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Representation of certain groups of people in news discourse

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Representation of certain groups of people in news discourse

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Women are often identified by their relationships with others (e.g. "wives", "mothers") rather than identified by Proper Nouns (their names) - Althusser's INTERPELLATION (& Sara Mills).
[Twitter caption of the article as posted by Gizmo] "Steve Jobs' widow just took over" - instead of "Laurene Powell Jobs just took over"

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(+) Google adds voice search in 8 Indian languages - hints at greater recognition for such varieties on an international level (MNC catering to speakers of those varieties) - varieties include Punjabi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, etc.

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[NYC Department Store study by Labov]  | Checked for the production of post-vocalic /r/ among three different socioeconomic groups (working-middle class, middle class, and upper-middle class) by asking them to repeat the location of an object situated on the fourth floor. Found that people of lower social status tended to correct themselves as rhoticity is commonly perceived to be of higher prestige.

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[Conceptualisation of the Mother Tongue by linguist Tan Ying Ying] A MT can be ‘owned’ by speakers upon the bases of “identification”, “inheritance”, “expertise” and “function”. Native speakers fulfil the majority of these functions, which can explain their strong sense of ownership over the language.

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[Substratum Theory by Italian linguist Ascoli] Language contact is the main driver for language change and variation - Polyglossic / multilingual linguistic landscapes such as those in Singapore and Malaysia result in regional variations being interspersed with elements from other languages which act as substrates to the lexiﬁer, English

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[Zipf's Law // Theory of Least Effort] It is natural for language to become simpliﬁed over time as users tend to opt for more economical usage of the language.

[Random Fluctuation Theory by Hockett] Language changes due to its instability, because of random errors and events within the language system, as a response to the ever-changing context of language use and its users.

["Verbal Hygiene" by Deborah Cameron] Describes “the urge to meddle in matters of language in speech and writing to arrest positive changes” ß Clear link between language and attitudes have led to people “cleaning up” their use of language to align more closely to their perceptions of beauty, truth and logic.

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Reproduction of domination and social inequality in society

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Reproduction of domination and social inequality in society

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["News, Discourse and Ideology" by van Dijk] + [Hegemony by Gramsci] + [Mind Control by van Dijk]
Through a 'reliable' source of information (news media), ideologies are propagated and reinforced - recipients tend to accept beliefs, knowledge
Institutions are able to implicitly convey their ideology by manufacturing consent and will not be questioned as they in positions of power

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Concern for coherence and precision + respect for ritual and historical tradition

* Often condemned for its impenetrability
BUT it has to be in order to maintain its sanctity and weightiness?

Has various sub-categories (reflecting its different roles):

Language of works of legal reference

Language of case law

Spoken language of the courtroom

Language of the legislature

Language of the judiciary

Statements must be phrased that we can see the general applicability, yet be specific enough to apply to individual circumstances.
Must be able to stand the test of time so that all cases will be treated fairly and consistently, yet flexible enough to adapt to new social situations.
Must be expressed in a way that people can be certain about the intention of the law respecting their rights and duties.

Complex grammatical structure (lengthy sentences to integrate several issues in a single statement)

Repetitive to make clear whether a new point applies to everything which has been previously said or just to a part of it.

Coordinated phrases and long lists of items to reduce uncertainty about whether the law applies in a particular case.

Modal verbs to distinguish between obligation and discretion.

Pronouns and generic nouns (hypernyms) foster the law's generic applicability.

Certainty can be promoted by explicitly listing specific items (hyponyms).

PLAIN ENGLISH MOVEMENT
Attention has been drawn to the "unnecessary complexity of the official language used by the government departments, businesses, and other organisations which are in linguistic contact with the public.
Enormous savings in time and money if language is simplified
BUT the everyday language is prone to ambiguity and could lead to problems of interpretation.

