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Piaget

Sensorimotor 0-2 years old

Preoperational 2-5 or 6 years old language development no sense of conservation egocentricism

Concrete Operational 6-11 years old thinking logically understand conservation and theory of mind

Formal Operational 12 and up more math overall and getting better

Erikson

Trust vs. Mistrust 0-1 years old

Leads you to believe that life is good and you can trust others

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toddler 2-3

Initiative vs. Guilt Preschool 3-5

Industry vs. Inferiority Elementary 5-9

Identity vs. Role Confusion teens-20s

Intimacy vs. Isolation 20s and 30s

Generativity vs. Stagnation 40s and 50s

Integrity vs. Despair 60 +

Kohlberg

Moral Development

Preconventional

Morals based on self interest and avoiding punishments and getting rewards

Conventional

Morals based on social rules (not written)

Post Conventional

Morals based on your own moral compass and can be abstract, not decided by society just you

Attachment:

Ainsworth-Attachment

Strange Situation:

If secure, the baby will get sad because they want to be w the parent

If not, they will not care as much and do as much when the parent leave

Baumrind-Parenting

Authoritative- High control high love

Authoritarian- High Control low love

Permissive- Low Control high love

Uninvolved- Low control low love

Lorenz-Ducks imprinting

How ducks follow any moving object they see first and think they are the parent

Harlow-Monkeys

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Different types of studying:
Experiments: Get causation
Survey: Cheap, easy to get, but can be lied on
Case Study: Analyze certain people on how they relate to everyone
Naturalistic Study: Looking at organisms in their natural habits
Sample sizes
Representative samples
Random sampling
Eliminate bias
Good Experimenter and subject bias eliminated by double blind procedure
Central Measures of Tendencies:
Mean: Average takes outlier into account
Mode: Most
Median: Middle
Normal bell curve:
Middle is mean
1 standard deviation 68%
2 standard deviations away 95%
3 standard deviations away 99%
Statistical Significance: P value of less than .05 which means that less than 5% of your data is due to chance
Wilhelm Wundt: First guy that had psychology lab ever started psych
William James: Brought psych to America and made APA
Perspectives:
Cognitive
Benjamin Whorf: Linguist relativity Language frames your thoughts
Universal Grammar: Everyone has the ability to learn grammar since birth
Explains critical period as well
Behavioral
Humanistic
Biological
Psychodynamic
Evolutionary
Social Cultural
Brain and Biology:
Nervous System:
Central and Peripheral
Peripheral goes to autonomic and somatic
Autonomic goes to parasympathetic and sympathetic
fMRI and PET show both structure and function
MRI and CT X Ray scan show structure
EEG shows function
Alpha waves for awake
Delta for asleep
NREM Stages:
NREM1-NREM2-NREM3-REM repeat
3-4 times for average night

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Units of Language:

Phonemes:

Smallest unit of language

Letters and their sounds change Phoneme, change meaning

Morphemes

Smallest units that have meaning  (like prefix or suffix)

Grammar:

Rules to help communicate

Semantics

Helps getting meaning from words

Syntax

Rules for combining words

Word order, commas, periods

Languages Stages

Babbling stage

3-4 months

Spontaneous utterances

Goo,goo, ahh

One Word Stage

1-2 years old

Use one word to convey meaning

Two Word Stage/Telegraphic Speech

2.5 years old

Use two word sentences

Noun and Verb

Carol Gilligan

Focused more on girls than boys in moral development

Girls were different in conventional and post conventional stages

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross

Studied stages of grief after death

Wrote a book about death

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Attachment as a baby affects how people are later on in life

Seen in Henry Harlow's experiments w those that didn't have mothers were unable to be good in relationships later on

People are not born w morals, but they develop over time as we base this thought on whats around us to learn what right and wrong is

People are born with the beginnings of morals that need to be nurtured into actual morality and sense of right and wrong, but it can also be lost at times at well

Lawrence Kohlberg

3 Levels

Preconventional

Morality of self interest

Gain concrete rewards or avoid punishment

Focused on the laws or government or authority

Conventional Level

Morality of law and social rules

Gain approval or avoid disapproval

Focused on others

Post Conventional Level

Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed upon rights and personal ethical principles

Rules are relative for everyone

Focus goes from self to people or society as a whole

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Trust vs. Mistrust

If all goes well, you will be faithful in predictability of environment and if not we will be fearful and frustrated and things go well if needs are met

Integrity vs. Despair

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Initiative vs. Guilt

Competency vs. Inferiority

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Generativity vs. Stagnation

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53-5: What has research taught us about sexual orientation?

How we show sexual interest is sexual orientation, either homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual and hetero prevails while homo endures

The most accurate number we have of people that are gay is about 3% of men and 1-2% in women, but many report same sex contact in life and even more have homosexual fantasies

To try to understand how homosexual people feel, imagine if it was the other way around

Orientation cannot be willfully changed or chosen but if tried could harm and can cause harm just being homosexual as they can be teased and hurt emotionally which leads to depression but homosexuality itself doesn't cause this

Its like dominant hand, in which we can't really change it and it stays the same

But this is more for men as they are usually less bisexual than women are and can apply to those that feel they are homosexual or can't decide

Environment and Sexual Orientation

The environment around a kid doesn't really have much to do with them as parents don't change is much, neither do sexual hormones

If there any environmental factors, we don't know what they are

Biology and Sexual Orientation

Same-Sex Attraction in Other Species

Homosexuality is present in many other species as well showing how some degree of it is natual

Gay-Straight Brain Differences

Simon LeVay did a study where he looked at dead homosexual and heterosexual people and saw that the hypothalamus in heterosexual men were bigger than that of women and homosexual men

This isn't really surprising as everything psychological, is biological but where did the difference come from?

