# data[].attributes.body
Egyptian pharaohs expected to worship gods
- Hatshepsut showed constant devotion to Amun and honoured other gods
- building programs at Deir el-Bahri and Karnak
- military campaigns and Punt expedition carried out in Amun's name

# data[].attributes.body
She was a successful rule as during her period of co-regency, Egypt attained relative peace and prosperity.

Her inscriptions emphasize economic development and prosperity during her reign, as well as economic expansion such as the trading expedition into Punt. The increase in wealth during this period is reflected by her numerous building projects, which required materials and payment to workers, not possible if she wasn't successful in ensuring economic stability.

# data[].attributes.body
She passed onto Thutmose III a Egypt that was strong and successful

# data[].attributes.body
Glorified the gods by repairing temples destroyed by the Hyksos

Restored neglected rites, festival and cult processions

Built new monuments to the gods (particularly Amun)

Significantly funded the cult of Amun, advancing its priesthood by gifting official posts

# data[].attributes.body
In some ways, it can be argued she was an innovator

Her assumption of power during the regency and her efforts to present herself in male form was new to egypt

Aspects of her reign to do with religious matters can be considered 'innovative'

The Divine Birth relief is evidence of her trying to establish her close relationship with Amun

She stressed her role as both a spiritual and physical daughter of the god

She also introduced some new ideas in religion such as oracles, the growth of personal piety and more public celebration of religion.

# data[].attributes.body
In many ways, yes. These things included:
- Her extensive builiding program
- Devotion of achievements to gods
- Depictions of herself in statues with regalia and as a sphinx.
All actions a traditional pharoah would do

# data[].attributes.body
Egypt was protected successfully as there is no evidence to suggest threats from foreign lands

# data[].attributes.body
The idea of having a Queen regent was not unprecedented. E.g. Previous queens such as Queen Ahmose-Nefetari.

# data[].attributes.body
Kings were expected to promote own image
- statues at Deir el-Bahri
- appearances in reliefs designed to justify her position and emphasise connection to her father and Amun.

# data[].attributes.body
Redford - Extensive research into military campaigns and shown that she had at least 4 during her reign. May have joined at least one military campaign.
Dorman - "Experimentation with iconography was prompted by the neccesity of effective rule" Not trying to pretended to be male. To be regarded as a king she had to look like a king.

# data[].attributes.body
Provided stability that allowed Egypt to continue to prosper

Guidance and opportunities she gave Thut formed him into a great leader

Status of Amun cult greatly raised, acquiring religious and political influence

Restored Egypt’s former glory, instilling confidence

Not only created a precedent of a female ruler, but changed the concept of Kingship

Began to involve a close relationship between the king and the god Amun Reinvigorated festivals

New funerary texts

# data[].attributes.body
Later kings e.g. Amenhotep III began to emulate the divine birth relief and similar ideas in the temples that were built

# data[].attributes.body
Pharaohs expected to ensure country's prosperity and wage successful military campaigns
Prosperity:
- extensive building programs
- expedition to Punt
- efficient administration due to her relationship with priesthood and officials
Military:
- Egypt's borders secured
- successful campaigns in Nubia, Gaza and Syria

# data[].attributes.body
Hatshepsut's relationship with Thutmose III may have been more cooperative than previously thought.
Some indications include:
- Thutmose III, led military campaigns to Gaza and Syria, whilst in co-regency
-Thutmose III left on a campaign just prior Hatshepsut's death
-study by Nims, revealed that defacement and destruction of monuments, were not done until 20yrs later
-the skeleton of a body, claimed to be Hatshepsut's, was found. Examinations confirmed that it died of natural causes

Destruction of monuments
-Robins- Due to political expediency. Hatshepsut's reign, as a female king, was unnatural during this context. Her rule did not conform with Maat, and so Thutmose acted to strengthen the male succession to the throne
-Redford- Due to political necessity. The achievements and claims by Hatshepsut was open to the public, and would overshadow Thutmose's  own legitimacy.

# data[].attributes.body
It is difficult to interpret the period of H’s rule as her successors excised her name from Egyptian history.

