between cognitvism and computer technology.

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In the 1960s, cognitive theories of learning gradually began to replace Behaviorism as a predominant view. Cognitive theorists claim that observable behaviors are not sufficient to describe learning because the internal thought processes are also part of learning. The cognitive perspective was heavily influenced by the development of computer technology and telecommunications, and use the computer as a metaphor to understand what is happening in the human mind. Learning is defined as storing and organizing information and concepts in the mind.

Information Processing

One of the early cognitive theories of learning and memory was Atkinson and Schiffrin's (1968) Information Processing Theory. This theory views the mind as a computer that accepts inputs and performs processing activities on those inputs, similar to the way a computer processes data. In this view there are three "buckets" known as memory stores.

When you take in information-seeing, hearing, smelling, etc.-it starts in the sensory register. You are constantly bombarded with sensory information, and most of these stimuli are dropped after reaching the sensory register because you don't pay attention to them. For example, when you are enjoying a meal in a restaurant with friends, the sound of other people's conversations reaches your ears, but you normally do not attend to these sounds and therefore do not remember hearing them. The stimuli that you do attend to are then sent to your short-term memory. The short-term memory is where you work with information, process it, and try to pass it into long-term memory.

The theoretical terminology of Information Processing has worked its way into colloquial speech and somewhat changed in meaning. In Information Processing Theory, short-term memory is very short indeed-about 30 seconds! In order to keep something in your mind longer than that, you need to process that information. You do this by rehearsing (repeating) it, or connecting it to what you already know. Or, perhaps you create visual images. The processing you do to make the new information meaningful and memorable is called encoding. Encoding moves information from your short-term memory to your long-term memory.

When you need to remember something that you learned previously, you retrieve it from your long-term memory and move it back into your short-term memory, a process analogous to opening a file on your computer and displaying it on the desktop. This is why short-term memory is also known as working memory. (These two terms originated from different but similar theoretical models of how memory works.)

Short-term memory has a limited capacity. In his article "The Magical Number Seven," Miller (1956) proposed that we can hold approximately seven items in our short term memory, or, taking individual variation into account, "seven plus or minus two." There are strategies we use to help us effectively increase this capacity, however. Chunking is the process of memorizing small units so they become single items in memory. We can then hold seven plus or minus two "chunks" in our memory. An example of this would be a 10-digit phone number, which is chunked into an area code, prefix, and a final chunk of four digits. (This was more important in the days before mobile phones did our dialing for us!)

In contrast to our limited short-term memory, long-term memory is believed to be unlimited in capacity. While there is some disagreement about whether we really retain everything in long term-memory "forever," there is agreement that we retain a large amount of information for a very long time. Often when we have trouble remembering something, the difficulty is with retrieval. Retrieval is particularly difficult for things we memorize only by rote rehearsal; a more elaborate encoding process will lead to more useful retrieval cues.

Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1994) elaborates on the concept of a limited short term memory by defining three types of "load" that need to be considered by instructors and instructional designers. Extraneous load is the cognitive burden posed by distracting elements. An example would be a confusing navigation process in a poorly designed tutorial. Intrinsic load is the complexity inherent in the subject matter. Dealing with that complexity is part of learning the material, and can't be entirely avoided. Germane load is the cognitive demand of processing the subject matter. Remember that to move new information from short-term memory to long-term memory in a retrievable manner, we need to use elaboration techniques. Elaboration is effortful, however, and poses germane cognitive load. According to Cognitive Load Theory, instructors and instructional designers should seek to minimize extraneous cognitive load to free the learner's capacity to handle the intrinsic and germane load.

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Richard Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning is a particularly useful theory for educational technologists because it attempts to offer some prescriptive advice for designing media for learning. Let's use multimedia to explore this multimedia theory! Watch the following videos for more information:

You can also read more about this theory here: https://www.eduhk.hk/apfslt/v12_issue2/rias/page4.htm.

Constructivism

Constructivists believe that learning occurs as an individual interacts with the environment and constructs meaning by making sense of his or her experience. While still a cognitivist theory, it emphasizes meaning-making processes that may be unique for each learner. The teacher's role is to create experiences that facilitate this meaning-making process.

Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson (1999) define the following five attributes of meaningful learning:

Learning is active. Learners manipulate the environment and learn from observing the natural consequences of their actions.

Learning is constructive. Learners integrate new experience with prior knowledge to construct meaning.

Learning is intentional. Learners articulate learning goals and reflect on the progress towards these goals.

Learning is authentic. Learners need to experience a rich, authentic context for their meaning-making.

Learning is cooperative. Learners construct knowledge through productive conversation with other learners.

Educational technology can facilitate a constructivist learning experience through tools such as collaborative shared documents (e.g., wikis), information for exploration (e.g., web searching), complex simulations, and constructive projects (e.g., video creation).

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In the 1960s, cognitive theories of learning gradually began to replace Behaviorism as a predominant view. Cognitive theorists claim that observable behaviors are not sufficient to describe learning because the internal thought processes are also part of learning.

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How Do Children and Teens Learn in Public Libraries? 

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How Do Children and Teens Learn in Public Libraries? 

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This resource compares and contrasts cognitivism, behaviorism, and constructivism. I appreciate the practical strategies for applying cognitive theory in a library setting.

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Take a moment to recall something you've learned successfully in the past year. It could be something you learned for your job, preparation for a project or family vacation, a new skill you've developed, or an old one you decided to dust off and improve. Now reflect on this question: How did you learn what you learned? Don't read on until you have settled on an answer to this question.

Depending on the nature of what you learned, your own learning preferences, the options available to you for learning, and any number of other factors, your answer to the question above might have gone in many different directions. Perhaps you focused on the person who taught you the new information; maybe you reflected on the physical means by which the brain processes new information; you might have focused on your motivations for learning, or the features on the learning environment that helped you along the way. There is no single right answer to this exercise. The question of how people learn is a complex one, and it has occupied the attention of educational researchers for decades.

In education, there are three primary traditional learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Each of these theories provides us with an answer to the question of how people-and, in particular, how children and teens-learn. Behaviorism is focused on observable changes in behavior, which occurs as a result of repetition and practice (Pandey, 2017). Cognitivism gives more significance to the mind and is primarily concerned with changes in cognitive behavior. This theory looks at the thought process behind the actions that students take (Pandey, 2017). Constructivism, the most recently developed theory, examines the construction of knowledge through previous experiences and how students connect these experiences to the knowledge that they acquire (Pandey, 2017). Constructivism acknowledges learning as being a much more personal and social experience than the previous two learning theories. Figure 1, below, summarizes major differences in these three theories and their applications in the public library setting.

In this chapter, we will examine the origins and functions of each theory, as well as how it applies to instruction in public libraries. It is important for educators, which includes librarians, to not only be aware of traditional learning theories but also to feel comfortable applying them in appropriate situations. This requires an in-depth understanding of what each learning theory states, as well as the benefits and challenges associated with each of them.

While most people have a preference among these three theories, it important to note that none of the theories are completely bad or wrong. As the statistician George Box is commonly credited with saying, "All models are wrong, but some are useful." In other words, all theories of learning have some truth to them, but no one theory can explain the full complexity of learning. Thus, instead of comparing these theories based on their accuracy, we should instead look for how each theory can inform our own practice-how is it useful to me, now, in my library, with my learners? Each theory has a role in instruction and, therefore, has a role in libraries.

For librarians to successfully develop instruction around these theories, they need to understand that desired outcomes, subjects, content, and students will determine the right and wrong time to use a theory. It is also important for librarians to understand that instructing with diverse techniques to address different learning styles increases the chance that most, if not all, of your students will have the opportunity to learn in a way that fits them best. Some students learn better with lessons designed around a particular learning theory than others. This requires librarians to know and use each learning theory, regardless of their preference.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the oldest learning theory that we will discuss in this chapter. In the late 19 th century, Ivan Pavlov began noticing that his dogs would salivate whenever he entered the room to feed them because they knew they were going to get food (McLeod, 2013). He noticed that there are some things animals do not have to be taught, and that there are some behaviors that they do have to learn, which they can do through making associations (McLeod, 2013). This discovery of so-called classical conditioning is seen as the beginning of behaviorism.