LeVay thought it could be made by homosexual start or the change could make homosexuality and saw to be caused early, either birth or before

In a study, there was seen a difference in reaction between gay and straight men after smelling men's sweat which was more like women than men and same way for lesbians

Genetic Influences

Brings the question of how gay genes are passed down if they can't reproduce, but then the genes could be in other family members and be spread that way

Another theory says that it is because some women are more attracted to men which then get to their sons to make them gay

Twin studies show that genes influence orientation as identical twins are more likely to be gay but differs in many so it must be something else

In fruit flies, people could change their orientation, so that could happen w humans and is being analyzed

Prenatal Influences

Prenatal environment matters as seen w more twins studies

During a critical period for brain development, exposure to certain hormones can lead to a big change in orientation as seen w pregnant sheep getting testosterone injections w lesbian offspring

Another theory says that the mom's immune system limits stuff that limits normal male development to then get gay kids

Gay-Straight Differences

Gay men tend to be shorter and lighter than normal and gay women usually bigger and also more likely to be left handed

Spatial abilities also differ as the straight males win out but gay people right in between women and men but gays and straight women remember objects locations better

All in all we have concluded that orientation is definitely biological but the exact cause is still unknown

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53-4: What factors influence teenagers' sexual behaviors and use of contraceptives?

Teen Pregnancy

Being able to have sex, it is added to teen's identity, but it is mostly from culture as before 1900 barely any girls had pre marital sex but b4 2000 it was half of US high schoolers

Asian and Arab countries and those descendant from these usually don't though, which shows how family and cultural values matter

Environmental factors that cause teen pregnancies are:

Minimal Communication about Birth Control

Teens that don't really talk much about it usually don't use it while those that do talk openly are much more likely

Guilt related to sexual activity

Passion in the moment could reduce the thought of using a condom to protect against pregnancy

Alcohol Use

Those that drink alcohol could have impaired judgement and not use a condom which could be bad

Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

The more teens see of sex in tv the more likely they are to think having sex is ok and to actually do it

Even with abstinence programs to get kids to not have sex, the percentages are still the same and there isn't much difference at all

Some studies showed that

Higher intelligence kids would usually wait to have sex compared to other

Religiously active kids usually leave it for marriage

Teen w less presence of fathers or fam were more likely to have sex and also w how much fam knew

Service learning also helps w not having sex but researchers don't know why

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53-3: How can sexually transmitted infections be prevented?

Sexually Transmitted Infections

Rates of STIs are actually going up especially in younger girls as they do not have antibodies to fight them off

If someone uses birth control that is 98% effective in preventing pregnancy or infection, 2% chance of failure, the risk after 30 times is around 50 % plus when people really like someone they underestimate risks

Condoms offer limited protection from certain skin to skin STIs but also reduce other risks as seen w Thai study that showed they cut bacterial STIs from 410k to 27k

Also helps for 80%effective against HIV transmission but it can spread through other means, but sex is most common and usually easier from men to women due to more HIV in sperm and can linger in woman for a long time

Many do die though of AIDs due to how it has a log incubation period and in some places there aren't enough resources to fight against its spread

Oral sex could also cause this w HPV but there are ways to stop it, like vaccination

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53-2: What are some ways that sexual development varies?

Variations on Sexual Development

Sometimes, nature blurs lines between male and females seen w intersex people who are born w combinations of male and female features

Usually if this happens, they are made girls and sometimes works out but other times they still identify as guys or are unclear

One boy had his penis lost during bad circumcision so fam raised him as a girl but he didn't like it and was a man and even got married and was step father but then committed suicide

This shows that both nature and nurture work together to make our identities

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53-1: How is our biological sex determined, how do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent development?

Men and women can be different due to their different sex chromosomes, genetically, or differing concentrations of sex hormones, physiologically

Prenatal Sexual Development

Up to seven weeks, we have no gender but then dad's X or Y Chromosomes leads you to be a boy or a girl

The Y chromosome is a single gene which starts making testosterone at 7 weeks to b like a boy but girls have it too, just less

At 4-5 months, the hormones get to the brain and wire differently depending on hormones around it from testosterone or female hormones

Adolescent Sexual Development

Maturing sexually= puberty and starts at 11 for girls and 13 for guys and it lasts 2 years ish but before that physical attraction starts

Boys get a lot taller, and during growth primary sex characteristics like reproductive sex organs and genitalia develop drastically

Secondary sec characteristics do too as breasts and hips in girls, facial hair and deepened voices in boys and pubic and underarm hair

In some countries girls are developing breasts earlier due to more body fat, hormone mimicking chemicals and more stress over fam disruption

Puberty's landmarks are first nut for guys (spermarche) by 14 and first period (menarche) for girls within a year of 12.5