Thutmose III began defacing her monuments, removing her name and replacing it with his own name or Thutmose II or Thutmose I

Later kings such as Seti and Ramesses II deliberately excluded her name from the lists of Egyptian Kings

By the end of the 19th Dynasty (late 13th/early 12th century BC) there would probably have been no memory of her at all

Written evidence is limited

There are references to her rule in some of her official’s tombs - Ineni

The temple of of Speos Artemidos at Beni Hasan contains an inscription in which H boasts of some of her achievements including:

The repairs to the temple at Cusae

Temples set up for Pakhet and Thoth

Fixing up destruction brought on by earlier “Asiatics” (the hyksos)

# data[].attributes.body
Gardiner - No military campaigns conducted during her reign as pharoah. A "vile usuper".

# data[].attributes.body
Gardiner - ​ ​“...deliberately abused a position of trust by stealing the throne from a defenceless child.”

# data[].attributes.body
She was a successful innovater.
- In depictions of her in reliefs, Gardiner stated that these were "wholly a new departure for a female to pose and dress as a man."
- Dorman supports this stating "the recently invented phenomenon of a female king had created such conceptual and practical complications that the evidence of it was best erased."

# data[].attributes.body
Involvement in military campaigns - warrior pharaoh

# data[].attributes.body
The major reasons for different interpretations between now and the 1950’s/60’s include:

Archaeological work continues non-stop in Egypt and new discoveries are made frequently

As archaeologists unravel new clues about H, these feed into the interpretations that historians develop

The techniques which archaeologists are now able to use are more scientifically-based

The way archaeologists operate today is different to methods of Howard-carter a century ago

Early interpretations of H were proposed by middle-aged white men writing in a time when conservative views regarding the role of women were prevalent

The rise of feminist history and the introduction of gender studies ha had an impact on the interpretation of H's reign

Therefore modern interpretation of H's reign are as a result of modern technologies and methods of excavation and the rise of feminist history proposing the reign of H in a different light.

# data[].attributes.body
-Hatshepsut left a legacy of extensive archaeological works. Some of it was of a new style such as the hypostyle hall at Karnak, some of its building on the earlier works of others.
-The cult of Amun was strong due to Hatshepsut, the priesthood was left in a preeminent position and Hatshepsut also introduced new religious such as oracles, piety and public pageanty
-New funerary texts appeared during Hatshepsuts reign
-Later kings such as Amenhotep III and Ramesses II began to emulate the Divine Birth relief and similar ideas in the temples which they built
-Some historians believe that the sanctuary to Aten on the third level of Deir El Bahri presaged the religious monotheism of Akhenaten and his devotion to Aten.

# data[].attributes.body
She is a female monarch but she portrayed herself as a traditional pharaoh by presenting herself as a male

Titles, Regalia and statutory

# data[].attributes.body
J.A Wilson & Alan Gardiner

Powerless Thutmose III saw Hatshepsut as power-hungry; classic evil stepmother, unable to do anything about her position and power

Thutmose resented Senenmut and was eager to free himself of a controlling parent, did Thutmose III 🤬 Hatshepsut to gain his rightful position

# data[].attributes.body
Hatshepsut was only a woman and could not have rules without a reliance on men such as Senenmut.

Hatshepsut was an evil, power-hungry woman which is why she posed as a man later in her reign.

It is not surprising that Thutmose III developed a great resentment towards Hatshepsut and sought to destroy her.

Hatshepsut was a failure in terms of military campaigning and building up the Egyptian Empire.

Hatshepsut's wearing of male royal attire such as the shendyt and the ceremonial false beard were deliberate attempts to fool people.

# data[].attributes.body
Jan Assmann - "Starting point of revolutionary changes in the... religious history of the New Kingdom"

# data[].attributes.body
The use of Hatshepsut made of the priesthood and the noble officials was not unusual. All kings needed able administrators.

Female royal power was not unprecedented and some earlier kings had become quite reliant on their royal partners.

The evidence seems to suggest the Hatshepsut and Thutmose III worked wells together. He even led military campaigns during her reign.

There is evidence of at least four successful military campaigns, some of which were led by Thutmose III. Egypt was in good shape when Thutmose III began his imperial expansion.

In the wearing of male royal attire such as the shendyt and the ceremonial false beard Hatshepsut was merely following tradition.

