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Proton:
mass: 1 amu
charge: +1
Location: nucleus

Neutron:
mass: 1 amu
charge:  neutral
Location: nucleus

Electron:
mass: 1/2000 amu
charge: -1
Location: Orbit around Nucleus

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Atom: An atom is the smallest particle of matter
Molecule: A molecule is 2 or more atoms bonded together
Elements: Elements consist of only one type of atom
Compound: are made up of two or more different atoms bonded together.

Mass number:
Protons + Neutrons
Atomic Number:
Number of Protons

Isotopes:
atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons

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Elements are arranged left to right and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number.

Dmitri Mendeleev:

In the 1860’s he devised a periodic table where the elements were ordered by their atomic masses

He did this by grouping elements together according to their similarities

Mendeleev’s Predictions:

Although Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of Elements had missing elements or “gaps,” he was able to predict the characteristics of these missing elements because of Periodic Law.

Henry Moseley:

In 1914, his work led to a revision of the periodic table by rearranging the elements by their atomic numbers

He concluded that the number of protons in an atom is its atomic number

Groups:

The different vertical columns of elements are called groups

Atoms of elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the outer energy levels (known as valence electrons).

Elements in the same family have similar properties for this reason.

Periods:

The different rows of elements are called periods.

Atomic numbers and atomic masses increase as you move from the left to the right in a period.

All atoms of the elements in the same period have the same number of energy levels/shells.

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Electron Configuration:

Shows the distribution of electrons in an atom without having to draw it.

E.g. Sulfur ³² ₁₆S

S; 2, 8, 6

Each energy level is separated by a comma.

Complete page 19 of your booklet.

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Metals:
Location

Found on the left of the zigzag line/staircase on the periodic table (exception  Hydrogen)

Chemical Properties

Have few electrons in their outer energy level, thus lose electrons easily

Physical Properties

ductile, good conductors, malleable, shiny, most are solid @ room temperature

Non-Metals
Location

Most found to the right of the zigzag line/staircase on the periodic table

Chemical Properties

Most have almost full outer energy levels, thus they tend to gain electrons;  some have completely full outer level

Physical Properties

not ductile or malleable, not shiny, poor conductors, most are solid, but some are gas at room temperature

Metalloids
Location

Border the zigzag line/staircase on the periodic table

Chemical Properties

Most atoms have ½ (≈) complete set of electrons in outer level

Physical Properties

have properties of both metals and non-metals

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Cation:  A positive ion

Mg²⁺, NH₄⁺

Anion:  A negative ion

Cl−, SO₄ 2−

Predicting Ionic Charges:
Group 1: Lose 1 electron to form 1+ ions Note: Hydrogen is not a metal, not an alkali metal and can form the hydride anion H- as well.

Group 2: Loses 2 electrons to form 2+ ions
Group 13: Loses 3 electrons to form 3+ ions Note: Boron is a semi-metal. It does not form ions as it has too few shells for the electrons to move easily
Group 14: Note: Sn (Tin) and Pb(Lead) are metals, so form cations. Note: Ge is a semi-metal and forms Ge2+ and Ge4+

Group 15: Gains 3 electrons to form 3- ions

Group 16: Gains 2 electrons to form 2- ions Note: Te is a Semi-metal, and Po is a toxic radioactive metal.

Group 17: Gains 1 electron to form 1- ions Note: Astatine is a semi-metal and extremely rare.
Group 18: Stable Noble gases do not form ions! Note: Noble gases have a full outer shell which is very stable, and so electrons are not lost or gain under normal circumstances.
Groups 3-12: many transition elements have more than one possible oxidation state
Some transition elements have only one possible oxidation state.

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Example: Aluminum sulfide
1. Write the formulas for the cation and anion, including CHARGES!
2. Check to see if charges are balanced.
3. Balance charges, if necessary, using subscripts.
Al ³⁺      S ²⁻        Al ₂ S 3

Example: Barium nitrate
1. Write the formulas for the cation and anion, including CHARGES!
2. Check to see if charges are balanced.
3. Balance charges , if necessary, using subscripts.Use brackets if you need more than one of a polyatomic ion.
Ba ²⁺    NO ₃-                           Ba(NO ₃)2

Naming Ionic Compounds
Cation first, then anion
Monatomic cation = name of the element
Ca²⁺ = calcium ion
Monatomic anion  =  root  +  -ide
Cl−  =  chloride
CaCl₂  =  calcium chloride

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Types of chemical reactions include:

Neutralisation (acid + base)

Acid + metal

Acid + carbonate

Combustion

Combination/Synthesis

Decomposition

Precipitation

Redox

Neutralisation Reactions:

Acid + base reactions involve the transfer of a hydrogen from the acid to the base.

