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The education of India's children is tied closely to religion. There are many religions and many languages spoken making a unified educational system difficult. Girls are likely to receive less education than boys and children living in rural areas are less likely to have access to education. Despite the challenges to educational access, India is using technology from its space program to give children in remote areas access to educational programming because citizens understand education is the key to escaping poverty.
Video. 2009. Encyclopedia Britannica.

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India | Facts, Culture, History, Economy, & Geography

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India: India, country that occupies the greater part of South Asia and has roughly one-sixth of the world's population.

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The educational system in India has been influenced by Islam and British rule until 2002 when national standards changed to offer free and compulsory education to children ages 6-14. Despite the efforts to provide a system of public education, only 65% of the country is literate. Hodkinson, A., & Devarakonda, C. (2009). Conceptions of inclusion and inclusive education: A critical examination of the perspectives and practices of teachers in India. Research in Education, ₈₂(1), 85–99. https://doi-org.ezproxy2.library.drexel.edu/10.7227/RIE.82.7

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Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development

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The essence of Human Resource Development is education, which plays a significant and remedial role in balancing the socio-economic fabric of the Country. Since citizens of India are its most valuable resource, our billion-strong nation needs the nurture and care in the form of basic education to achieve a better quality of life.

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According to a study by Bhardwaj (2015), “Classroom climate [is] a key part of managing classroom management which includes student discipline [and], physical facilities.” Teachers are empowered to use behavior charts to help manage classroom behavior. Unfortunately, India’s schools are faced with many challenges that test the teachers skills and efforts because of poor facilities, limited classroom materials, and overcrowded classrooms.

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India’s constitution recognizes 21 major languages in addition to the literary language Sanskrit. They are Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu.

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The languages of India primarily belong to two major linguistic families, Indo-European (whose branch Indo-Aryan is spoken by about 75 percent of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 25 percent). Other languages spoken in India come mainly from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families, as well as a few language isolates. Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred, and more than a thousand if major dialects are included. The SIL Ethnologue lists over 400 languages for India; 24 of these languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, and 114 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of political and social contact have resulted in mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.

While Hindi is the official language of the central government in India, with English as a provisional official sub-language, individual state legislatures can adopt any regional language as the official language of that state. The Constitution of India recognizes 23 official languages, spoken in different parts of the country, and two official classical languages, Sanskrit and Tamil.

Official Languages

India has "Official Languages" at the state and central levels but there is no one "national language." Hindi is the official language of the central government in India, with English as a provisional official sub-language. Individual state legislatures can adopt any regional language as the official language of that state.

Article 346 of the Indian Constitution recognizes Hindi in Devanāgarī script as the official language of central government India. The Constitution also allows for the continuation of use of the English language for official purposes. Article 345 provides constitutional recognition as "Official languages" of the union to any language adopted by a state legislature as the official language of that state. Until the Twenty-First Amendment of the Constitution in 1967, the country recognized fourteen official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali, increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawn on socio-linguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal administration and education. In 2004, the government elevated Tamil. to the newly created official status of "Classical Language," followed by Sanskrit in 2005.

The Constitution of India now recognizes 23 languages, spoken in different parts of the country. These consist of English plus 22 Indian languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Meitei, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Hindi is a official language of the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Tamil is an official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Andamon Nicobar Islands. English is the co-official language of the Indian Union, and each of the several states mentioned above may also have another co-official language.

The following table lists the 22 Indian languages set out in the eighth schedule as of May 2007, together with the regions where they are used:

Hindi and English

The Indian constitution declares Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was officially to cease after the constitution came into effect, on January 26, 1965. The prospect of the changeover led to much alarm in the non Hindi-speaking areas of India, as a result of which Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963, providing for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965. An attempt was made in late 1964 to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from across the country, some of which turned violent. Widespread protests occurred in states such as Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, Karnataka, Pondicherry and Andhra Pradesh. As a result of these protests, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.

Language Families

The languages of India may be grouped by major language families. The largest of these families in terms of speakers is the Indo-European family, predominantly represented in its Indo-Aryan branch (accounting for some 700 million speakers), but also including minority languages such as Persian, Portuguese or French, and English spoken as lingua franca. The second largest is the Dravidian family, accounting for some 200 million speakers. Minor linguistic families include the Munda with approximately nine million speakers, and Tibeto-Burman families with approximately six million speakers. There is also a language isolate, the Nihali language.

History of Languages in India

The northern Indian languages from the Calestini family evolved from Old Indo-Aryan such as Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and the Apabhramsha of the Middle Ages. There is no consensus on the specific time when the modern north Indian languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, and Bengali emerged, but 1000 C.E. is commonly accepted. The development of each language was influenced by social and political contact with foreign invaders and speakers of the other languages; Hindi/Urdu and closely related languages were strongly influenced by Persian and Arabic.

The South Indian ( Dravidian) languages had a history independent of Sanskrit. The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation, are unclear, and adequate comparative linguistic research into the Dravidian languages is lacking. Inconclusive attempts have also been made to link the family with the Japonic languages, Basque, Korean, Sumerian, the Australian Aboriginal languages and the unknown language of the Indus valley civilization. However, in later stages, all the Dravidian languages were heavily influenced by Sanskrit. The major Dravidian languages are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam.

Bengali arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages of the Indian subcontinent. Magadhi Prakrit, the earliest recorded spoken language in the region, had evolved into Ardhamagadhi ("Half Magadhi") in the early part of the first millennium C.E.. Ardhamagadhi, as with all of the Prakrits of North India, began to give way to what are called Apabhramsa languages just before the turn of the first millennium. The local Apabhramsa language of the eastern subcontinent, Purvi Apabhramsa or Apabhramsa Abahatta, eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups: the Bihari languages, the Oriya languages, and the Bengali-Assamese languages. Some argue for much earlier points of divergence, going back to as early as 500 C.E., but the language was not static; different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects.

The Austroasiatic family of languages includes the Santal and Munda languages of eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, along with the Mon-Khmer languages spoken by the Khasi and Nicobarese in India and in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and southern China. The Austroasiatic languages are thought to have been spoken throughout the Indian subcontinent by hunter-gatherers who were later assimilated first by the agriculturalist Dravidian settlers and later by the Indo-Europeans from Central Asia. The Austroasiatic family is thought to have been the first to be spoken in ancient India. Some believe the family to be a part of an Austric superstock of languages, along with the Austronesian language family.