# data[].attributes.body
- She was involved in the making of many building projects
"As a ruler Hatshepsut inaugurated building projects that far outstripped those of her predecessors" - BRYAN
- She was portrayed as an intelligent and comptetent ruler in reliefs and inscriptions
- Ineni's biography shows that she was an effective ruler from the death of her husband
- Djeser Djeser: inscriptions fo military achievements at nubia/Syria - Palestine

# data[].attributes.body
-Managed to keep complete control over Egypt for nearly 22 years with the support of her close advisor Senenmut, powerful allies in the bureaucracy and the priesthood of Amun-Re, the god whom she honored above all others.

# data[].attributes.body
Not only was she an innovator she also took ideas from other people, she had a lot of influence from past pharaohs but also made her own ideas.

# data[].attributes.body
She was also an innovator who set her own stamp on New kingdom Egypt, especially in developing ideology of kingship and the theology of the state cult of Amun-Re

# data[].attributes.body
It could be argued that Hatshepsut succeeded in maintaining Egyptian traditions.
-Her pursuit of honouring gods, self promotion and extensive building programs were very much in line with tradition
- The traditional view that Hatshepsuts reign was devoid of military campaigning is no longer held by many
-Her involvement in such things may not have been as extensive as some other kings but it did occur
-Through the Expedition to Punt was presented as a great achievement, Hatshepsut was certainly not the first king to venture into this region.

# data[].attributes.body
The expedition to punt was a great achievement, but she was not the first king to venture into that region

# data[].attributes.body
Attempts to remove Hatshepsut from the record of Egyptian history did not end at Thutmose III
-There are references to her ryke in some of her officials tombs. That of Ineni.
-The temple of Speos Artemidos at Beni Hasan contains an inscription in which Hatshepsut boasts of some of her achievements. These include *The repairs at temple at Cusae *temples set up for Pakhet and Thoth *fixing up destruction brought on by earlier 'Asiatics

# data[].attributes.body
She could be considered a traditional pharaoh in that she was focused on the economic development of Egypt and expanding and protecting its borders.
- However, she could also be considered to be not traditional as 2 previous queens had "usurped the kingship, but it was wholly a new departure for a female to pose and dress as a man." But this is due to pharaohs having to be depicted as males and there was no compromise about this.

# data[].attributes.body
It can be argued that hatshepsut deserves to be considered a successful ruler.
Rulers were expected to maintain the favour of the gods, promote the gods image and show reverence and respect to them.

H showed a constant devotion to the god Amun and honored other gods by executing major building programs at Deir el-Bahri and Karnak

The expedition to punt was also carried out in the name of Amun

Kings were expected to promote their own image and ensure an orderly succession

Her image appears in many statue forms, especially on the third terrace at Deir el-Bahri

Her appearance in reliefs was designed to justify her position and emphasise her connection to her father, thutmose I and the god Amun

Her relationship with the priesthood and her officials allowed for efficient administration of the country

They were expected to ensure the country’s prosperity and wage successful military campaigns

H allowed military campaigns e.g. punt expedition

Egypt seemed to have enjoyed steady prosperity during her reign

She left the dynasty in healthy shape

Also successful military campaigns to Nubia, Gaza and Syria

These campaigns were often led by Thutmose III

It was assumed that a king would engage in an extensive building program

Extensive work at karnak and Deir el-Bahri

Speos Artemidos was established at Beni Hassan

Temples that had been neglected were repaired

# data[].attributes.body
In a way yes, she built on the traditions established by her predecessors:
- Highlighted the importance of religion
- Amun cult developed greatly during her reign
Building activity - > showed Egypt how important it was
- Was not trying to fool her people with representing herself as a male, she just wanted to maintain the tradition of male king

# data[].attributes.body
Revisionist view: Hatshepsut and Thutmose III's relationship was cooperative

Hatshepsut and Thutmose III often seen together on many monuments and stelae

e.g. Punt Relief

Inscriptions in western Thebes and a stela in Wadi Marhara in SInai Desert show Hatshepsut and Thutmose III making offerings to gods together

Thutmose III led campaigns in Gaza and Nubia

unlikely Hatshepsut would allow Thutmose III to take a military campaign if she felt threatened by him

