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Ethnography is a study through direct observation of users in their natural environment rather than in a lab. The objective of this type of research is to gain insights into how users interact with things in their natural environment.

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Ethnography is a study through direct observation of users in their natural environment rather than in a lab. The objective of this type of research is to gain insights into how users interact with things in their natural environment.

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Ethnography is the recording and analysis of a culture or society, usually based on participant observation and resulting in a written account of a people, place or institution.
Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe and/or interact with a study’s participants in their real-life environment. Ethnography was popularised by anthropology, but is used across a wide range of social sciences
The aim of an ethnographic study within a usability project is to get ‘under the skin’ of a design problem (and all its associated issues). It is hoped that by achieving this, a designer will be able to truly understand the problem and therefore design a far better solution.
gamal

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Experimental designs are more static in the structure to enable the research to be replicated. These designs test the causal effects of phenomena on a group compared to a control group who are not subjected to any phenomena. The effect is the independent variable on the dependent variable. Experimental strategies generate data that can be statistically analysed.

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Gamal               Grounded Theory: is simply the discovery of emerging patterns in data. Grounded Theory is the generation of theories from data. as well as Grounded theory is a research tool which enables you to seek out and conceptualise the latent social patterns and structures of your area of interest through the process of constant comparison

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Gamal               Grounded Theory: is simply the discovery of emerging patterns in data. Grounded Theory is the generation of theories from data. as well as Grounded theory is a research tool which enables you to seek out and conceptualise the latent social patterns and structures of your area of interest through the process of constant comparison

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features
Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously • Categories and analytic codes developed from data. Pre-existing conceptualisations not to be used – this is known as theoretical sensitivity (see below) • Theoretical sampling used to refine categories • Abstract categories constructed inductively • Social processes discovered in the data • Analytical memos used between coding and writing • Categories integrated into a theoretical framework

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The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Case studies provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of the case studies.

On the other hand, Bridget (2006 p.6) reveals that Action Research integrates research and action in a series of 'flexible cycles' involving holistically, rather than as seperate steps for example the collection of data about the topic of investigation, analysis and interpretation of those data, the planning and introduction of action strategies to bring about positive changes and evaluations of those changes through further data collection analysis and interpretation.

To summarise, a case study  begins with the researcher's interest in a particular set of phenomena, whereas an action research project begins mostly with the issues and concerns within some practical situation, with which the action researcher interacts.

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A survey strategy is often associated with a deductive approach. It offers the researcher a highly economical way of collecting large amounts of data to address the who, what, where, when and how of any given topic or issue. This strategy can generate both rich and statistical data.

Survey refers to a technique of gathering information regarding a variable under study, from the respondents of the population.

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Many primary sources that are available online are archival or Special Collections sources
which have been digitized and made available by those institutions.
BUT:

Not every source is available online. Most Special Collections/archival libraries are not able to digitize all of their sources (collections) or make them publicly available.

( Why isn't everything digitized?? Read this excellent article "Why Don't Archivists Digitize Everything" by Samantha Thompson, an archivist for the Region of Peel Archives (in Brampton, Ontario, Canada) to learn more about the labor and costs involved in digitization.)

Not every individual item is listed in a collection's finding aid. Many Special Collections/archival libraries do not catalog their collections by individual item. Instead they provide descriptions to the box or folder level.

Not every collection will have an online finding aid. While most institutions are working to get finding aids online, this is an ongoing process for many organizations. You may need to contact an archivist to learn more about which finding aids are available online, and which are not. Some archives will create catalog records for unprocessed collections as a means to signal their existence. Further, research/subject guides may also list unprocessed collections.

Not every library (including archives and Special Collections libraries) is registered with WorldCat. WorldCat and ArchiveGrid (which draws on WorldCat) include information from many, many libraries, but do not include materials from every library/repository.

Not every repository uses standardized descriptive methods. While the majority of archives adhere to professional descriptive standards, some do not. This can make it more difficult to find materials using WorldCat or other similar databases/catalogs.