According to Joseph Greenberg, the Andamanese languages of the Andaman Islands and the Nihali language of central India are thought to be Indo-Pacific languages related to the Papuan languages of New Guinea, Timor, Halmahera, and New Britain. Nihali has been shown to be related to Kusunda of central Nepal. However, the proposed Indo-Pacific relationship has not been established through the comparative method, and has been dismissed as speculation by most comparative linguists. Nihali and Kusunda are spoken by hunting people living in forests. Both languages have accepted many loan words from other languages, Nihali having loans from Munda (Korku), Dravidian and Indic languages.

Classical Languages of India

In 2004, a new language category was created by constitutional decree, under which languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a 'classical language' in India. Upon the creation of this category, Tamil and, a year later, Sanskrit, were accorded the status, and more languages are under consideration for this classification. Experts consulted by the government and the Sahitya Academy of India, a literary body, recommended against officially awarding the status of "classical" to any language.

The government has declared Tamil a classical language despite the objections of experts it consulted and after a committee it had appointed refused to recommend it.... The Sahitya Akademi office bearers wrote a second time. In essence, they repeated that it was not the government's business to declare a language classical. It is a classically foolish move, a source said.

In the mid-nineteenth century, Indologists referred to Paninian Sanskrit as "classical Sanskrit," distinguishing it from the older Vedic language. Robert Caldwell, the first linguist to systematically study the Dravidian languages as a family, used the term "classical" to distinguish the literary forms of Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam from the diglossic colloquial forms. In the second half of the twentieth century, academics began to suggest that the Old Tamil poems of the Sangam anthologies were also "classical" in the sense that they shared many features with literatures commonly accepted as classical. This point, first made by Kamil Zvelebil in the 1970s, has since been supported by a number of other scholars, and the terminology "classical Tamil" is commonly used in historical literature to refer to texts from that period. Martha Ann Selby argues that if classicality is defined with reference to age and the value a literature has within the tradition it represents, the Tamil poetry of the Sangam anthologies and the Maharashtri poems of the Sattisai are "classical," in addition to Sanskrit literature.

Writing Systems

Indian languages have corresponding distinct alphabets. The two major families are those of the Dravidian languages and those of the Indo-Aryan languages, the former largely confined to the south and the latter to the north. Urdu and sometimes Kashmiri, Sindhi and Panjabi are written in modified versions of the Arabic script. Except for these languages, the alphabets of Indian languages are native to India. Most scholars consider these Indic scripts a distant offshoot of the Aramaic alphabet, although there are differing opinions.

Brahmic Script

Brahmic scripts are descended from the Brāhmī script of ancient India, which may have had a common ancestor with European scripts. However, some academics (see references in Rastogi 1980:88-98) believe that the Vikramkhol inscription is conclusive evidence that Brahmi had indigenous origins, probably from the Indus Valley (Harappan) script.

The most prominent member of the family is Devanagari, which is used to write several languages of India and Nepal, including Hindi, Konkani, Marathi, Nepali, Nepal Bhasa and Sanskrit. Other northern Brahmic scripts include the Eastern Nagari script, which is used to write Bengali, Assamese, Bishnupriya Manipuri, and other eastern Indic languages, the Oriya script, the Gujarāti script, the Ranjana script, the Prachalit script, the Bhujimol script and the Gurmukhi script. The Dravidian languages of southern India have Brahmic scripts that have evolved making them suitable to southern needs. The earliest evidence for Brahmi script in South India comes from Bhattiprolu in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. Bhattiprolu was a great centre of Buddhism during third century C.E. and from where Buddhism spread to east Asia. The present Telugu script is derived from 'Telugu-Kannada script', also known as 'old Kannada script', owing to its similarity to the same. Initially minor changes were made which is now called Tamil brahmi which has far fewer letters than some of the other Indic scripts as it has no separate aspirated or voiced consonants. Later under the influence of Granta vetteluthu evolved which looks similar to present day malayalam script. Still further changes were made in nineteenth and twentieth centuries to make use of printing and typewriting needs before we have the present script.

Burmese, Cambodian, Lao, Thai, Javanese, Balinese and Tibetan are also written in Brahmic scripts, though with considerable modification to suit their phonology. The Siddham (kanji: 悉曇, modern Japanese pronunciation: shittan) script was especially important in Buddhism because many sutras were written in it, and the art of Siddham calligraphy survives today in Japan.

(also anglicized as Nastaleeq; نستعلیق ), one of the main genres of Islamic calligraphy, was developed in Iran in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. A less elaborate version of Nastaʿlīq serves as the preferred style for writing Persian, Pashto and Urdu. Nastaʿlīq is amongst the most fluid calligraphy styles for the Arabic alphabet. It has short verticals with no serifs, and long horizontal strokes. It is written using a piece of trimmed reed with a tip of 5-10 mm, called " qalam" ("pen," in Arabic), and carbon ink, named " davat." The nib of a qalam is usually split in the middle to facilitate ink absorption.

After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Iranians adopted the Perso-Arabic script and the art of Arabic calligraphy flourished in Iran alongside other Islamic countries. The Mughal Empire used Persian as the court language during their rule over the Indian subcontinent. During this time, Nastaʿlīq came into widespread use in South Asia, including Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. In Pakistan, almost everything in Urdu is written in the script, concentrating the greater part of the world usage of Nasta'līq there. In Hyderābād, , and other cities in India with large Urdu-speaking populations, many street signs are written in Nastaʿlīq. The status of Nastaʿlīq in Bangladesh used to be the same as in Pakistan until 1971, when Urdu ceased to remain an official language of the country. Today, only a few neighborhoods (mostly inhabited by Bihāris) in Dhaka and Chittagong retain the influence of the Persian and Nastaʿlīq.

Romanization

The National Library at Kolkata romanization is the most widely used transliteration scheme in dictionaries and grammars of Indic languages. This transliteration scheme is also known as Library of Congress and is nearly identical to one of the possible ISO 15919 variants.The tables below mostly use Devanagari but include letters from Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam and Bengali to illustrate the transliteration of non-Devanagari characters. The scheme is an extension of the IAST scheme that is used for transliteration of Sanskrit.