Around the same time that Pavlov was conducting research on dogs, Edward Thorndike observed cats (Booth, 2011, p. 38). He watched cats while they were in boxes to observe their behavior of making "lasting associations between stimuli (pressing a bar) and a desired response (escape!), which resulted in the development of the notion of trial and error" (Booth, 2011, p. 38). The movement truly began in 1913 when John Watson released his article "'Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,' which set out a number of underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis (McLeod, 2017).

Following Pavlov's and Watson's discoveries, B.F. Skinner continued with the observations of animals by analyzing the learning behaviors of rats and pigeons (Booth, 2011, p. 38). In the 1950s, he developed what would be called operant conditioning, as opposed to classical conditioning, which stated that rewards and punishments are a way of teaching desired behaviors. Eventually, these ideas and practices led to preferences toward "well-controlled, instructor-focused classrooms" in which teachers were the authority and students were there to be filled with information (Booth, 2011, p. 38).

The behaviorist learning theory revolves around the idea that "learning is accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 48). For example, when a teacher presents an equation and the learner responds with the correct answer, "the equation is the stimulus and the proper answer is the associated response" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 48). To put it simply, learning is shown through observable behaviors such as correct answers. In addition to the focus on correct responses, behaviorists put a lot of emphasis on rewards and consequences for these behaviors, with the belief that that will affect the probability of correct responses in the future (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 48).

Behaviorist instruction begins with a pre-assessment for learners so that the teacher can determine where to start with the lesson (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 49). Following the pre-assessment, there are no other attempts "to determine the structure of a student's knowledge nor to assess which mental processes it is necessary for them to use" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 49). Instead of examining the learning process in that way, the focus is on the behaviors of learners when presented with problems. The duty of the teacher is to "determine which cues can elicit the desired responses" and condition learners to illustrate the correct behaviors when presented with those cues (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 50).

As one can probably deduce from its name, behaviorism is solely concerned with behavior and is not interested in the thinking or emotions behind that behavior (McLeod, 2017). This approach presumes that affective factors cannot be scientifically measured; therefore, they are not worth studying (McLeod, 2017). This can clearly be a weakness in this type of approach.

Within our field in LIS, we have examined library anxiety, barriers to equitable access, communication in the library between patrons and librarians, and many other areas in which thoughts and emotions are extremely important to services and instruction. In addition to the lack of attention paid to emotions and thoughts, behaviorism does not offer a way to teach children to apply their learning to concepts and contexts beyond the classroom. It supplies them with the right answers, but it doesn't instill in them the skills to be creative thinkers, lifelong learners, or problem solvers. That being said, the approach is not entirely useless.

The behaviorist approach can still be applicable for instruction focused on recalling facts, remembering steps, learning rules, or generalizations (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 49). For example, this approach could be useful in a public library setting in which you are trying to teach learners how to use the Dewey Decimal system to locate their books. In this situation, memorization is key to success. There isn't much of a deeper concept involved that can be used to address other subjects in school or issues in their community when learning how to access books. Repetition, action, and practice can be an effective way for learners to gain familiarity and comfort with the Dewey Decimal system.

The behaviorist approach could be applied in several ways. You could have scavenger hunts for students to be positively rewarded after locating books, or you could use apps such as Kahoot for students to participate in a game in which answering the most correct answers results in winning. This type of gamified learning is a behaviorist approach because it uses rewards to condition students to supply the correct answer when posed with a specific question.

As with all the theories we will mention in this chapter, there are subjects and contexts in which this approach is not only appropriate but also useful. It is the librarian's job to determine what they are trying to teach and what outcomes they want the patrons to walk away with. If it is something as simple as memorizing a technique, procedure, set or rules, or system, then the behaviorist approach could easily be successfully applied.