Idea that Thutmose III felt threatened by Senenmut is contradicted by the gift that he and Hatshepsut jointly gifted Senenmut

# data[].attributes.body
- Extensive building program recalled former glory of Egypt, instilled confidence in her people and providing them with employment. e.g. glorifying and dedicating many things to Amun, allowing the emergence of the power and wealth of Amun priesthood.
- Trading expeditions e.g Punt provided raw materials and incense, increasing wealt and widening trade contacts. Dedicated expedition to Amun, providing him wit incenses from Punt to burn and worship him.
- She created a stable and prosperous Egypt, allowing Thutmose III to campaign beyond Egypt shortly after her death for 17 years. This in turn attributed to growth and expansion of Egypt's borders, providing increased wealth and power.

# data[].attributes.body
Hatshepsut made a deliberate attempt to leave an indelible mark short and long term effects:

Short term
- To the end of the reign of Thutmose III
Physical evidence:
- Monuments
- Inscriptions

Long term
- Rest of the 18th century until present
physical evidence:
- Concepts
Traditions
Ideologies
Institutions

- Substantial evidence of her reign in her temples and monuments e.g additions to Karnak
- p

# data[].attributes.body
Into her reign she retained a female physical appearance but her ka was depicted as mascular in her Divine Birth Scenes, and so she could be seen and written as both masculine and feminine. However by the later years of her reign her status had now assumed male characteristics and the regalia of the Egyptian king. This would have included the Shendyt (royal kilt) and the ceremonial false beard.

# data[].attributes.body
She was a traditionalist to some capacity

She was a female pharaoh - this was new/not tradition

She portrayed herself as a male pharaoh - this was to keep tradition

She is seen in pharaoh/royal regalia as per tradition

She was also depicted as Osiris as per tradition

She fulfilled all the expected roles of a pharaoh to maintain tradition

Following tradition of most pharaohs, she had monuments constructed at karnak

Also following tradition of pharaohs, she had a mortuary temple

# data[].attributes.body
The strength of H’s personality, her loyal support of high officials and her effective use of propaganda allowed her to maintain control of Egypt for over 21 years resulting in:

An extensive building program

Trading expeditions and successful military campaigns

Glorified and extensive dedication to Amun

As a result, H created a stable, prosperous and secure Egypt, grew the empire and increased the wealth and power of Egypt

Additionally, she contributed to the prestige of the Amun priesthood.

Priests of Amun wielded great power as wealth of the temple increased

# data[].attributes.body
The traditional view that Hatshepsut’s reign was devoid of military campaigning is no longer held by many

Her involvement in such things may not have been as extensive as some other kings but it did occur

# data[].attributes.body
The interpretations of her reign which were presented in the 1950's and the 60's are quite different to those that are generally accepted now.

# data[].attributes.body
Barry Kemp
- Believes H depicted herself and referred to herself as male as this is what the conventions of kingship demanded.
- Also believed being depicted in pharaonic regalia is how kings were seen to be communicating with the gods - it was expectation

# data[].attributes.body
Introduced the funerary texts:
-Litany of Re
-Book of the dead/Book of coming forth by day
-Amduat

New festivals public religion;
-Beautiful festival of the valley
-Opet Festival

# data[].attributes.body
Hatshepsut Erased from history

# data[].attributes.body
Left Egypt economically prosperous and strong

Punt expedition

oversaw a successful building program that honored gods and provided jobs

successful self promotion ensured position of monarchy strong

honored gods, restored temples and was responsible for promo of cult Amun

ability to work with priesthood and officials ensured efficient administration of kingdom

left Egypt strong for a smooth transition to rule of Thutmose after her death

successful military and foreign policy

introduced funerary texts:

Book of Dead, Litany of Re and Amduat

introduced new festivals:

Beautiful festival of the Valley

Opet Festival

introduced idea of oracles

# data[].attributes.body
Gay Robins: Hatshepsut played the "male gender role" to be recognised as king by her subjects. The king could only be represented in one way, and that was through the male gender.
Peter Dorman: Hatshepsut was not pretending to be a male, but rather "experimentation with iconography was prompted by the necessity of effective rule." To rule effectively, had to be regarded as a king by her people, which prompted her depictions as a male.