Inventories

The Indian census of 1961 recognized 1,652 different languages in India (including languages not native to the subcontinent). The 1991 census recognizes 1,576 classified "mother tongues" SIL Ethnologue lists 415 living "Languages of India" (out of 6,912 worldwide).

According to the 1991 census, 22 languages have more than a million native speakers, 50 have more than 100,000, and 114 have more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining languages account for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).

The largest language that is not one of the 22 "languages of the 8th Schedule" with official status is the Bhili language, with some 5.5 million native speakers (ranked 13th by number of speakers), followed by Gondi (15th), Tulu (19th) and Kurukh (20th). On the other hand, three languages with fewer than one million native speakers are included in the 8th Schedule for cultural or political reasons: English (40th), Dogri (54th) and Sanskrit (67th).

1. Article 343. Official language of the Union. Retrieved March 25, 2020.

2. Duncan B. Forrester, "The Madras Anti-Hindi Agitation, 1965: Political Protest and its Effects on Language Policy in India." Pacific Affairs 39 (1/2) (Spring - Summer 1966):19-36.

3. Naresh Prasad Rastogi, Origin of Brāhmī Script: The Beginning of Alphabet in India (Varanasi: Chowkhamba Saraswatibhawan, 1980).

4. S. M. R. Adluri, Telugu Language and Literature, Figures T1a and T1b. Retrieved March 25, 2020.

References

Alam, Muzaffar. The languages of political Islam India, 1200-1800. Muzaffar Alam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. ISBN 0226011003

Annamalai, E. and Sanford B. Steever (eds.). "Modern Tamil." in The Dravidian Languages. London: Routledge, 1998, 100-128. ISBN 0415100232

Beames, John. A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya and Bangali. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1966.

Bhatia, Tej K., and William C. Ritchie (eds.). "Bilingualism in South Asia." 780-807. In: Handbook of Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006. ISBN 0631227350

Caktivēl, Cu. Tribal languages of India. Kothaloothu, Madurai District: Meena Pathippakam, 1976.

Caldwell, Robert. A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages. (original 1913) reprint ed. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, Second AES reprint 1998. ISBN 8120601173

Campbell, George. Specimens of languages of India. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1986.

Farmer, Steve, Richard Sproat and Michael Witzel. "The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization." EVJS 11 (2) (Dec 2004).

Haldar, Gopal, and Tista Bagchi. Languages of India. New Delhi: National Book Trust, India, 2000. ISBN 8123729367

Ramanujan, A.K. Poems of Love and War from the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil. UNESCO Collection of Representative Works. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985. ISBN 0231051069

Rastogi, Naresh Prasad. Origin of Brāhmī Script: The Beginning of Alphabet in India. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Saraswatibhawan, 1980.

Selby, Martha Ann. Grow long, Blessed Night: Love Poems from Classical India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 019512734X

Scharfe, Harmut. "Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī." Journal of the American Oriental Society. 122 (2) (2002):391-393.

Stevens, John. Sacred Calligraphy of the East, 3rd ed. Rev. Boston: Shambala, 1995. ISBN 1570621225.

Takahashi, Takanobu. Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics. Brill's Indological Library. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995. ISBN 9004100423

Trail, Ronald L. Patterns in clause, sentence, and discourse in selected languages of India and Nepal. Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics and related fields, publication no. 41. Kathmandu: University Press, Tribhuvan University, 1973. ISBN 088312047X

Zvelebil, Kamil. Tamil Literature. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1975. ISBN 9004041907

External links

All links retrieved March 17, 2020.

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The languages of India primarily belong to two major linguistic families, Indo-European (whose branch Indo-Aryan is spoken by about 75 percent of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 25 percent). Other languages spoken in India come mainly from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families, as well as a few language isolates.

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The National Anthem of India is an important part of Independence Day celebrations that mark India's freedom from British rule in 1947.

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Diwali, Independence Day, and Mahatma Gandhi's Birthday are a few major holidays in India

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India takes its festivals very seriously, and no matter what time of year you visit the country, you're likely to encounter some sort of traditional holiday or celebration going on. However, if you're planning a trip and want to align your travel dates with one of the country's most exciting holidays, here are five that are worth booking a flight to India for. Because even though these are all celebrated by Indians and others stateside, these five picks are best experienced where they originated.

1. Holi

Photo credit: supratik chakraborty, Flickr

One of the best-known Indian holidays abroad, Holi (frequently called "the festival of colors") is an annual celebration in late February or early to mid March that some consider the de facto start of springtime. Celebrations include the lighting of bonfires on Holika (the night before Holi) and a second day of "playing colors." This involves throwing powdered or liquid colors at your friends, so after a particularly successful round of color-playing, most participants are multihued from head to toe. Some people up the ante by mixing water and colors in water guns (or sometimes water balloons). Others also consume "bhang," an intoxicating mix of cannabis and other plants that's often mixed into sweetened milk known as "thandai."

Where to celebrate: The twin towns of Mathura and Vrindavan, near the Taj Mahal, are among the best places in the country to celebrate Holi. The Hindu Lord Krishna was born and raised in the area, and Holi is a bigger deal here than almost anywhere else in the country.

2. Diwali

Photo credit: Abhinaba Basu, Flickr

Also known as Deepavali, this annual festival of lights held in October or November is the most important holiday of the year for many Indians. People working in other cities often return to their hometowns to spend at least some of the five-day festival with family. While the significance of the holiday varies across communities, it's commonly associated with the triumph of good over evil, of light over darkness. Traditions include performing traditional "pujas" (ceremonies), giving gifts to friends, families, and neighbors (sweets and nuts are common), lighting candles or small oil lamps (known as "diyas"), and setting off tons of fireworks.

Where to celebrate: Diwali's a pan-Indian holiday and you'll have fun no matter where you go. That said, Rajasthan's capital city of Jaipur is a particularly great place to be during the festival; the old Pink City looks particularly beautiful lit up with thousands of twinkling lights.