Most archival/Special Collections libraries will not lend their materials. Due to rareness, fragility, or other restrictions, most items in these kinds of libraries are not available for Interlibrary Loan. Researchers may be able to request that copies of relevant records be made available through Interlibrary Loan, however there may be a charge.

If the repository is able to offer you reproductions (photocopies, PDFs, or audiovisual materials) of the materials you want to look at, expect to pay a fee. Typically there will be a charge for ordering reproductions, often including charging by the page.

Most archival sources are in their original language. Archives and Special Collections libraries do not typically offer translations of their materials. Other scholars or editors may have published or otherwise made available translations of materials.

Your local repositories may not have the archival resources you need. Archives and Special Collections libraries tend to collect deeply in specific areas, rather than widely in many areas. Smaller repositories may also focus on collecting materials relevant to their local community.

Reasons to contact a repository's archivist before planning a visit:

Archival research typically involves one or more of these options:

Visiting the repository in person.
**Some repositories offer competitive travel fellowships or other funding. Check their website for information about funding opportunities.

Ordering reproductions (paper or electronic) of relevant materials (if option is available)

Hiring a proxy researcher (some repositories may offer a list of possible proxy researchers for hire: see for example, the University of Texas at Austin's Harry Ransom Center's policy regarding proxy research).

Contact the repository directly (contact information is generally available on a repository's website) to learn more about:

Specifics regarding their holdings

Registration information (what do you need to do/bring if you visit the repository, whether you need to set up an electronic account, etc.)

Reproduction availability, fees, and related information

Open times / pull times (some repositories pull boxes at set times, so you may have to wait for requested materials)

Proxy researcher information

Archivists are happy to help orient you to their repository, provide information about their holdings,
and assist you with reproduction orders where available. Archivists will not, however, do your research for you!

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GSU Library Research Guides: *Archival Research: Why Archival Research?

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Many primary sources that are available online are archival or Special Collections sources which have been digitized and made available by those institutions. BUT: Not every source is available online. Most Special Collections/archival libraries are not able to digitize all of their sources (collections) or make them publicly available.

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WritePass - Essay Writing - Dissertation Topics [TOC]

One of the key problems you need to address early on when writing your dissertation is that of the best strategy to use to conduct your research? That is, how will you go about answering the research questions you want to investigate? Defining your research strategy means deciding whether you want to do primary research or confine yourself to the existing literature. You can get help deciding whether a primary or secondary study is best for you from one of our helpful guides. Research strategy for secondary studies is fairly straightforward, although you do have to look at your search methods and define key words and so on. However, defining different research strategies you can use in your dissertation to conduct primary studies is slightly more involved. This guide will help you understand the basics by looking at some of the most common research strategies.

Case studies are a type of descriptive research looking at individuals, a small group of people or a unit (an organisation for example).

Data is collected by observation, participation and a range of other methods including examining existing records, interviews and tests

Case studies may include participants own accounts

Conclusions are relevant primarily to the people or unit studied, they are not as appropriate if you want to generalise to a much wider population

Case studies tend not to look at cause and effect, rather they focus upon exploring and describing

A typical case study looks at the way a number of variables interact in order to fully understand a given situation

Case studies are usually used for qualitative research

Case studies are useful for 'how' and 'why' questions, where context is important, and where the researcher has little control over events.

Survey research is frequently used in social science research. Surveys are also used in commercial settings, primarily market research.

Surveys often gather quantitative data, but can also gather qualitative information through open-ended questions

Surveys are carried out on a sample of respondents from a selected population through the administration of a questionnaire.

The questionnaire can be done online, face-to-face or over the telephone.

Surveys are very flexible and can be used to collect different types of data from small or large numbers of people

Surveys can also be useful across a wide range of disciplines from business to anthropology

The data collected in surveys needs to be analysed to produce useful results. Quantitative data (numbers) is typically analysed using statistical software like SPSS. Qualitative data can be analysed by a number of techniques including coding and thematic analysis.

An interview is a discussion with one or more people. The matters raised are recorded (video-taped, audio-recorded or written down) and subsequently analysed

Interviews are very flexible. They can be highly structured and formalised, with all the possible options determined in advance (a quantitative survey administered face-to-face would be an interview of this type) or unstructured and relaxed.