Menarche happens earlier if there is stress over fathers absence, sexual abuse or insecure attachments, but girls who are prepared feel it is good

Also many recall first one and men also recall first nut too which usually is a wet dream

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51-2: How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

Reasoning is often self focused to start, but then moves to others as they think of what others think about them and think more abstractly

Developing Reasoning Power

W formal operations, teens think more abstractly about their world and about what ideally possible and is real and may debate human nature, truth and justice, good and evil

Also might seek a deeper conception of God and existence and this reasoning could make them better in seeing inconsistencies and hypocrisies and could lead to more debates

Developing Morality

Two crucial tasks for childhood and adolescence is morality and character which control impulses and can be affected by the high road of deliberate thinking and low road of unconscious thinking

Moral Reasoning

Piaget thought that kids moral judgements helped develop and so did Lawrence Kohlberg who wanted to explain moral reasoning

With this he posed moral dilemmas and then analyzed answers of kids teens and adults and found 3 levels of moral thinking that made a moral ladder but critics said last was too limited culturally:

Preconventional:

Self interest; obey rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards (before age 9)

Conventional Morality:

Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order (early teens)

Post Conventional Morality

Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self defined ethical principles (teens and beyond)

Moral Intuition

Jonathan Haidt thinks that morality is from intuition, or quick gut feelins like disgust when seeing people doing bad things or elevation from seeing good being done

Seen w woman wanting to sing and jump and hug guy doing good in the world

Lab games show that want to punish is from moral outrage after seeing bad done and thus shows how moral reasoning tries to convince us of what we felt

Moral paradoxes help as w saving 5 people but you have to kill one

Now imagine same, but you had to push 1 killed in, many said no because they had to do it which changed moral judgement

Moral reasoning also does stuff tho as seen in religion and is compared to camera as it can b automatic but sometimes we can get around automatic impulse

Moral Action

Moral thinking is just talk, but action is what is done and Hannah Arendt saw that many Nazi guards were moral people just corrupted by bad situation

Character edu programs try to focus on all moral package and they try to bring out empathy and self disciplines to control one selves (delay gratification)

Also w so much good done, it brings out more good to happen later like in a cycle

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51-1: How is adolescence defined, and what physical changes mark this period?

We develop all the time w life-span perspective, seen w adolescence, where we go from child to adult starting w sexual maturity and ending w social independence as adult

G. Stanley Hall thought that adolescence had tension between biological maturity and social dependence which brings stress

This time is when people feel the vitality of life w/o adulting, rewarding friendships, heightened idealism, and growing sense of exciting possibilities

Physical Development

Adolescence starts w puberty as we mature sexually and comes after surge of hormones that may intensify moods and changes body

The sequence of development is always the same, but timing is sometimes different between people which can led to psychological consequences though there are no physical ones

For boys who mature early, they may be more popular, self assured and independent, but they could get into alcohol, delinquency, and sex

Girls w early maturation might struggle w being to early compared to peers and might hang w older teens and be teased or seuxally harassed

Brains change too, as what we don't use is lost, though before our brains kept growing and growing

The Frontal lobes keep developing w more myelin and helps w judgement, impulse control, and long term planning

The limbic system is developed a lot faster though as hormonal surges and development can lead to occasional impulsiveness, risky behaviors, and emotional storms

Risky behaviors are not from underestimating risks, but feeling immediate rewards and benefits

The brain will end up a lot better unless the teen drinks too much, but aside from that all will end well at around 25 years old

The APA and other orgs tried to not have death penalties for 16 or 17 year olds as they are still adolescents and don't think right and got it

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52-3: What is emerging adulthood?

In other times, adolescence was much shorter as new adults would have to work and have responsibilities after rite of passage after sexual maturity

W schools, independence moved back which led to people doing things at an older age which overlapped w earlier onset of puberty which was not always good

Later independence and earlier sexual maturity leads to a longer adolescence and a new time called emerging adulthood from 18-26 when people aren't quite settled down and have a ton of responsibilities but might still be connected to fam in some way or form

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52-2: How do parents and peers influence adolescents?

Parent and Peer Relationship

Adolescents over time tend to get away from their family gradually and begin to argue over things as well

Some parents and kids are way too different and have a lot of stress, but usually they work out and arguments are over small things

Positive relationships w parents usually means good for the kids as it is bad if it is not positive

Teens focus more on peers as when parents asked if they talked w teens about drugs 85% said yes, while 45% of teens recalled it

Heredity affect temperament and personality differences while peers do the rest as friends usually dress similar and act more like each other than parents

Peer approval really matters as those that aren't in a group are vulnerable to loneliness, self esteem, and depression which sucks since high school is a clique driven and exclusionary system

Teens think fam has more power over other things like religion, political views, and college and career choices

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52-1: What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?