Spotlight: Gamified Summer Learning

Gamification-the application of game-playing elements like competition, point-scoring, and rewards to other areas of activity-incorporates elements of the behaviorist approach to learning. Some libraries have embraced gamified learning to draw in new users and improve engagement with the library's resources and services. The Ann Arbor (MI) District Library (AADL) used gamification elements to transform its summer reading program into a summer learning program for users of all ages.

The program, titled Play at AADL ( http://play.aadl.org/), allows participants to earn points and badges for a variety of activities including reading, attending programs, reviewing catalog items, and finding game codes in public locations around town. An online leaderboard keeps track of point totals, and points can be spent on a wide variety of prizes in the district's "Summer Game Shop."

The Play at AADL program incentivizes reading, exploration of the wider community and its resources, and participation in an assortment of library events and programs. Learning outcomes from these individual activities will vary. However, the overarching understanding that AADL is trying to instill through this program is that the library provides a valuable public service; in very simple terms, the library is good! The rewards that learners receive through participation in the summer learning events can function like Pavlov's bell, forming lasting positive associations with the library.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism sprung from the acknowledgment that there was a gap in the behaviorist theory of learning, in that behaviorism did not consider or observe the thoughts that led to human behaviors (Yilmaz, 2011, p. 205). As the name suggests, cognitivism puts the focus on cognitive processes "such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation, and information processing" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 57). Cognitivists became more concerned with the how and why in learning as opposed to learner's observable actions. In other words, cognitivists began studying the "mental processes" involved in learning (Yilmaz, p. 205).

Many different people are credited with the creation of cognitivism as a learning theory. People such as "Edward Chase Tolman, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and German Gestalt were instrumental in engendering the dramatic shift from behaviorism to cognitive theories" (Yilmaz, 2011, p. 205). One of the most notable moments for the foundation of cognitivism was when Edward Tolman conducted an experiment with rats in the 1920s, by studying them finding their way through mazes to examine the idea of a "mental map" in the rats (Yilmaz, 2011, p. 205). Piaget's argument that humans are always "building and revising 'mental models' (schemata)" to organize their knowledge and "categorize experiences" is also one of the major foundational ideas within the cognitivist learning theory (Booth, 2011, p .39).

In cognitivism, "the primary emphasis is placed on how knowledge is acquired, processed, stored, retrieved, and activated by the learner during the different phases of the learning process" (Yilmaz, 2011, p. 205). This view places the learner as an "active participant" in an "active process" (Yilmaz, 2011, p. 205). Cognitivists care more about the knowledge and understanding of learners than their actual behaviors (Yilmaz, 2011).

Cognitivist theorists pay attention to the "motivational and emotional factors" that go into learning (Booth, 2011, p. 39). This requires teachers to become more involved in their students' learning process and look at how they are coming to the decisions and actions that they are. Therefore, it is necessary for educators to utilize a variety of learning activities such as "demonstrations, illustrative examples, and constructive feedback so that students can have mental models to embody" as opposed to just rewards and punishments (Yilmaz, 2011, p. 208).

All these materials lead to learners storing the information in their memory, which "is given a prominent role in the learning process" in this theory (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 59). It is the educator's responsibility to help learners organize what they are learning and make connections to previous and future learning (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). Understanding how to apply knowledge in different contexts is called transfer. In our current society, it is likely that most educators feel that teaching for transferability in education is extremely important, but that idea had been missing in education theory before the cognitivist approach.

Instead of viewing learners as empty vessels to be filled, cognitivism stresses the participation of students in their learning development, realizing that they play a much larger role in the entire learning experience; without acknowledging the mental process, we are unable to fully teach students in the way that we should.

Ultimately, the most important shift from behaviorism to cognitivism was the shift from viewing behaviors as proof of learning to viewing one's thought process as proof of learning. One way to think about this in education is how many math teachers today will not accept homework with just the right answers; they want their students to "show their work." This isn't done to frustrate students everywhere; it is done so that the teachers can see students' thought processes and examine where they may be making mistakes.