Interviews are usually divided into three groups, depending upon the degree to which they are structured: structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews. Structured interviews are based on a pre-determined set of questions and allow little-to-no scope for deviation from the structure. Unstructured interviews start with a few broad questions or areas for discussion, and the interviewer uses techniques like prompting and probing to elicit responses from the participants.

Interviews can involve one subject, or a group of subjects, but typically no more than 5 or 6 people in a group. The dynamics of a one-to-one interview and a group interview are different and are suitable for different purposes: one-to-one interviews are useful where you want people to open up about personal or private matters, while group interviews allow people to interact and create group dynamics.

Action research, also known as participatory research and collaborative inquiry can be seen as a process of research through doing something. It involves the ability to usefully reflect upon process in order to improve understanding of practices and situations

Ethnomethodology as an approach tries to understand the way people interact with each other, and therefore studies social realities, often of the day-to-day lives of ordinary people. Its concern is with how people make sense of their world.

Grounded theory research does not have a set of assumptions or research objectives which are tested against reality. Rather it generates theory by first examining a social situation and seeing what explanations could account for the phenomena.

Badke, W (2012) Research Strategies: Finding your way through the information fog (4th edn), iUniverse, USA

Colorado State University (2013) 'Case Study' [online] (cited 6 th March 2013) available from
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=60
Marsden, P V and Wright, J D (2010) Handbook of Survey Research (2nd edn.), Emerald Group Publishing, London.

Punch, K (2003) Survey Research: The Basics, SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Tags: dissertation guide, research strategies

Category: Dissertation Writing Guide

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Different Research strategies you can use in your Dissertation - The WritePass Journal

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WritePass - Essay Writing - Dissertation Topics [TOC] One of the key problems you need to address early on when writing your dissertation is that of the best strategy to use to conduct your research? That is, how will you go about answering the research questions you want to investigate?

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Are you someone who is presently working on PhD Thesis or Master-level Dissertation? Do you find yourself stuck when writing up 'Methodology' chapter? Does it bother you to such an extent that you feel clueless about the future course of action? If you answered 'yes' to all the previously asked questions, you must read on as this article would attempt to clear your doubts related to 'Methodology' chapter by using Saunders research onion as the base.

As a PhD or Postgraduate researcher, you may already have settled on a suitable research topic by now. Additionally, you might have critically examined or reviewed literature relevant to the chosen topic and penned down clear & concise research questions with a view to addressing the research gap and making a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field of study. So far, you have not had any issues with regard to your research paper whatsoever. However, you start feeling ill at ease as you move on to draft one of the crucial chapters of your PhD thesis or dissertation, i.e. Methodology. This particular chapter apparently underpins your entire piece of research and adds a great deal of credibility to it. Hence, it must be drafted carefully after weighing all the possible methodological decisions.

In academia, the research onion model is quite a famous one and is often resorted to by researchers across the world for drafting the much-feared methodology chapter. This model was developed by Saunders et al in 2007 and the different layers of the model represent the various stages through which a researcher must pass when putting together an effective methodology. At each stage, the researcher must weigh all the given possibilities and make the most logical methodological decision which, in turn, will give rise to a credible piece of research.

Research Onion Diagram (based on Saunders et al's diagram 2009)

As you can see in the picture above, there are 6 layers to the research onion. Now, you must be wondering as to what is the analogy of an onion to research methodology. Well, it simply has to do with the structured process of peeling, i.e. you have to peel away each layer of the onion starting from the outer one in order to make your way to the core eventually. Similarly, you have to start from the topmost layer of the research onion, i.e. research philosophy, and move through the middle layers comprising of research approaches, research strategies, research choices and time horizons before finally getting to the core, i.e. research techniques and procedures. The important thing to note here is that each layer has something important to offer to make your PhD thesis or dissertation look credible and hence, none of the layers should be overlooked or ignored at all. Let us now find out what each of the layers means in detail in the space provided below:

Research Philosophy - Saunders Research Onion

The first and topmost layer of the research onion has to do with a set of beliefs related to the nature of reality being investigated, and is often studied in the context of ontology and epistemology. You should explore it carefully as selection of a philosophical stance would influence data collection and data analysis going forward. Let us briefly understand what epistemology and ontology mean and consist of.