3. Durga Puja

Photo credit: Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission Belur Math, Flickr

Arguably the most important festival for the people of West Bengal, Durga Puja is a five-day holiday that honors the goddess Durga and her victory over evil. Along with religious ceremonies in honor of the goddess, traditions include dressing up in new finery and the ritual beating of the "dhak," an enormous drum the size of a wine barrel that's struck with wooden drumsticks. Perhaps the best-known Durga Puja tradition involves the creation of "pandals," which are giant temporary structures housing enormous idols of the goddess. Revelers often build these in groups, with multiple neighboring families contributing financially and physically to furnish elaborate pandals, oftentimes created based on a theme. At the end of the festival, the pandals are ritually submerged into a body of water, returning the goddess to the earth and reuniting her with her consort, Shiva.

Where to celebrate: Although Durga Puja is celebrated by Bengali communities around the world, Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, is indisputably the best place to experience the festival in full force. The city virtually comes to a standstill at this time, and no matter where you are, you'll find plenty of revelry to join in on -- and elaborate pandals to visit.

4. Maha Shivaratri

Photo credit: Mani k, Flickr

Maha Shivaratri is an annual festival dedicated to the Lord Shiva, and involves staying up all night chanting sacred mantras and worshiping the god. It's not quite as festive as some of the other celebrations held throughout the year, but it's considered one of the holiest nights to many Hindus and is an excellent time of year to visit if you are interested in learning more about traditional worship.

Where to celebrate: Varanassi, considered the most sacred city in the world for devout Hindus, is an excellent place to experience Maha Shivatari, notably because of its abundance of Shiva temples and ceremonies held on the banks of the Ganges River.

5. Ganesh Chaturthi

Photo credit: abcdz2000, Flickr

Held in late summer or early autumn, Ganesh Chaturthi honors the elephant-headed deity Ganesha. The main tradition involves the worship of idols of the god, which are subsequently returned via ritual submersion in a body of water. These idols can range in size from small statues to enormous, elaborate creations known as "madals" that are made to be displayed for, and worshiped by, entire communities.

Where to celebrate: Ganesh Chaturthi is frequently associated with Mumbai, where a number of huge Ganesh mandals are created, worshiped, and brought to the Bay of Bengal in huge, energetic processions before being submerged. The most famous of these is the Lalbaugcha Raja, which has been created in a similar fashion since the 1930s.
Related Links:

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The 5 Indian Holidays That Are Worth Traveling to India For

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India takes its festivals very seriously, and no matter what time of year you visit the country, you're likely to encounter some sort of traditional holiday or celebration going on. However, if you're planning a trip and want to align your travel dates with one of the country's most exciting holidays, here are five that are worth booking a flight to India for.

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A celebration of color and fabrics connected to religion and region.

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Indian People  | Traditional dresses of Indian States | Kid2teentv

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Diwali is a celebration lasting 5 days, it marks the beginning of a new year and is celebrated with gift giving, decorating the home, visiting and lighting small earthenware lamps.

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A stratification of social class that determines many aspects of life including access to education and marriage.

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India's caste system is among the world's oldest forms of surviving social stratification. The BBC explains its complexities.

The system which divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma (work) and dharma (the Hindi word for religion, but here it means duty) is generally accepted to be more than 3,000 years old.

How did caste come about?

Manusmriti, widely regarded to be the most important and authoritative book on Hindu law and dating back to at least 1,000 years before Christ was born, "acknowledges and justifies the caste system as the basis of order and regularity of society".

The caste system divides Hindus into four main categories - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. Many believe that the groups originated from Brahma, the Hindu God of creation.

At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and intellectuals and are believed to have come from Brahma's head. Then came the Kshatriyas, or the warriors and rulers, supposedly from his arms. The third slot went to the Vaishyas, or the traders, who were created from his thighs. At the bottom of the heap were the Shudras, who came from Brahma's feet and did all the menial jobs.

The main castes were further divided into about 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes, each based on their specific occupation.

Outside of this Hindu caste system were the achhoots - the Dalits or the untouchables.

How does caste work?

For centuries, caste has dictated almost every aspect of Hindu religious and social life, with each group occupying a specific place in this complex hierarchy.

Rural communities have long been arranged on the basis of castes - the upper and lower castes almost always lived in segregated colonies, the water wells were not shared, Brahmins would not accept food or drink from the Shudras, and one could marry only within one's caste.

The system bestowed many privileges on the upper castes while sanctioning repression of the lower castes by privileged groups.

Often criticised for being unjust and regressive, it remained virtually unchanged for centuries, trapping people into fixed social orders from which it was impossible to escape.

Despite the obstacles, however, some Dalits and other low-caste Indians, such as BR Ambedkar who authored the Indian constitution, and KR Narayanan who became the nation's first Dalit president, have risen to hold prestigious positions in the country.

Historians, though, say that until the 18th Century, the formal distinctions of caste were of limited importance to Indians, social identities were much more flexible and people could move easily from one caste to another.

New research shows that hard boundaries were set by British colonial rulers who made caste India's defining social feature when they used censuses to simplify the system, primarily to create a single society with a common law that could be easily governed.

Is the system legal?

Independent India's constitution banned discrimination on the basis of caste, and, in an attempt to correct historical injustices and provide a level playing field to the traditionally disadvantaged, the authorities announced quotas in government jobs and educational institutions for scheduled castes and tribes, the lowest in the caste hierarchy, in 1950.

In 1989, quotas were extended to include a grouping called the OBCs (Other Backward Classes) which fall between the traditional upper castes and the lowest.

In recent decades, with the spread of secular education and growing urbanisation, the influence of caste has somewhat declined, especially in cities where different castes live side-by-side and inter-caste marriages are becoming more common.

In certain southern states and in the northern state of Bihar, many people began using just one name after social reform movements. Despite the changes though, caste identities remain strong, and last names are almost always indications of what caste a person belongs to.

What about job quotas?

In recent years, there have been demands from several communities to be recognised as OBCs - in 2016 there were violent protests by the Jat community in Haryana and the Patel community led huge protests in Gujarat in 2015 demanding access to caste quotas.

Both are prosperous and politically dominant communities, but they support their demand for caste quotas by saying large numbers in their communities are poor and suffering.

Some say the caste system would have disappeared by now if the fires were not regularly fanned by politicians.

At elections, many caste groups still vote as a block and are wooed by politicians looking for electoral gains.