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Various branches of science have evolved codes of practice to promote naming consistence - International Code of Botanical Nomenclature stresses the importance of having only one official name for each type of plant or taxonomic group
The name of a species is a binary combination of the generic name plus a distinguishing epithet (e.g. fatsia japonica)

Passivisation (norm) to remove agency of scientists in the research (stresses reproducability of results)

Complex - noun phrases with complex structures + nominalisation (to report phenomena rather than talk about ongoing action)

Logic governing the order of topics is not supported by linguistic sequencing features (apart from the anaphoric use of the)

Common transitive verbs:

of exposition: ascertain, assume, compare

of warning and advising: avoid, check, prevent

of manipulation: adjust, assemble, boil

Adjectival modifiers (and their related adverbs): careful(ly), continuous(ly)

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'play-by-play' commentary vs. 'colour-adding' commentary that provides an audience with pre-event background, post-event evaluation, and within-event interpretation (conversational style and often in dialogue form).

Highly formulaic style of presentation - reduces memory load on the commentator (since commentary cannot stop)

Simple present tenst in action verbs

Ellipsis of sentence elements

Grammatical features of commentary style.

Loud and fast prosody marked by rapid shifts in pitch.

Extremely fluent, keeping up with the pace of the activities (steady rate with little sign of hesitation noises, false starts, comment clauses, nonsense words)

Prosody is suited to the sport to reflect drama and atmosphere.

Idiosyncrasy between different commentators may be strong (each has his/her own favourite style of 'pointing')

Distinctive grammar is seen in the use of the present tense, the omission of elements of sentence structure inverted word order, and extra modifiers + frequent use of the passive (to buy time for commentators who might not be able to see the exact situation)

Cyclical discourse structure (constraints due to nature of activity) because most games consist of recurring sequences of short activities or a limmited number of activity options

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Religious belief fosters a variety in which all aspects of structure are implicated.

Unique phonological identity (i.e. in spoken prayers, sermons, chants and litanies)
Graphological identity (i.e. in liturgical leaflets, catechisms, biblical texts)
Strong grammatical identity (i.e. in invocations, prayers, blessings)
Obvious lexical identity
Highly distinctive discourse identity

Consciously retrospective as it harks back to its origins
Consciously prescriptive as it is concerned with issues of orthodoxy and identity (both textual and ritual)
Consciously imaginative and exploratory as people make their personal response to the claims of religious belief (*Transitivity)

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Ritual phraseology
Consciousness of precedent
Rhetorical and dramatic techniques

*Notion of Confrontation

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Ritual phraseology
Consciousness of precedent
Rhetorical and dramatic techniques

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Ritual phraseology
Consciousness of precedent
Rhetorical and dramatic techniques

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Ritual phraseology
Consciousness of precedent
Rhetorical and dramatic techniques

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Media reflect all aspects of the human conditions and make available to the public many varieties of language already well-known elsewhere.
Uses of the language have been shaped by the nature of the medium - or whose purpose is to make use of the capabilities provided by the medium.

CONSTRAINTS
Perpetual battle against the pressures of time and space (fixed publishing guidelines/frameworks)
Favoured conception of audience - an awareness of what 'the readership', 'the listener', or 'the viewer' wants.

Consistency of style over long periods of time (lack of stylistic idiosyncrasy).

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Create a varied brand-name profile

Uses lexis that is vivid (new, bright), concrete (soft, washable), positive (safe, extra) and unreserved/superlative (best, perfect)

Conversational and elliptical and often vague ("a better deal")

Uses highly figurative  expressions, deviant graphology (Beanz Meanz Heinz) and strong sound effects (such as rhythm, alliteration and rhyme)

Word play

Size (and cost) of the advertisement have an effect on the amount of ellipsis and abbreviation used
Restricted range of vocabulary (including jargon, idiom and other lexical features)

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Values are borrowed from other discourses to be imbued in a text - adds to the texts persuasiveness

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Producers of texts construct a preferred reading position for the reader.

[van Dijk's Textual Schemata / Superstructures] "order and categorise the topics of a text"
Cognitive implications - skews perceptions

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A form of social cognition, a theory of the role of discourse in the expression and reproduction of ideology, and a theory of the functions of ideology in society (e.g. in the reproduction of social groups and group relations)

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(by van Dijk)
Since underlying ideologies (and social attitudes and personal opinions influenced by them) are generally polarized, this also tends to be the case for ideological discourse, typically organised by emphasising the good of Us (the ingroup) and the bad of Them (the outgroup) - and its corollary (mitigating the negative representation of Us and the positive representation of Them).