Epistemology - This branch of philosophy is concerned with the question of what is (or should be) regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline and how we can obtain it. It basically answers the questions beginning with 'how' and 'what'. Perception, sensation, intuition, reason and even faith are considered as means to knowledge as per Epistemology.

In order to understand it better, let us look at positivism, critical realism and interpretivism (the three philosophical stances that are often linked to Epistemology).

Positivism - This position is based on the idea that scientific knowledge is the true or acceptable knowledge of the world and is characterized by the testing of the hypotheses (or research questions) derived from the existing theory of knowledge. The body of research generated by this philosophical stance is something that can be replicated by other researchers with same or very similar quantifiable results arising from statistical analysis.

Realism - The philosophy of realism questions reliability of the scientific knowledge and maintains that all theories can be revised and more reliable results can be obtained through continual research and application of new methods of research. Hence, new research methods contribute to the acceptable knowledge in this case.

Interpretivism - Unlike positivism and realism, an interpretive philosophy emphasizes the use of qualitative analysis over quantitative or statistical analysis to obtain the results. The interpretivist researcher is often seen playing an important role in making sense of and interpreting the collected data. Therefore, it would not be wrong to say that interpretivism incorporates human interest into a research study and recognises differences between people.

Objectivism - This philosophy is derived from the idea that human knowledge and values are objective and are determined by the nature of reality. They are not created by the thoughts which one (i.e. social actor) has. For instance, if it is raining, it is for real and would, therefore, be acknowledged by every living creature. Such reality is not dependent on the thoughts of any specific social actor. Rather, it influences them. In your research, you may, for example, talk about how a specific law (a real phenomenon) passed by the government is impacting a group of people (social actors).

Constructivism - This philosophical stance focuses on how bodies of knowledge come to be and how ideas are constructed by human interactions and decisions. Contrary to what we saw in case of objectivism, constructivism maintains that reality is dependent on or is constructed by social actors. For example, a new law (reality) passed by the government may be the outcome of the behavior of a group of people (social actors) which the law has now impact on.

Pragmatism - This philosophical standpoint centers on the linking of theory and practice. It asserts that both objectivism and constructivism are practical and valid ways to approach any research, and they both could be comfortably used to find solutions to problems.

Ontology - This branch of metaphysics (philosophy related to the overall nature of what things are) is concerned with the study of reality or things that exhibit reality. It answers the question 'what is'. Physical objects, minds, events, properties, values and abstract entities such as numbers and sets could all be said to be representing the ontology (or inventory) of the world.

Deductive - This research approach tends to flow from generic to specific. Any researcher using deductive reasoning would start with theory and move on to research question or hypothesis which is tested through data collection afterwards. In the end, findings derived from the collected data would either confirm or reject the research question or hypothesis.

Inductive - This type of reasoning or approach is often used or helpful when there is little research available on a topic. Unlike deductive approach, a researcher has to move in the opposite direction from research question to observation and description to analysis before finally getting on to theory.

In order to get further insight into Ontology, let us take a look at objectivism, constructivism and pragmatism that constitute it:

Research Approach - Saunders Research Onion

Experiment - Scientific and rigid in structure, experimental designs are meant to test causal effects of phenomena on a group. The data collected using this method could be statistically analysed.

Survey - A survey design often results from a deductive approach and is capable of collecting large volume of data that is apt for statistical analysis. The collected data helps answer the research question or hypothesis in a cost-effective manner.

Case study - This type of research design provides unique examples of real people or cases in real situations. The number of such case studies is often restricted for drawing clear conclusions from the data.

Action research - This is primarily designed to deal with a specific problem in a specific situation. The process of action research begins with setting up of a clear objective. Thereafter, the problem is fully diagnosed and subsequently, a list of solutions is prepared and presented as recommendations to solve the issue.