As a result, what was originally meant to be a temporary affirmative action plan to improve the lot of the unprivileged groups has now become a vote-grabbing exercise for many politicians.

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India's complex caste system is among the world's oldest forms of surviving social stratification.

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The capital city of India. India is home to 1/6th of the worlds population, mostly concentrated in large cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata.

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Table of Contents

Delhi, city and national capital territory, north-central India. The city of Delhi actually consists of two components: Old Delhi, in the north, the historic city; and New Delhi, in the south, since 1947 the capital of India, built in the first part of the 20th century as the capital of British India.

One of the country's largest urban agglomerations, Delhi sits astride (but primarily on the west bank of) the Yamuna River, a tributary of the Ganges (Ganga) River, about 100 miles (160 km) south of the Himalayas. The national capital territory embraces Old and New Delhi and the surrounding metropolitan region, as well as adjacent rural areas. To the east the territory is bounded by the state of Uttar Pradesh, and to the north, west, and south it is bounded by the state of Haryana.

Delhi is of great historical significance as an important commercial, transport, and cultural hub, as well as the political centre of India. According to legend, the city was named for Raja Dhilu, a king who reigned in the region in the 1st century bce. The names by which the city has been known-including Delhi, Dehli, Dilli, and Dhilli, among others-likely are corruptions of his name. Area Old Delhi, 360 square miles (932 square km); national capital territory, 573 square miles (1,483 square km). Pop. Old Delhi, (2001) 12,260,000; national capital territory, (2001) 13,850,507; Old Delhi, (2011) 11,007,835; national capital territory, (2011) 16,753,235.

Landscape

City site

Delhi has been the centre of a succession of mighty empires and powerful kingdoms. Numerous ruins scattered throughout the territory offer a constant reminder of the area's history. Popular lore holds that the city changed its locality a total of seven times between 3000 bce and the 17th century ce, although some authorities, who take smaller towns and strongholds into account, claim it changed its site as many as 15 times. All the earlier locations of Delhi fall within a triangular area of about 70 square miles (180 square km), commonly called the Delhi Triangle. Two sides of the triangle are articulated by the rocky hills of the Aravalli Range-one to the south of the city, the other on its western edge, where it is known as the Delhi Ridge. The third side of the triangle is formed by the shifting channel of the Yamuna River. Between the river and the hills lie broad alluvial plains; the elevation of the territory ranges from about 700 to 1,000 feet (200 to 300 metres).

The ridges and hillsides of the national capital territory abound in thorny trees, such as acacias, as well as seasonal herbaceous species. The sissoo (shisham; Dalbergia sissoo) tree, which yields a dark brown and durable timber, is commonly found in the plains. Riverine vegetation, consisting of weeds and grass, occurs on the banks of the Yamuna. New Delhi is known for its flowering shade trees, such as the neem ( Azadirachta indica; a drought-resistant tree with a pale yellow fruit), jaman ( Syzygium cumini; a tree with an edible grapelike fruit), mango, pipal ( Ficus religiosa; a fig tree), and sissoo. It also is known for its flowering plants, which include a large number of multicoloured seasonals: chrysanthemums, phlox, violas, and verbenas.

The animal life of the national capital territory, like its plant life, is quite diverse. Among carnivorous animals are leopards, hyenas, foxes, wolves, and jackals, which inhabit the ravine lands and hilly ridges. Wild boars are sometimes spotted along the banks of the Yamuna. Monkeys are found in the city, especially around some of the temples and historical ruins. Birdlife is profuse; year-round species include pigeons, sparrows, kites, parrots, partridges, bush quail, and, on the ridges, peafowl. The lakes around the city attract seasonal species. Fish are plentiful in the Yamuna, and an occasional crocodile also may be found there.

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Climate

The climate of Delhi is characterized by extreme dryness, with intensely hot summers. It is associated with a general prevalence of continental air, which moves in from the west or northwest, except during the season of the monsoon, when an easterly to southeasterly influx of oceanic air brings rain and increased humidity. The summer season lasts from mid-March to the end of June, with maximum temperatures typically reaching about 100 °F (about 37 °C) and minimum temperatures falling into the high 70s F (about 25 °C); it is characterized by frequent thunderstorms and squalls, especially in April and May. The monsoon season normally begins in July and continues until the end of September. It is during these months that Delhi receives the bulk of its rainfall-roughly 23 inches (600 mm), or nearly three-fourths of the annual average. October and November constitute a transition period from monsoon to winter conditions. The dry winter season extends from late November to mid-March. The coldest month is January, with high temperatures in the low 70s F (about 21 °C) and low temperatures in the mid-40s F (about 7 °C).

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Delhi | History, Population, Map, & Facts

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Delhi, city and national capital territory, north-central India. The city of Delhi actually consists of two components: Old Delhi, in the north, the historic city; and New Delhi, in the south, since 1947 the capital of India, built in the first part of the 20th century as the capital of British India.

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A site of pilgrimage and architectural marvel. A tomb built by the Mughal Emperor Shah for his wife.

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taj mahal - taj mahal india - taj mahal agra - taj mahal travel- taj mahal information - tajmahal india-official website of taj mahal-taj mahal u.p. tourism

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Taj Mahal-Official Website of Taj Mahal, Government of Uttar Pradesh(India)

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Welcome to Taj Mahal, Standing majestically on the banks of River Yamuna. Taj Mahal Taj Mahal is famous for Own beauty and one of the wonders of the world.

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A transcendent word charged with symbolism.

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Hinduism is the most followed religion in India at 79.8% according to World Atlas. Other religions include, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Christianity.

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Those who follow Hinduism believe it is a way of life more than a religion alone. According to History.com, “Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).” Hindu’s hold all living creatures in high regard and consider the cow to be sacred.

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Hinduism - Origins, Facts & Beliefs | HISTORY

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Hinduism is a compilation of many traditions and philosophies and is considered by many scholars to be the world's oldest religion, dating back more than 4,000 years. Today it is the third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam.

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The origins of Indian music derive from the Hindu religious scriptures. According to the New World Encyclopedia, “The Samaveda is said to have laid the foundation for Indian music, and consists mainly of hymns of Rigveda, set to melodies that would be sung using three to seven musical notes during Vedic sacrifices.” The music was thought to enhance self-realization and salvation.