Acid + Base     →     Salt  + Water

E.g. HCl + NaOH →  NaCl + H₂O

Acid + Metal Reactions:

Acid/metal reactions result in the formation of a salt and hydrogen gas.

Acid + metal → salt  + hydrogen gas

E.g.   HCl + Mg → MgCl₂  + H₂

Acid + Carbonate Reactions:

When an acid is reacted with a carbonate, a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas is produced.

Acid + “carbonate” → salt + water + carbon dioxide gas

E.g. HCl + Na₂CO₃ → NaCl + H₂O + CO₂

Combustion Reactions:

Combustion is generally burning in air, where a substance chemically combines with oxygen.

Hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

E.g. C₃H₈ + O₂ →  CO₂ + H₂O

Combination/Synthesis Reactions:

Two or more chemicals are combined to form another.

A + B → AB

E.g. Na + Cl₂ → NaCl

E.g. H₂ + O₂  + spark →  H₂O + (boom!)

Decomposition Reactions:

Chemical compounds can be split into their components in decomposition reactions.  Most need energy input and special conditions for this to happen.

E.g.   H₂O (electrolysis) → H₂ + O₂

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Polymer: a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.

Example: DNA is a polymer

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What is it...
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. It achieves control because it determines the structure of proteins.

Structure

DNA consists of two molecules that are arranged into a ladder like structure called a double helix.

A molecule of DNA is made up of millions of subunits called nucleotides which consist of a phosphate group, pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base.

The phosphate and sugar form the backbone of the DNA molecule, whereas the bases form the "rungs".

DNA is a polymer known as a polynucleotide.

Function:

a gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein

Each unique gene has a unique sequence of bases

This unique sequence of bases will code for the production of a unique protein

it is these proteins which give us our phenotype

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Base Pairs:

Cytosine and guanine : Cars in garages

Adenine and thymine: Apples in trees

Due to the complementary base pairing, the order of the bases in one strand determine the order of the bases in the other strand.

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What is it...
A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

Humans have 46 chromosomes.

One set of 23 chromosomes from female.

One set of 23 chromosomes from male.

Types...

Autosomes = Body chromosomes ( humans have 44 or 22 pairs)

Sex Chromosomes = XX or XY (23 rd pair for humans) determines the sex of the offspring

Parts of a chromosome...

Sister chromatid refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the DNA replication of a chromosome

Chromatid: Each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA.

Centromere: One major function of a centromere is joining the sister chromatids.

Gene Locus: A fixed position on a chromosome that is occupied by a given gene.

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A gene is the fundamental, physical, and functional unit of heredity.

Genes make up the sequences of DNA (genotypes)

The genotypes, together with the other factors (e.g. environmental factors), determine the phenotypic trait of an organism.

When genes mutate, variants (called alleles) are formed and this results in differences in phenotypic traits within a population.

In summary...

Genes code for proteins,

alleles are variants of genes, and

loci are locations on the chromosome.

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2N or N refers to the number of chromosomes in each cell.

Humans have 46 chromosomes, OR 23 pairs of chromosomes.

2N is 46 chromosomes for a human being.

N is 23 chromosomes for a human being.

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Cell division is the process in which a parent cell divides, giving rise to two or more daughter cells. It is an essential biological process in many organisms. Required in multicellular organisms in order to grow, repair, and reproduce.

1. Mitosis:

Only 1 division

2 daughter cells produced

each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell

Occurs in each body cell.

Daughter cells have 2N

Each daughter cell has 46 chromosomes.

2. Mitosis:

2 divisions occur

4 daughter cells produced after 2nd division

each daughter cell has half the genetic information of each parent cell

Occurs only in gamete cells.

1st division – 2 daughter cells have 2N

2nd division – 4 daughter cells have N

Each daughter cell has 23 chromosomes.

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A photomicrograph of a cell’s chromosome pairs (homologous pairs) arranged in order. They are digitally arranged according to size, banding pattern/gene location and centromere position.