Grounded Theory - This strategy takes the approach of collecting data to build theory rather than to test or refine one. The researcher using grounded theory strategy often begins with a research question or qualitative data collection. Thereafter, the data collected through observation is reviewed by the researcher and the repeated ideas are then coded/grouped into categories that, in turn, create basis for a new theory.

Ethnography - This strategy studies people in natural surroundings in order to develop theory around behaviour and culture. This is rather a daunting and time-consuming research design wherein the researcher becomes part of the community being investigated with a view to producing details about long-term changes in opinions and actions.

Mono-method - This type of method takes place when the researcher goes about collecting either qualitative data or quantitative data based on the decisions made in the previous stages of research onion.

Mixed-methods - When a researcher collects both quantitative data and qualitative data with an intention to use those equally in the research study, data collection and analysis, we term it as mixed-methods research. It is rather a popular framework that attempts to complement quantitative data with qualitative data in order to overcome the limitations of each individual method.

Multi-method - This means that both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques are used. However, analysis of the collected data is done using one perspective only.

Cross-sectional - This option presents a snapshot view of a particular situation at a single point in time and confines the duration of data collection and research to short period of time.

Longitudinal - This type of research studies events and behaviors using concentrated samples over a long period of time.

Archival Research - This strategy derives information from existing data and archive documents. A study using this research strategy could face a roadblock going forward as the accuracy and the amount of available information could present issues. Hence, you are encouraged not to rely solely on this kind of secondary data for your PhD thesis or dissertation.

This happens to be the second layer of the research onion and demonstrates the approaches that a researcher could resort to when conducting research of any kind.

A research approach could be either deductive or inductive, and its selection would often depend on the previously-made choices, research aims, limitations and personal opinions.

Generally speaking, a deductive approach is often associated with quantitative research whereas an inductive approach is often linked to qualitative research.

Research Strategies - Saunders Research Onion

The third layer of the research onion is concerned with how a researcher plans to collect data for the PhD thesis or dissertation in question. Such data collection methods could include experiment, survey, case study, action research, grounded theory, ethnography and archival research. An academic researcher can choose more than one of the above-mentioned options to collect data as long as such decision is explained well in the PhD thesis or dissertation. Let us glance through some of the research strategies in section below:

Research Choices - Saunders Research Onion

The fourth layer of the research onion is concerned with qualitative and quantitative methodologies. You would need to make a decision as to whether you would choose the former or the latter or both for your PhD thesis or dissertation. If you are using both methods, you would further need to decide whether both methods would weigh equally or one would dominate the other in your research.

Quantitative research relates to numbers, measurements and quantity whereas Qualitative research is concerned with rich data including opinions, description and personal accounts.

You would need to follow a framework of methods and tools depending on the choice you make at this stage.

Basically, we have three methods to choose from when working with this specific layer of the research onion. These are listed below:

Time Horizons - Saunders Research Onion

Layer 5 of the research onion is to do with timeframe for the research. There are two options for a researcher to choose from, i.e. cross-sectional and longitudinal.

Techniques and Procedures - Saunders Research Onion

The final layer of the research onion looks at data collection and analysis. As a researcher, you need to pen down decisions related to sample groups, questionnaire content, interview questions, ethics and what not in this particular section. Please note that all the decisions incorporated into the 5 th layer should be in accordance with the discussions that took place in the previous layers of the research onion if you are to produce valid results.

Hopefully, the article has served its purpose of clarifying your doubts related to research onion and methodology chapter well. Please feel free to share the article with your connections who might benefit from it.

Last but not the least, if you are still struggling with your methodology chapter or any other aspect of your PhD thesis or dissertation, please feel free to write to us at info@ukdissertationwriters.com or fill out our Contact Us form and our team of native English-speaking UK-University Professors and Sr. Lecturers would be more than happy to assist you further.

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Saunders Research Onion - A Step-By-Step Guide To Structuring Research Methodology Chapter For PhD And Master-Level Researchers

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Are you someone who is presently working on PhD Thesis or Master-level Dissertation? Do you find yourself stuck when writing up 'Methodology' chapter? Does it bother you to such an extent that you feel clueless about the future course of action?