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According to an article from Live Science, with the large population of Hindu’s in India, “Many Hindu’s are vegetarian, but lamb and chicken are common in main dishes for non-vegetarians. Indian cuisine is also influenced by many other countries. It is known for its large assortment of dishes and its liberal use of herbs and spices."

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Indian dishes are vastly diverse, and not to mention delicious because of the variety of flavors and regions. Indian cuisine is continually put on foodie lists all over the world.

But that's not all.

Here are a few reasons to consider visiting an authentic Indian restaurant:

Download These Indian Recipes Now FOR FREE!

Indian Cuisine is Healthy

Authentic Indian recipes are full of organic ingredients that are proven to be healthy. Examples include common Indian spices like Turmeric that help with inflammation, prevention of Alzheimer's, and improve heart health. Being plant-based, Indian cuisine is rich in a variety of grains, nuts, pulses, and seeds (that provide healthy oils). It's the myriad health benefits of Indian cuisine that make Indian food and spices preferred on menus at many a detox retreat. Speaking of which, you can book your total body and mind detox retreat here .

Indian Cuisine is Rich in Variety

They say variety is the spice of life. That probably came from the Indian cuisine playbook. From different flavors to different smells to different looks, Indian cuisine is so full of variety there's always something to look forward to with every meal. Yes, that includes simple Indian dinner recipes.

Indian Cuisine Offers an Exceptional Experience

Remember that time you and a friend sit down for dinner at an Indian food restaurant. The smell of jasmine and spice awakens your senses. There is a busy clatter of pots and pans coming from the open kitchen. With Indian cuisine, it's more about the experience around the preparation and consumption of the food. This makes it one the best for bonding with family and friends.

Sitting in an Indian restaurant and waiting to place your order?

Chances are your mouth is already watering as the waiter comes over with a menu full of delectable Indian dishes. Time for the ultimate question: what should you eat? What are the best Indian dishes to try?

With so many popular Indian dishes on the menu, knowing what to order can be quite a daunting task. Especially for those who are not veterans of Indian food eating, making a decision may be difficult.

We created this article for those moments when you're looking at a menu, feeling dizzy with delight and confusion.

Whether you're in need of help ordering at a restaurant or are interested in taking a stab at cooking, we've got you covered. From simple Indian dinner recipes to the best Indian dishes, this article will walk you through some of the tastiest Indian meals you must have on your radar .

Read on to learn about the best top 10 Indian food dishes and how you can recreate them for yourself.

1. Chicken Makhani (Butter Chicken)

Butter chicken is mouth-watering, tender chicken, cooked in a spiced tomato sauce. It's traditionally cooked in a tandoor (a cylindrical clay or metal oven), but may be grilled, roasted or pan-fried in less authentic preparations.

Always make the gravy by first cooking fresh tomato, garlic, and cardamom down into a bright red pulp. This pulp is then pureed after cooling. Then, the chef adds butter, various spices, and Khoa (dried whole milk).

Vegetarian Indian Dish Option:

Though a lot of traditional Indian food uses meat, there are plenty of Indian vegetarian dishes. You can make your own butter chicken vegetarian by substituting chicken for tofu.

You can mimic the taste and texture of chicken by tossing tofu pieces with corn starch. Then, bake the pieces in the oven and voila! You have slightly crispy, delicious, buttery vegetarian "chicken".

2. Samosas (Deep-Fried Potato/Veggie Dumpling)

Samosas are a very popular traditional Indian Dish. Probably because samosas are a tasty, fried, or baked pastry with savory fillings.

Spiced potatoes, onions, peas, and lentils fill traditional samosas. But sometimes, they are made with ground lamb, ground beef or ground chicken.

Good news for all of you Indian food lovers and solely plant-based eaters. Indian samosas are usually vegan! That means the pastry is free of eggs and dairy products.

Samosas are often accompanied by a sweet mint sauce or chutney (scroll down for Chef Marie's sweet and savory chutney recipes!). These puffy treats are common street food. You can find tourists and Indian natives alike eating them as a midday snack or a side to the main dish.

3. Aloo Gobi (Potato and Cauliflower)

Aloo Gobi is a dry, vegan Indian dish, made with potatoes (aloo), cauliflower (gobi), and Indian spices. It has a warm, yellow-orange color, because it uses a staple in Indian dishes: turmeric.

Aloo Gobi occasionally contains kalonji and curry leaves as well. Other common ingredients include garlic, ginger, onion, coriander stalks, tomato, peas, and cumin. Throw it all together to roast in the oven and you've got one of the most popular dishes ordered in Indian restaurants.

4. Naan (Flatbread)

If you've never experienced good naan bread, your life has been much less delicious than it could be.

Naan is a leavened, oven-baked flatbread. You normally serve Naan with all meals.

This bread is the perfect combination of chewy and crispy, buttery and garlicky. It's exactly what every Indian dish needs to complement the otherwise bright and intense flavors.

There are many different types of naan breads depending on what you're in the mood for.

Butter and garlic naan bread are the classics.

Paneer naan is a delicious Indian cheese type.

Chili naan is great for those spice fiends.

And of course, there's always the classic, no-fuss, plain naan.

However you eat it, naan acts as almost a spoon to soup up sauce or dipped into chutneys. An Indian meal isn't complete without naan at its side.

5. Matar Paneer (Peas and Cooked Cottage Cheese)

Here's another for the " Indian vegetarian dishes " category!

Matar paneer comes from regions of northern India. It's made up of a yummy tomato sauce over paneer (farmer's cheese) and peas, and spiced with garam masala.

Like many Indian dishes, matar paneer is best when paired with a cooling side dish, like cream or bread.

Depending on the region, it's likely to be served with rice, naan, paratha, poori, or roti.

Enjoy dipping your bread (or Naan) into the tomato gravy after you eat up the cheese and veggies.

Whether you choose naan, yogurt, aloo, or cream, to pair with this dish, your taste buds will thank you!

6. Rogan Josh (Curried Meat)

Rogan josh is a staple of Kashmiri (region in northern India) cuisine. It's one of the main dishes of a Wazwan: a Kashmiri multi-course meal.