Examining how learners process information allows for a richer instructional experience in public libraries. This gives librarians a chance to determine what the students know and how they reach their conclusions so that the librarian can modify the lesson to address the specific thought processes of the students. Acknowledging the learners as active participants requires that librarians get to know them a little bit before the instruction begins. Librarians can open their lessons by asking learners what they know about a certain subject, and they can even follow up on answers given by learners by asking them why they believe those answers to be true.

For example, if a librarian is teaching about search strategies, he or she might ask the learners at the beginning of the lesson if they think it is important to look for sources other than Google. If one learner says yes, the librarian should go further and ask the learner why. This gives the librarian a chance to get a peek at the thought process that led the student to answer that way, as opposed to just taking his or her answer and moving on. If the student just said yes because they guessed, or because they assumed that's what the librarian wanted to hear, additional instruction may be required before moving on to a new topic.

Beyond asking learners to explain their actions or thoughts, educators can also apply cognitivist theories of learning by teaching for metacognition. Defined simply, metacognition is thinking about thinking. Practicing metacognition involves monitoring one's own thinking and learning and coming to understand oneself as a thinker and learner. A large body of research has shown that developing learners' metacognitive skills improves learning across domains (Chick, n.d.). One way that educators can help learners develop these skills is by modeling them. For example, during a story read-aloud, a librarian might stop after reading a challenging word and say, "Hmm. I'm not sure what that word means. I'm going to look for clues in the words and pictures around it to see if I can figure it out. Can anyone help me?" Educators can also encourage metacognition by asking learners to identify questions they have or points of confusion, guiding them through "Before I thought... Now I think..." activities, teaching learners annotation skills, and incorporating reflective activities like journaling into instructional plans (Chick, n.d.).

Spotlight: Metacognition Through Meditation

It's not necessarily easy for children and teens-or adults-to understand or verbalize their own thought processes, which can make cognitivist teaching and learning challenging. One practice that can help people of all ages learn to better monitor their own thinking is meditation, which even very young learners can participate in with guidance.

Meditation expert and author Mallika Chopra presented a session at the 2018 ALA Annual Conference focused on meditation in the library. As she explained, meditation can help young learners "create a quiet space in a complicated world" (McMullen, 2018, para. 2). Meditation can be taught in its own programs, such as the Mindful Child and Parent workshops led by librarian Jenn Carson. In these workshops, Carson leads parents and their children through "games and rituals to make them more aware of their feelings and their actions" (Carson, 2016, para. 4).

Mindfulness techniques may also be incorporated into existing programming to better integrate cognitivist approaches into library instruction. For example, before you ask learners to share their work, guide them through an anxiety-reducing meditation that Chopra calls "Blow Those Butterflies Away": have them imagine that their stomachs are full of butterflies, take a deep breath in while visualizing the butterflies, then exhale deeply to blow the butterflies out (McMullen, 2018).

Constructivism

Constructivism, which is also known as constructionism, is focused on the belief that learning is a "social process informed by prior experience, beliefs, and individual ability" (Booth, 2011, p. 39). Variations of constructivism include radical constructivism, social constructivism, and deconstructivism; while there are these variations, the theory of constructivism operates on the belief that reality is socially constructed, created through language, and understood through narrative (Matthews, 2003). Because learning is approached with this frame of mind, constructivist educators acknowledge that "social interactions and context is necessary for learning to occur" and that peer and teacher feedback is a meaningful component to learning (Matthews, 2003, p. 57). Both cognitivism and constructivism are far less focused on rewards and punishments than behaviorism and instead try to develop and leverage intrinsic motivations in students (Matthews, 2003).

Lev Vygotsky, who was mentioned in the previous section, developed the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is basically the area within which each student can learn in specific situations. A learner's ZPD can grow or shrink depending on their learning environment and access to more-experienced individuals, which could include teachers or peers (Booth, 2011). The ZPD concept acknowledges that the magnitude and direction of learning is not always the same for all learners, even when those learners are exposed to the same materials and activities.