Erik Erikson believed that each stage had a task to complete and that of adolescence was to find one's self

Erikson was a Jew w a Gentile dad so he really felt like an outsider and thus, made him think that this time was all about identity

Forming an Identity

Teens try out different selves in individualists cultures around different people which might bring problems like bringing friends home and the solution to this brings the various selves into a consistent and comfy identity

Social identity usually form around the distinctiveness of the group from everyone else

But this doesn't always happen as some make their identities early from fam or have it forced from fam but others may go against fam in their identity w another group

Most young people have a sense of contentment w their lives and they also are thought to want to find a purpose outside of themselves as said by William Damon

Late teen years w jobs and college give new opportunities but it might be better to have a clearer identity before as it could avoid self destructive behaviors

Self esteem falls in early to mid teen years and goes back up by late teens and 20s and by this time agreeableness and emotional stability go up as well

In adolescence we develop a capacity for intimacy which helps us make close relationship which are a source of great pleasure as we are usually happier w others than alone

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48-6: What are three parenting styles, and how do children's traits relate to them?

Parenting Styles

3 Styles of parenting:

Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience

Permissive parents submit to their children's desires and make few demands w little punishment

Authoritative parents are both as they exert control but also explain reasons for rules and allow open discussion and help in making rules later on

Research shows that kids that are w Authoritative parents are better off and doesn't really vary much from culture to culture also helps if they are in authoritative communities as well

Those w authoritarian parents have less social skill and self esteem and those w permissive are more aggressive and immature

This is all correlational, not causation as seen before but there are other reasons for the connection

Children's traits might bring out certain parenting and also could be that competent genes in both parents and kids make them have social competence

Those that get advice must see that the person giving advice is biased towards their own and that if they want obedience go too hard, but if they want kids to be sociable and self reliant than just right works

Culture and Child Raising

Child raising can differ based off cultural values which also differ in time and place as now its more independence based, but before in West it was obedience

Many Asians and Africans value emotional closeness and are more together as a unit like w shame from one gets everyone and fam glory gets everyone too

There are so many ways to raise a child and we might think ours is the best way, but children and people thrive in all of them

Having kids gives a lot of good, but also stress but its ok as its our connection to the future and the past w parents

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48-5: How do children's self-concepts develop?

Childhood's main achievement is positive sense of self or self concept where they understand and assess who they are

We can't ask so Charles Darwin thought that this sense of self would be shown w a mirror and was done as researchers put color on the nose and 6 month olds don't know its on them but 15-18 month olds do see it as themselves

By school age, kids can give detailed descriptions and by 8 or 10, they have the stable self image

Children w positive self concepts are more confident, independent, optimistic, and assertive

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48-4: How does day care affect children?

Day Care:

When stay at home moms were the norm psychologists asked how day care could affect children

Over time, Sandra Scarr got a lot of research together which showed that it did not and that maternal employment would not impact children's development in any major form

Then research focused on quality differences and showed that poorer day care would not help children as much as high quality well run day care

Children's ability to thrive under many different care givers shouldn't surprise based on the many different ways kids are brought up as in West its mom and dad but in others it could be by more people

With a study of kids from 1 month to 4.5-6 years, day care did give more thinking and language skills but also had more aggressiveness and defiance but only showed some risk as other things influenced it as well

There is support for kids to be around adults that they can learn to trust all day as studies have shown that this is beneficial for the kids overtime and was even implemented in Finland as law for all 1st and second graders

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48-3: Does childhood neglect, abuse, or family disruption affect children's attachments?

To see how no good parenting affected kids, psychologists looked at Romanian kids who had been put into orphanages and saw that they were more anxious and were not as intelligent, but this could be corrected if the kids were put into fam homes early

Most children who grow up under adversity are resilient as they get over the trauma and become normal and seen w victims of childhood sexual abuse as well

Those that don't get out tho are screwed as seen w Harlow monkeys w/o moms who were very scared or aggressive and could not mate

If impregnated, these female monkeys were terrible mothers, some even killing kids showing abuse makes abuse phenomenon which is seen in humans too as 9/16 girls who were abused by moms were abusive moms while none came from non abusive ones

The unloved, are the unloving as murders and child abusers were abused as kids

This abuse can change the brain as those that are abused might be startled easier, be sensitive to angry faces, and be aggressive to smaller or cowardly to same sized hamsters (if hamster)

This is due to serotonin levels changing that calm these impulses and if they are messed with, they can change the person

Kids who went through a lot of abuse, sexual abuse, or war atrocities are at a higher risk for different disorders, substance abuse, health problems, and criminality and can be increased by certain genes showing interactions of nature and nurture

Adults suffer when they have to detach as seen w separated couples which starts w sadness but then detachment happens and they get back to normal and feel better

But after time has passed, some are surprised how they want to be with their partner

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48-2: How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned about the effects of termperament and parenting?

Attachment Differences: Temperament and Parenting

To see attachment differences, Mary Ainsworth, looked in strange situations where she would have 1 year olds play w mom in lab

Would be all good if mom was around, but when not babies would become distressed and once back they wanted contact from mom which is secure attachment

Others avoid attachment or have insecure one as they have anxiety from it or avoidance of trusting relationships as some may b less likely to explore and if the mom leaves they might not care or get really distressed and cry a lot

Sensitive mothers (good) had babies w secure attachments while insensitive (bad) mothers had babies w insecure attachments

The monkey study showed this even more as when w/o moms deprived infants would be terrified

But is this based on parenting? or genetically influenced temperament (characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity)

Most parents say that babies are different from first breath and heredity does influence temperament so this could be a cause

Some infants are difficult where they are irritable, intense, and unpredictable while others are easy (cheerful, relaxed, and predictable in feeding and sleeping)