Rogan Josh consists of braised lamb chunks cooked with gravy. Generally, Indian chefs make this gravy from browned onions, yogurt, garlic, ginger, and aromatic spices.

Known for its brilliant red color, a classic rogan josh uses liberal amounts of dried Kashmiri chilies.

Make sure to de-seed these babies before you use them unless you're a glutton for punishment. Though they are less hot when de-seeded, Kashmiri chilies tend to be milder than cayenne chilies. You will find cayenne chilies in many other Indian dishes.

Most of the spiciness from a rogan josh comes from the fragrance of the dish rather than the heat. It's a yummy treat that is mild enough for Western palates, but intense enough for spice-lovers. If you love lamb, this dish is a must-try.

7. Tandoori Chicken (Chicken Marinated In Yogurt and Spices)

Tandoori chicken is a popular North Indian dish consisting of roasted chicken prepared with yogurt and spices. The name comes from the type of cylindrical clay oven, a tandoor, in which the dish is traditionally prepared.

The chicken is marinated in yogurt and seasoned with the spice mixture tandoori masala. Indian chefs traditionally use cayenne pepper, red chili powder, or Kashmiri red chili powder to give it a fiery red hue. This dish goes so well with steaming basmati rice and crispy naan.

Get these Indian Food Recipes For Free!

Indian Food Recipes From Blue Osa's Very Own, Chef Marie:

Looking for something made with extra love? The mama of Blue Osa, Chef Marie, has crafted the following Indian cuisine is continually put on foodie lists all over the world and no wonder, with the variety of flavors and regions, Indian food is vastly diverse, and not to mention delicious! with care.

8. Chana Aloo Curry (Chickpea Potato Curry)

A sultry blend of ginger, tomato, curry, and garlic marinate potatoes, chickpeas, and onions. These veggies and spices blend together to create the magical, Chana Aloo Curry. Though more traditional recipes may be spiced with chilli or cayenne pepper, Chef Marie's special twist includes fresh jalapenos.

9. Shu'Bah' (Tomato Soup)

Shu'Bah', sometimes referred to as "Shorba", is a light, Indian-spiced tomato soup. This is an Indian vegetarian dish made by simmering tomatoes, onions, spices, and ghee (clarified butter). The ginger, turmeric, cardamom, and cinnamon spices give it the classic Indian symphony of flavor.

When 'Shu'Bah' is done right, it has a medium-thick consistency and is garnished with fresh herbs (cilantro is perfect). If you're really a fan of garlic, a nice touch would be garnishing the dish with roasted garlic.

10. Chutney (Fruit Sauce)

As mentioned above, chutney (or "chatni") is a sauce that is a flavorful sweet pair to savory samosas. It's a relish made of various types of fruits, herbs, and spices, and it originated in India over 2,000 years ago. Heads up again, vegans, this is one for you.

Make this chutney with brown sugar, turmeric, red wine vinegar. Add a smattering of other lip-smacking goodies such as mango chutney is a tangy treat in a world of Indian spiciness.

Though usually fruity, savory chutneys are also a thing. Both mango and onion chutney recipe was specially crafted by Chef Marie to be the perfect side pairing for any Indian food meal.

BONUS! MORE INDIAN DISHES AND RECIPES:

As an extra bonus, we've included some delicious Indian drink specialties. These recipes are also in Chef Marie's, Clean Eating Cookbook.

11. Masala Chai

There's nothing like the experience of stopping at a chaiwala on an Indian street and ordering a steaming cup of masala chai. The beverage has gained worldwide popularity, becoming a feature in many coffee and teahouses.

Indians make masala chai by brewing black tea with a mixture of aromatic spices and herbs.

Traditionally, the chai recipe calls for green cardamom pods, cinnamon sticks, ground cloves, ground ginger, black peppercorn, and black tea leaves.

In international tea shops, it's often sold in a teabag form, with a variety of revolving recipes.

But once combined with steaming hot milk ( or your favorite non-dairy milk!), it's delicious all around, whether found in India, your hometown, or made by you with the help of Chef Marie!

12. Lassi

Lassi's are yogurt-based drinks made with water, spices, and sometimes fruit. Mango or cardamom-flavored lassis are some of the most popular, but did you know that there are also savory ones? Milk and salt might not sound good to you, but in India, it's not so uncommon.

For dairy-free folks, simply use a substitute. There are a variety of plant-based yogurt options like cashew or soy!

Make Your Own Indian Dishes

As mentioned above, you can find all of Chef Marie's delectable Indian dishes (and more!) in her Eating Clean Cookbook. Bon appétit!

Suggested Articles

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Top 10 Indian Dishes And Recipes || The Most Popular Indian Food

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These are 10 Indian dishes that you have got to try! If you are dreaming of traveling the world, make these Indian dishes in the comfort of your own home!

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The second largest religion of India is Islam. According to Britannica, “The Arabic term islam, literally “surrender,” illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islam—that the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of islam) accepts surrender to the will of Allah (in Arabic, Allah: God).” The Prophet Muhammad delivered the scripture, Qur’an, which Allah revealed to his messenger.

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Islam, major world religion promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century ce. The Arabic term islām, literally "surrender," illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islam-that the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of islām) accepts surrender to the will of Allah (in Arabic, Allāh: God). Allah is viewed as the sole God-creator, sustainer, and restorer of the world. The will of Allah, to which human beings must submit, is made known through the sacred scriptures, the Qurʾān (often spelled Koran in English), which Allah revealed to his messenger, Muhammad. In Islam Muhammad is considered the last of a series of prophets (including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus), and his message simultaneously consummates and completes the "revelations" attributed to earlier prophets.

Retaining its emphasis on an uncompromising monotheism and a strict adherence to certain essential religious practices, the religion taught by Muhammad to a small group of followers spread rapidly through the Middle East to Africa, Europe, the Indian subcontinent, the Malay Peninsula, and China. By the early 21st century there were more than 1.5 billion Muslims worldwide. Although many sectarian movements have arisen within Islam, all Muslims are bound by a common faith and a sense of belonging to a single community.

This article deals with the fundamental beliefs and practices of Islam and with the connection of religion and society in the Islamic world. The history of the various peoples who embraced Islam is covered in the article Islamic world.

