# data[].attributes.body
Copper cables have became the most prominent networking media before the existence of wireless devices

It is inexpensive and can be easily installed for small LAN

Each cables have different specifications and expectations pertaining to performance

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1. Copper cable media - patterns of electrical pulses.

2. Fiber optic - patterns of light.

3. Wireless media - radio transmissions.

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The OSI Physical layer provides the means to transport across the network media the bits that make up from a Data Link layer frame.

The delivery of frames across requires the following Physical layer elements

-The physical media and associated connectors
-A representation of bits on the media
-Encoding of data and control information
Generate signal that represent the "1" and "0" on the media.

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A kilobit per second – kbps/s = 1000 bits per second

A megabit per second – Mbps/s = 1 000 000 bits per second

A Gigabit per second – Gbps/s = 1 000 000 000 bits per second

A Terabit per second – Tbps/s = 1 000 000 000 000 bits per second

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1. Fully connected topology
2. Start topology
3. Mesh topology
4. Ring topology
5. Bus topology

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A network that consists of a set of computers that interconnect using the Internet with added security.

VPN to connect individual corporate LAN network using the Internet. To ensure safety for each connection, data encryption and special protocols are added.

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Refer to a private connection of LANs and WANs that belongs to an organization, and is designed to be limited accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with authorization.

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A global mesh of interconnected networks for communication. Ex: Internet

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Individual organizations usually lease connections through a telecommunications service provider network. These networks that connect LANs in geographically separated locations are referred to as Wide Area Networks.

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- The distance the media can successfully carry a signal.
- The environment in which the media is to be installed.
- The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted.
- The cost of the media and installation

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1. Copper (twisted pair) - electrical impulses
2. Fiber optic (glass) - pulses of light
3. Wireless transmission - electromagnetic waves

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- Regenerate and retransmit data signals - Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork - Notify other devices of errors and communication failures - Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure - Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities - Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings

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End devices are referred to as hosts

To distinguish one host from another, each host on a network is identified by an address

Software determines the role of a host. A host can be a client, server or both

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1. Devices (PCs, intermediary devices)
2. Media (Cable or wireless)
3. Services and processes (Software)

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Begins with a message, or information, that must be sent from one individual or device to another using many different communication methods such as message source, or sender , destination, or receiver and a channel

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The Need for Networking Protocols and Standards

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The Need for Networking Protocols and Standards

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1. Equipment from different vendors would not interoperate
2. Open standards allow more competition, which increases speed of development

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1. Basic (text, images, sound)
2. Extended (Interactive links, VR)

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1. Hardware
2. Software

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1. Computer software suppliers
2. Network hadware/software supplier
3. Telcos & cable TV providers
4. TV production studios
5. Streaming platforms

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Technology that enables humans to use computers capable of processing textual data, audio and video, still pictures, and animation.

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Standards provide people and organizations with a basis for mutual understanding and are used as tools to facilitate communication, measurement, commerce and manufacturing. Standards are everywhere and play an important role in the economy, by: facilitating business interaction.

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Rules of operation that govern communication between 2 or more hardware or software processes on different machine

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1. Allow source sharing
2. Put down barriers between information
3. Allow users to access remote programs & remote data
4. Provide communication possibilities faster & reliable

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1. Admin
2. Stability
3. Service Quality
4. Monitoring
5. Standards
6. Operator

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1. Internet
2. Telcos
3. Company Network
4. Universal Network
5. Home Network

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Networking is the practice of transporting amd exchanging data betweem nodes over shared medium in an information system