Slow to warm up kids are those that resist or withdraw from new people and situations and these temperament differences tend to persist

The genes affect w physiological differences as seen w higher heart rates and reactive nervous system in anxious inhibited infants and in new situations they become more aroused physiologically

One form of Serotonin gene predisposes fearful temperament and w bad caregiving, an inhibited child is made which shows how both genes and environment make enduring personality

But some said the study changed both nature and nurture, so there had to be another study keeping one constant

A dutch researcher got 100 temperamentally difficult 6-9 month year olds and got the experimental groups parents to get trained to be sensitive while other did not

Those that were trained had 68% secure attachment while in the control only 28% and thus supports how programs increase parental sensitivity and infant attachment security

Mothers are usually studied more and w/o mom called maternal deprivation while w/o dad is just father absence but men don't just give sperm they're involvement is also important as it can lead to more successful kids later on

Children's anxiety goes away after 13 months but we don't love any less, we actually have it grow and we stop attaching like before

We start to move away and relax but still stay close to loved ones

Attachment Styles and Later Relationships

Erik Erikson and Joan Erikson believed that w good parenting, kids would have basic trust- believing that life is reliable and predictable- instead of fear

How we are parented also affects our relationships later on as avoidant people see parenting as more stress and unsatisfying

Securely attached people have less fear or failure and more drive to achieve, but this fear could be useful to escape dangers

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48-1: How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?

From birth, babies want to be with caregivers, but once they begin to move, things get difficult as they develop stranger anxiety as they recognize faces and only want to be with parents

This supports the principle that the brain, mind, and social-emotional behavior develop together

Origins of Attachment

One year olds hate being separated from parents and love being with them and this attachment bond is seen as a good survival impulse

Psychologists thought it was just for whoever satisfied the needs of the baby, but it was proved wrong

Body Contact:

At U of Wisconsin, Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow bred babies to study learning w/o mothers, and saw that w/o blankets, the monkeys would be distressed

They then put two artificial mothers, one that had a cozy blanket and another that didn't have that but had food

As time went on, the Harlows saw that the Monkeys would rather be with the cozy mothers when stressed and when exploring stayed close to it

Human infants are attached to parents that are warm and soft and much comms goes w touch like soothing snuggles or arousing tickles

Also has the secure base with which to explore and stays in life as it moves from fam to partners and friends as were always social

Familiarity

Familiarity starts with the critical period, when things take place to develop best, and in goslings it happens within ours as chicks imprint on their mother and only follow her around

This rigid process is imprinting and will happen to almost anything even a human and once made, it is hard to reverse

Children don't imprint, but they do have a sensitive period to what they've known and they like familiarity as it breeds content

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Kids can laugh by 2 months
Kids can pedal a tricycle by age 2
Sit w/o support is about 5-6 months
Feel ashamed 2 years old
Walk unassisted 1 year
Stand on one foot for 10 seconds 4.5 years
Recognize and smile at mother or father 4-5 months
Kick a ball forward 20 months
Think about things that cannot be seen 12 months
Make two-word sentences 20-22 months

Developmental Studies:

Longitudinal Studies

Studying people over long periods of time and developmental

Advantages

Generates DETAILED information about subjects

Studies Developmental changes in depth

Disadvantages

Expensive

Potential for high attrition rate

Cross Sectional Study

Studying of different ages at the same time

Advantages:

Inexpensive

Doesn't take long

Avoids high (drop out) attrition rate

Disadvantages:

Different age groups are NOT necessarily alike

Different maturity at same ages

More confounding variables

Prenatal Development and the Newborn

Newborn reflexes

Rooting

Swallowing

Sucking

Babinski

Stroking bottom of foot and they curl their feet

Stepping

Being picked up and trying to feel the floor again

Mara Startle

When they can't support body so they seem limp

Grasping

How when given something in the hand, babies will grab them very tightly

As infants we prefer human voices and faces, but we see more shapes before 5 months

Assimilation

Adding to one's experience and add it to their schema but might be wrong

Accommadation

Adapting the schema to bring new information

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47-2: How does autism spectrum disorder affect development?

Austism Spectrum disorder is a disorder marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors and has been increasing as cognitively disabled kids have been decreasing showing a new label

A new organization has been made to try to see why it happens in people w 100,000 pregnant women and tracking their kids till their 21

The main cause is poor communication in the brain through genes that interact w the environment which leads to kids having an impaired theory of mind as they cannot interpret what others facial expressions mean

To find a cure many worried parents have tried anything

Has different levels of severity like High functioning that have some trouble socially and are distracted by minor stimuli while lower end cannot use language at all

4:1 boy to girl ratio and might show that it has to do with the brain being too masculine and can be connected to too much testosterone in the womb before birth

This might happen less to women as they are better at empathizing and seeing how individuals react to what happens to them

Biological factors like genetic influence and abnormal brain development can get ASD but not MMR vaccinations which were a thought before and led to many suffering from measles and mumps and some even dying of it

Twin studies show that if one has it, the chances the other one does are higher and also withing normal families as well and could be based on how older men have more genetic mutations in sperm so if they have kids, they could have ASD

Seen in brain function as well, as those w ASD don't really mirror what they see as well as normal people

Some like Baron-Cohen have tried to help these kids with shows to try to get them to understand empathy which has worked w objects like trains, trams, and tractors having faces and having experiences

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47-1: From the perspectives of Piaget, Vygotsky, and today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop?