Why use a karyotype:

1. To determine the sex of an individual.

2. To identify chromosomal abnormalities.

Monosomy: the condition of having a diploid chromosome complement in which one chromosome lacks its homologous partner.

Trisomy: a condition in which an extra copy of a chromosome is present in the cell nuclei, causing developmental abnormalities.

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All objects are in motion (they are moving).

The particles in an object have Vibrational Motion.

Objects travelling in a straight line have Linear Motion.

Objects travelling in a circle have Circular Motion.

Physics provides different ways to describe, explain and calculate Motion.

All Motion that we will be describing using Newtonian Physics (described by Newton’s Laws) is called Relative Motion.

It is relative to or compared with a particular Frame of Reference or background.

The 4 terms used to describe an objects Motion that we will look at today are:

Distance

Displacement

Speed

Velocity

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Distance (d) – is how far an object actually travels or its total path length to get from one point to another (measured in metres). It does not depend on the direction taken.
s x t = d

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Displacement (Δx) - is the change in position of an object. It is the difference between the final position of an object and its starting position.
It does depend on direction.
Is measured in metres

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Speed (s) – Rate at which an object is moving or its rate of change of Distance (measured in m/s or metres per second).

speed = distance / time

s = d/t

Like distance, speed does not depend on direction.

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Velocity (v) – is the rate of change of the position of an object or it’s rate of change of Displacement (measured in m/s and has a direction).

velocity = displacement / time

v = Δx / t

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Scalar Quantity – has magnitude (size) but not direction e.g. Distance and Speed.

Vector Quantity – has magnitude and direction

e.g. Displacement and Velocity.

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A distance-time graph which is a straight line indicates constant or unchanging speed. The slope or gradient of the line tells us what the speed is.

If the object does not speed up or slow down, its acceleration is zero.

A curved distance-time graph shows that the object is accelerating or changing speed.

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Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object.

Acceleration =
Final Velocity – Initial Velocity

Time

Acceleration is measured in m/s/s (metres per second per second)

Acceleration is a vector quantity so has a direction

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1. Principle of dominance

Hereditary characteristics are controlled by “paired factors” (genes).

The dominant allele is a trait that’s appearance will always be seen in offspring.

2. Principle of segregation

During meiosis the pairs of alleles separate.

Gametes contain ONE of each allele, as the chromosome pairs separate

3. Principle of independent assortment

During meiosis each gamete receives only ONE set of factors (genes), the other set going to another gamete.

These factors recombine during fertilisation.

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1. Random assortment

The process where the organisation of maternal and paternal chromosomes is random during metaphase.

2. Crossing Over

Segments of non-sister chromatids break and reattach to the other chromatid.

3. Cross Fertilisation

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Punnett Square: Table that is used to predict the probability of possible allele combinations (genotypes) of offspring between two parents.

Genotype: The name given to show the “competing” alleles of a chromosome pair.

Eg. bb, Bb, BB

Phenotype: The physical expression of the genotype on the offspring.

Eg. Genotype bb, results in brown hair phenotype,

Genotype Bb or BB, results in black hair phenotype.

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If both letters of the genotype are the same eg. AA or aa, then it is referred to as “HOMOZYGOUS”

If both letters of the genotype are different eg. Aa, then it is referred to as “HETEROZYGOUS”

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The passing on of genes from mother and father on the sex chromosomes.

Male sex chromosomes XY, Female sex chromosomes XX

The combination of these genes during fertilisation are responsible for the sex of the offspring and associated characteristics.

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If a gene is found only on the X chromosome and not the Y chromosome, it is said to be an X-linked trait.

Because the X chromosome is so much larger than the Y, it carries a lot more genetic information than Y (~2000 genes!)

Because the X chromosome carries more genes than Y, most sex-linked genes are on the X chromosome.

As a result, more boys express sex-linked traits than girls.

The only way for a recessive
X-linked trait to appear in females, is if both X chromosomes of an individual have the recessive allele

Males receive their X chromosome from their mother.

If their mother is affected they will also be affected (100%).

If their mother is a carrier, they may be affected also (50%).

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If a gene is found only on the Y chromosome and not the X chromosome, it is said to be a Y-linked trait.

The Y carries little genetic information, mainly those that contribute to male characteristics  (~ 87 genes total).

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Deceleration is just negative acceleration, when a body slows down.

We calculate deceleration just as we did for acceleration but the result will be negative.