The foundations of Islam

The legacy of Muhammad

From the very beginning of Islam, Muhammad had inculcated a sense of brotherhood and a bond of faith among his followers, both of which helped to develop among them a feeling of close relationship that was accentuated by their experiences of persecution as a nascent community in Mecca. The strong attachment to the tenets of the Qurʾānic revelation and the conspicuous socioeconomic content of Islamic religious practices cemented this bond of faith. In 622 ce, when the Prophet migrated to Medina, his preaching was soon accepted, and the community-state of Islam emerged. During this early period, Islam acquired its characteristic ethos as a religion uniting in itself both the spiritual and temporal aspects of life and seeking to regulate not only the individual's relationship to God (through conscience) but human relationships in a social setting as well. Thus, there is not only an Islamic religious institution but also an Islamic law, state, and other institutions governing society. Not until the 20th century were the religious (private) and the secular (public) distinguished by some Muslim thinkers and separated formally in certain places such as Turkey.

This dual religious and social character of Islam, expressing itself in one way as a religious community commissioned by God to bring its own value system to the world through the jihād ("exertion," commonly translated as "holy war" or "holy struggle"), explains the astonishing success of the early generations of Muslims. Within a century after the Prophet's death in 632 ce, they had brought a large part of the globe-from Spain across Central Asia to India-under a new Arab Muslim empire.

The period of Islamic conquests and empire building marks the first phase of the expansion of Islam as a religion. Islam's essential egalitarianism within the community of the faithful and its official discrimination against the followers of other religions won rapid converts. Jews and Christians were assigned a special status as communities possessing scriptures and were called the "people of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb) and, therefore, were allowed religious autonomy. They were, however, required to pay a per capita tax called jizyah, as opposed to pagans, who were required to either accept Islam or die. The same status of the "people of the Book" was later extended in particular times and places to Zoroastrians and Hindus, but many "people of the Book" joined Islam in order to escape the disability of the jizyah. A much more massive expansion of Islam after the 12th century was inaugurated by the Sufis (Muslim mystics), who were mainly responsible for the spread of Islam in India, Central Asia, Turkey, and sub-Saharan Africa ( see below).

Beside the jihad and Sufi missionary activity, another factor in the spread of Islam was the far-ranging influence of Muslim traders, who not only introduced Islam quite early to the Indian east coast and South India but also proved to be the main catalytic agents (beside the Sufis) in converting people to Islam in Indonesia, Malaya, and China. Islam was introduced to Indonesia in the 14th century, hardly having time to consolidate itself there politically before the region came under Dutch hegemony.

The vast variety of races and cultures embraced by Islam (an estimated total of more than 1.5 billion persons worldwide in the early 21st century) has produced important internal differences. All segments of Muslim society, however, are bound by a common faith and a sense of belonging to a single community. With the loss of political power during the period of Western colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries, the concept of the Islamic community (ummah), instead of weakening, became stronger. The faith of Islam helped various Muslim peoples in their struggle to gain political freedom in the mid-20th century, and the unity of Islam contributed to later political solidarity.

Sources of Islamic doctrinal and social views

Islamic doctrine, law, and thinking in general are based upon four sources, or fundamental principles (uṣūl): (1) the Qurʾān, (2) the Sunnah ("Traditions"), (3) ijmāʿ ("consensus"), and (4) ijtihād ("individual thought").

The Qurʾān (literally, "reading" or "recitation") is regarded as the verbatim word, or speech, of God delivered to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel. Divided into 114 suras (chapters) of unequal length, it is the fundamental source of Islamic teaching. The suras revealed at Mecca during the earliest part of Muhammad's career are concerned mostly with ethical and spiritual teachings and the Day of Judgment. The suras revealed at Medina at a later period in the career of the Prophet are concerned for the most part with social legislation and the politico-moral principles for constituting and ordering the community.

Sunnah ("a well-trodden path") was used by pre-Islamic Arabs to denote their tribal or common law. In Islam it came to mean the example of the Prophet-i.e., his words and deeds as recorded in compilations known as Hadith (in Arabic, Ḥadīth: literally, "report"; a collection of sayings attributed to the Prophet). Hadith provide the written documentation of the Prophet's words and deeds. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century ah (9th century ce), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islam, the Sunnis. Another large group, the Shiʿah, has its own Hadith contained in four canonical collections.

The doctrine of ijmāʿ, or consensus, was introduced in the 2nd century ah (8th century ce) in order to standardize legal theory and practice and to overcome individual and regional differences of opinion. Though conceived as a "consensus of scholars," ijmāʿ was in actual practice a more fundamental operative factor. From the 3rd century ah ijmāʿ has amounted to a principle of stability in thinking; points on which consensus was reached in practice were considered closed and further substantial questioning of them prohibited. Accepted interpretations of the Qurʾān and the actual content of the Sunnah (i.e., Hadith and theology) all rest finally on the ijmāʿ in the sense of the acceptance of the authority of their community.

Ijtihād, meaning "to endeavour" or "to exert effort," was required to find the legal or doctrinal solution to a new problem. In the early period of Islam, because ijtihād took the form of individual opinion (raʾy), there was a wealth of conflicting and chaotic opinions. In the 2nd century ah ijtihād was replaced by qiyās (reasoning by strict analogy), a formal procedure of deduction based on the texts of the Qurʾān and the Hadith. The transformation of ijmāʿ into a conservative mechanism and the acceptance of a definitive body of Hadith virtually closed the "gate of ijtihād" in Sunni Islam while ijtihād continued in Shiʿism. Nevertheless, certain outstanding Muslim thinkers (e.g., al-Ghazālī in the 11th-12th century) continued to claim the right of new ijtihād for themselves, and reformers in the 18th-20th centuries, because of modern influences, caused this principle once more to receive wider acceptance.

The Qurʾān and Hadith are discussed below. The significance of ijmāʿ and ijtihād are discussed below in the contexts of Islamic theology, philosophy, and law.

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Islam | Religion, Beliefs, Practices, & Facts

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Islam, major world religion that emphasizes monotheism, the unity of God ('Allah' in Arabic), and Muhammad as his final messenger in a series of revelations. As the literal word of God, the Qur'an makes known the will of God, to which humans must surrender (lending the name Islam, meaning 'surrender').

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An artifact of importance to many in India.