From start to now, we have become conscious and developed from there which Jean Piaget has studied int he cognitive development of children

Started by administering intelligence tests for kids and saw similar wrong answers among them thinking something could be there

Piaget saw that children reason differently than adults as they do it in illogical ways that adults might think is very very wrong

He believed that mind developed through stages that started w newborn reflexes to abstract reasoning explaining why 8 year olds could comprehend what a toddler could not

His main idea was that we progressed to be able to make sense of what we experienced in building  schemas for everything around us

Piaget said we first assimilated new experiences into current schemas like calling any 4 legged animal a dog and would accommodate our schemas to fit what we see  as we finally realize dogs dont just have 4 legs

Piaget's Theory and Current Thinking

He thought that kids made understanding by interacting and getting more info to then move up in stages starting w sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational

Sensorimotor Stage

From birth to two years of age where we take info in from our senses and actions (looking, touching, hearing, mouthing, and grasping)

Young babies live in the present as they don't have object permanence as when they don't see it, they think its not there

This goes up to 6 months and by 8 months or a year, they will begin to look for what they saw before

Today's researchers think its more continuous as object permanence unfolds gradually as even some young infants will look for a toy momentarily

Baby Physics: Infants look longer at things that are unexpected like a car going through a solid object, a ball stopping in mid air, or an object violating object permanence by disappearing

Baby Math: Babies can also count as seen w babies who would be surprised if 2 toys were hidden and then revealed to b 3 toys and is based on numbers and not mass

Thus, we are smarter than piaget thought as babies

Preoperational Stage

Until 6 or 7 years old we are in preoperational stage where we cannot perform mental operations like imagining an action and reversing it

This was seen w children who thought that by moving milk into a taller glass, there would be more, when actually it was the same, which is the concept of conservation

Piaget did not think changes were abrupt but symbolic thinking comes up earlier than he thought at around 3 years old

2.5 year olds can't do this, where they find something hidden when shown were it is on a map of the room but 3 year olds can

Egocentrism

Piaget said that preschoolers were egocentric, they couldn't really perceive things from other points of view as seen when a kid told to show her mother a picture, she just looked at it herself or how kids cover their eyes to not be seen

TV watching preschoolers blocking the TV won't think they're blocking as they can only think of their own perspective

Similar to curse of knowledge in teens and adults when we think if something is clear to us, it is to others, but usually is not

Theory of Mind

Preschoolers develop the ability to infer others' mental states when the form theory of mind

Even as infants we can assume others beliefs but this develops over time as we begin to understand why others get mad

In experiment, kids shown box of band aids w pencils in it and many thought band aids were in it but by 4 or 5, kids could anticipate the false belief that band aids were in there

In another experiment, kids were shown a doll named Sally putting her ball in a red cupboard but then another doll moving it and researchers would ask where sally would look for the ball first

Kids with Austism spectrum disorder would not be able to realize that sally would look in the red one as they cannot separate their own state of mind

Deaf kids w minimal comms opportunities and hearing parents face the same struggle w inferring others states of mind

Concrete Operational Stage

By 6 or 7 kids are in the Concrete operational stage where they can understand conservation with mental operations that they could not before and enjoy jokes focused on this

In this stage kids are also better at math transformations and conservations as authors kid would take a long time for 8+4 =12 and 12-4=8 but by 8 years old it was quik maths

Formal Operational Stage

By age 12, kids go into more abstract thinking and they begin to think like scientists, if this then seeing what consequences would be involved which is formal operational thinking

An Alternative Viewpoint: Lev Vygotsky's Scaffolding

Lev Vygotsky was making his theory as Piaget was and thought that by age 7 they used more words to solve problems as it would help and would be from parents as well

Vygotsky thought that children were changed by their social environment and that mentoring children would be like a scaffold which would help them move up and get better as time went on and that what parents and mentors did was very important

Effective mentoring was when children were ready for a new skill and had a zone of proximal development where they needed help to do something

Reflecting on Piaget's Theory

Piaget was based more on how the mind gets to certain milestones rather than sequence and was proven around the globe

But today, things are seen more continuously and there is more formal logic than Piaget would've thought as we've adapted his ideas over time

Implications for Parenting and Teaching

Children don't think like adults do

Children need to learn off what they already know

Children's cognitive immaturity is adaptive and can change over time to become mature

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46-2: How does an infant's developing brain begin processing memories?