In addition to ZPD, constructivism focuses on the concept of situated learning, which presumes that learning is affected by both cognitive and contextual factors. Constructivist educators believe that, for a learner to be able to effectively grasp and transfer knowledge, an instructor must situate the information "in a way that allows learners to interact with its real-world application" (Booth, 2011, p. 40). This means students can best learn skills and information by interacting with them. For example, instead of telling students how to be successful writers, an instructor could give students prompts they care about, model effective writing, and then let learners write. Using constructivism in this way is similar to the instructional designs used in connected learning (Chapter 7).

Another important addition from constructivism is the realization that learners are independent and unique beings. Constructivists believe that "learning is individualistic and subject to ability and preference" (Booth, 2011, p. 40). Constructivism states that both the learner and the context are important to learning processes and outcomes, and, as learners, we all construct our own knowledge based on personal perceptions and experiences (Booth, 2011).

Along with cognitivists, constructivists do not view children as empty vessels, but they argue that since students interpret knowledge based on their own reality, learning should be student-directed. This means that educators would alter their lesson plans, teaching styles, and content to meet children where they are in ability, stage, or interest (Matthews, 2003). This requires an instructor to get to know their learners and target their interests at their level of ability, as opposed to having a one-size-fits-all lesson. Public libraries are one of the best places for this type of learning to occur since there is less pressure on designing lessons around specific standards or curriculum and since programming can be based on student's interests. This allows librarians to acknowledge interests among their patrons and give them multiple ways to learn about that topic.

Clearly, cognitivism and constructivism share several beliefs and attitudes towards learners and the learning process. One of the biggest differences, however, is that constructivists believe that learners "create meaning as opposed to acquiring it" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 55). They believe that each learner interprets and understands the world around them based on their own unique life experiences and that there is not one universal meaning or understanding for all students (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). This major difference between cognitivism and constructivism changes the way an educator designs his or her lesson. The instructor must plan his or her lesson while understanding that "meaning is created by the learner: learning objectives are not pre-specified nor is instruction predesigned" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 58).

Spotlight: Building Knowledge with LEGOs

Milwaukee children's librarian Peter Blenski created a LEGO Challenge event that demonstrates constructivism in action (Blenski, n.d). In this program, he challenged participants to build their own desert island out of LEGO blocks. This is part of the learner-centered approach to constructivism, which builds on existing student interests and knowledge to create new understandings. Blenski also recognized that his participants were each unique independent learners, which is why he let them build their own islands however they like.

After learners had built their islands, he gave them a choice to pull out a disaster card, letting them know that "whatever disaster they pull will happen to their island, so they need to find a way to fix it" (Blenski, 2017). Once again, he gave students a choice, and he let them construct their own meaning of the disaster and how to fix it. By leaving the options open, students with varying ability levels could participate in this challenge. A 10-year-old with a lot of practice and passion for engineering might build a large complex island and pull out multiple disaster cards to solve, whereas a seven-year-old with cognitive disabilities might build a much smaller and simpler island and take the challenge at their own pace.

Because each learner designed something based on their own understandings and experiences and took part in something that was relevant to their own interests, they were able to develop critical thinking, engineering, and design skills that they could then transfer into other contexts.

Conclusion

As discussed in this chapter, there are three traditional learning theories that librarians should be aware of: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism revolves around the belief that "learning is observable and conditioned" (Booth, 2011, p. 46). Cognitivism is based on the mindset that "learning is cognitive, structural, and internal" (Booth, 2011, p. 46). Constructionism states that "learning is social, active, and contextual" (Booth, 2011, p. 46). After examining each theory, we can understand that there are many factors that affect learning, including "memory, motivation, environment, and prior learning" (Booth, 2011, p .46). As you can see, each theory somewhat builds on the one before it, adding to our understanding of the complexities involved in the learning process.

While constructivism takes the most into account when examining the learning process, behaviorism and cognitivism are not "wrong." Each theory has a time and place to be successfully implemented in a library setting. Used appropriate, all three approaches can lead to "a better understanding" of "information literacy and critical thinking" (Johnson, 2007, p. 107). For example, the behaviorist approach can be effective when learners are presented with specific outcomes prior to the lesson (Johnson, 2007, p. 108), such as learning the Dewey Decimal system. The constructivist approach to teaching information literacy could be applied when learning outcomes allow for multiple approaches to the same task, for example having teens create an escape room in the library. All the theories are important to understand; it is up to the librarian to make them useful and effective.