We start out w infantile amnesia until about 3.5 years old and after that we get better and better at remembering things into our teenage years as hippocampus and frontal lobes keep developing

We don't recall from much from when we were infants, but we were processing and storing information in those years as seen by Carolyn Rovee-Collier

She saw with her son that he could associate kicking w the moving of his mobile and saw it in other kids as well and they would only do it with theirs and not one they didn't recognize

Forgotten childhood languages can be stored in our minds as adults that spoke Hindu or Zulu as children relearned a lot better than others who had not

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46-1: During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

Infancy is new born to toddler and childhood is toddler to teenager that we've all experienced w all physical, cognitive, and social milestones

Maturation is the orderly sequence of biological growth and is set by nature but experience can adjust it w what happens

Brain Development:

In the womb, the brain develops very quickly and production peaks at 28 weeks to get to 23 billion neurons by birth

We develop from birth on as we do have most cells we'll ever have, but systems are immature which get to maturation w growth spurts in brain

From 3 to 6 years old, frontal lobes grow the most and makes rational planning, attention, and behavior by preschoolers better

Association areas are the last to develop and w it comes mental abilities getting better which goes into puberty and a use it or lose it pruning process shuts down any unused link and strengthens used ones

Motor Development

Infant's muscles mature to get new skills as they first roll over and sit, then crawl, and then run which is all based on maturing nervous system not imitation

There are some variations though on timing s it may take some infants more time to walk or crawl than others and also can be affected by other things

Such as the recommended back to sleep position for babies could reduce risk of smothering crib death but also ut off crawling stage

Genes guide motor development as identical twins walk on nearly the same day and maturation helps the cerebellum get ready to walk by age 1

It is the same for bladder and bowel control as they're nervous system is not ready yet and experience doesn't do much during this time

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36-5: What is the relationship between language and thinking, and what is the value of thinking in images?

Which comes first? Thinking or language?

Language Influences on Thinking

Benjamin Lee Whorf thought that language determines thinking, like Hopi who didn't have past tense so they couldn't easily think about the past

This is linguistic determinism and is way too extreme as we sometimes think of things that can't be put into words

When you speak a language, it has been seen that you think differently of yourself as w English and Japanese that are very different and focus on different kinds of emotions

Bilingual individuals seem to change their personalities depending on which language they are speaking at the time

Words don't determine, but they influence as seen w Piraha people of Brazil that don't have numbers past 2 so identifying numbers is v difficult for them

Words influence our thinking in memory as some languages have more varying words for colors which could help someone remember the difference between two shades better

`Perceived differences grow when we identify colors and group them together by what they sort of look like

Words do have a subtle influence in what they tell as there can be big differences between one thing written and another that means the same thing

To expand language also expands ability to think as seen with child development over time and getting more and more new thoughts

This also applies to bilingual people based on how the mind must think in two languages and thus helps focus more than those that only know one

Seen in a Canadian Program where english speaking kids were taught just in French which helped learn French and did not affect English speaking ability at all and increased test scores in general as well

Language links us to one another and also links us to the past and future

Thinking in Images

Sometimes, what we think is not in words, but in images

By imagining things done, one can sort of practice them and even get better

For someone who has learned a skill watching it activates areas of the brain as if it is being done and thus imagining it is like practicing

One experiment on the University of Tennessee womens basketball team w free throw shooting showed it would help a lot to improve over time

Mental rehearsal also helps if you think of how you want to achieve your goals rather than focus on the destination

The relationship goes both ways then as thinking affects language and language affects thought as well

The mind is capable of good and bad but we do have many faculties as seen with our great power in language

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36-4: What brain areas are involved in language processing and speech?

Though we can learn language very easily, it can be lost easily as well w aphasia, even if it does not affect every part of one's linguistic ability as reading or writing

Seen w Broca's area where if damaged, speech would be impaired and Wernicke's area that if damaged would lead to meaningless words and bad understanding

This has been confirmed by neuroscience but also seen w language being all around the brain w MRI showing how we interpret different things like jokes, vowels or stories

A good thing to remember is that we divide mental functions such as how we read and understand what is seen and thus, is why if we have a stroke, only some might be affected

What we experience is a just the visible tip of the info processing iceberg

We get a C on decision making and risk assessment

B on inventive ways to solve problems that are prone to fixation

An A on cognitive efficiency through heuristics

A+ on how we are creative, learn and use language

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36-3: How do we acquire language?

Languages share universal grammar like verbs, nouns, and adjectives and we humans are built to learn grammar that we don't even need training for it

We are not set for a specific language though and we readily learn the language around us starting w nouns usually

Statistical Learning

Though adults cannot recognize syllables from other languages, infants can do it very well since they are just beginning to learn language

Further seen w how they can distinguish syllable patterns and pay attention to ones they don't know

Critical Periods

Adults cannot do this as well as they learn the language away from the critical period of childhood where we are meant to learn language so therefore, the earlier we learn a language, the better

The window of language starts to close at a bout 2 or 3 but fully closes at age 7 where if there is no language present, the kid might not be able to learn any language

Also seen in deaf children that don't learn language early enough as they are never as fluent as those who have

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36-2: What are the milestones in language development?

Receptive Language

Children's language moves from simple to complex as it starts w not being able to talk to recognizing differences in speech sounds and reading lips at around 4 months

By 7 months babies are able to segment spoken sounds into words and based on how good they are at this, it can predict their language abilities at ages 2 and 5

Productive Language

Babies' productive language, or producing words, comes next as they are able to recognize noun verb differences as they respond to misplaced ones

Before nurture takes its course, babies begin to making different sounds in the babbling stage at around 4 months which leads them to just make different sounds

They do not imitate human speech or the language they hear and deaf babies w deaf parents do this w their hands

By 10 months, the babbling has meaning as a trained ear can understand what the baby wants and w/o other languages, the baby only goes w the native tongue

Thus, once theyre older they cannot distinguish sounds in japanese as Japanese can't from english w r and l

Around the first birthday, children get to the one word stage as they realize sounds carry meaning and if trained will associate what they see w what to say

Over time they begin to use sounds to communicate which fam can understand and over time turns into nouns that stand for a sentence

By 18 months, they learn more and get two the 2 word stage by their 2nd bday and get telegraphic speech where there is mostly nouns and verbs

These also follow syntax of language as in spanish homes it goes noun adjective while in english it goes adjective noun

After that they begin to say longer and longer phrases and even if behind they can catch up as they learn quicker

By early elementary school, kids understand complex sentences and begin to enjoy in humor conveyed by double meanings

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Language is the movement of information from one person to another based on us understanding what is seen or heard
36-1: What are the structural components of language?

Language Structure

Spoken language can be split into:

Phonemes: The smallest distinctive sounds in a language such as chat that has ch, a, and t and there are 869 total different ones in all languages, English only uses 40 while others have half or more than double that

Morphemes: Smallest units that carry meaning in a given language some in English are both Phonemes and Morphemes like I or s but words can have more phonemes such as bat or gentle or words like preview or adapted

Grammar: System of rules that enables us to communicate w one another which help us get meaning from sounds and order of words

Language becomes more and more complex, but it is from simple things but the complexity we see is what distinguishes us from other animals in language capacity

Language Development

From age 1 to high school graduation we learn 60,000 words, but how?

We can't state our language's syntax rules, but we are able to make correct sentences as a preschooler while college students learning a new language cannot

We are extremely good at making sentences and remembering words as we make these sentences up on the fly while thinking of other things which is amazing taking into consideration all that can be put as wrong

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Chomsky: Child is born with the ability to learn language
Skinner: Child is a blank slate with knowledge gained through experience (Oxana)

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45-3: What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?

Babies come with behaviors and automatic reflexes to help survival

New parents often surprised by the rooting reflex as when a baby feels a touch on cheek, moves towards it, and then roots for a nipple to then feed from it by tonguing, swallowing, and breathing

Not finding this nourishment, babies might cry, which will get parents to get nourishment quickly

Babies were thought to not know whats going on, but was studied through eye tracking devices and special pacifiers

Researchers followed this w habituation and how the babies would get used to a stimulus after a while

They used visual preference to see and when shown cats or dogs and then shown a hybrid, the baby would look at the face and would stare longer if different

Newborns also like sights and sounds that help social responsiveness as they like images of faces more and human voices as well

We are imprinted by smells at birth, especially that of our mothers as babies tend to follow it, even if it is artificially put there

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45-2: What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect development?

Conception

Reproduction starts with the womans egg and mans sperm that will then fuse together later on

This fusing together is one of the luckiest things to happen as there are many sperm that try to fuse w the egg during fertilization

Prenatal Development

A very small amount of zygotes actually get through the first week but once they do they begin to replicate up to 100 cells and then differentiate into different parts

10 days after conception the zygote attaches to the mother's uterine wall and then the inside is the embryo and the outside is the placenta

After 6 weeks, organs begin to work and heart beats

1/270 parents are lucky enough to have twins

9 weeks, the embryo looks like a human (fetus) and by 6 months the organs work well enough for a good chance of survival if premature

Genetic and environmental factors affect development as seen w the mother's voice which exposes fetus likes most when born and also makes cries like the mother's native tongue as well

2 Months before birth, fetuses learn ways to adapt to things around them like people living near RR

Though the placenta keeps some toxins out, teratogens, viruses or drugs, can get to the fetus like alcohol which can cause the child to like alcohol later in life

Drinking in any form can damage the baby and can lead to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, where they have lifelong brain or physical abnormalities as Alcohol can turn DNA on and off in womb

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45-1: What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

Developmental psych focuses on physical, cognitive, and social development throughout life looking at:

How nature and nurture interact?

What parts of development are gradual and continuous? What parts are abrupt?

What traits stay throughout life? What traits change as we age?

Nature vs. Nurture

Genes predispose shared humanity and differences of individual

Our experiences also have a part and we are formed by the interaction of both

We all share same life cycle though we can be different in how we are raised which affects our future

Ethnicity and group-group differences are not as bit as individual differences

Continuity and Stages

Some say that we grow gradually to adults, but others say we grow abruptly following certain stages or steps, but either way we all go through the same way

Jean Piaget explains cognitive development, Lawrence Kohlberg explains moral development, and Erik Erikson describes psychosocial development

But some research goes against these clearly labeled stages

The concept of a stage helps as brain growth does happen around Piaget's stages and they can also explain differences in how we think at different ages

Stability and Change

Do we stay the same, or change too much to be recognized over our life times?

Research shows how our personalities and how we act, stay rather the same over the course of our lives

Being a happy person will stay with you for all your life and the struggles of the present may lay the foundation for a happier future

Some traits change a lot however, like social attitudes which can change in teenage years

We all do change as shy toddlers usually open up, irresponsible 16 year olds turn into 40 year old business or cultural leaders, but though it might seem like people get more relaxed they still are the same compared to others around them

We need both stability and change to ensure that we have identity and know who we are, but also to be able to encounter any of lifes changes