References

Booth, C. (2011). Reflective teaching, effective learning: Instructional literacy for library educators. Chicago: American Library Association.

Blenski, P. (2017, March 11). Lego challenge-disaster island. Retrieved from https://legolibrarian.com/2017/03/11/lego-challenge-disaster-island/

Blenski, P. (n.d). About. Retrieved December 11, 2017, from https://legolibrarian.com/about/

Carson, J. (2016). Blog: Mindfulness and meditation programs. Programming Librarian. Retrieved from http://www.programminglibrarian.org/blog/mindfulness-and-meditation-programs

Chick, N. (n.d.). Metacognition [Teaching guide]. Retrieved from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/metacognition/

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26, 43-71.

Johnson, W. W. (2007). The application of learning theory to information literacy. College & Undergraduate Libraries, 14 (4), 103-120.

Matthews, W. J. (2003). Constructivism in the classroom: Epistemology, history, and empirical evidence. Teacher Education Quarterly, 30 (3), 51-64.

McLeod, S. (2017) Behaviorist approach. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html

McLeod, S. (2013). Saul McLeod. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html

McMullen, R. (2018). News: Just breathe: Being mindful about meditation programs for young patrons. Programming Librarian. Retrieved from http://programminglibrarian.org/articles/just-breathe-being-mindful-about-meditation-programs-young-patrons

Pandey, A. (2017, October 10). 3 traditional learning theories and how they can be used in eLearning. Retrieved from https://www.eidesign.net/three-traditional-learning-theories/

Stein, E. (2011, March 16). Cognitivism in practice. Retrieved from https://elizabethstein.wordpress.com/2011/03/16/cognitivism-in-practice/

Yilmaz, K. (2011). The cognitive perspective on learning: Its theoretical underpinnings and implications for classroom practices. Clearing House, 84 (5), 204-212.

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Chapter 4: How do Children and Teens Learn? Part 1: Traditional Learning Theories

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Take a moment to recall something you've learned successfully in the past year. It could be something you learned for your job, preparation for a project or family vacation, a new skill you've developed, or an old one you decided to dust off and improve.

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Opent Text Chapter on Cognitivism from "Teaching in a Digital Age"

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Opent Text Chapter on Cognitivism from "Teaching in a Digital Age"

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https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/3-3-cognitivism/

I Felt that this helped a lot, going more in-depth on the model than Booth did.- Blake

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Padlet is a web based bulletin board that allows for collaboration (padlet.com)

Using the free version of Padlet, each group will create a padlet in order to more fully explore one of the learning theories discussed in the class.

I will assign you into groups (listed below).  I will set up discussion threads for this assignment to help you communicate with your group members.  Mostly this is needed for the initial set up of the padlet—after that, most of your collaborating should be happening within Padlet.

One person will need to create the initial Padlet, and then share the link to others on the discussion board. Note—be sure to carefully consider the contributor and privacy options.

All group members should work together in order to achieve the goal of creating a canvas that summarizes and critiques the assigned learning theory.

Each member must, at a minimum, share on the padlet three sources NOT from the required readings that discusses the learning theory and helped them understand it better. This could include an article, video, infographic, website, etc.

In addition, the canvas should include thoughts and discussions that explain and evaluate the learning theory.

Work throughout the two weeks on adding content to the padlet. I recommend including your name with anything you post so I can verify that everyone contributed.

Be sure that I can access your padlet and assign points for the activity.  To facilitate my assessment of this assignment, each individual should submit the URL for the Padlet.

During Week 5 I will be sharing all the padlets with the whole class. You will be able to see the different ways Padlet was used which will be helpful when you assess how it can be used in teaching and learning.  As a bonus, you'll get to learn more about each of the learning theories!

Grading (Worth 5 points):

Each individual should submit the URL for your group’s Padlet to Canvas. Points are earned by participating in this activity with your group and adding meaningful content to the Padlet.