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The apical-basal axis of the early plant embryo determines the body plan of the adult organism. To establish a polarized embryonic axis, plants evolved a unique mechanism that involves directional, cell-to-cell transport of the growth regulator auxin. Auxin transport relies on PIN auxin transporters, whose polar subcellular localization determines the flow directionality. PIN-mediated auxin transport mediates the spatial and temporal activity of the auxin response machinery that contributes to embryo patterning processes, including establishment of the apical (shoot) and basal (root) embryo poles (Wabnik et al., 2013).

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Radial patterning is responsible for the layering of multiple tissues in the developing embryo, wherein the ground tissue that is the precursor for the cortex and hypocotyl in the root, originates from the outermost cells in the protoderm. In the central domain of the developing root lies the procambium, responsible for the development of the vascular tissues and the pericycle. Variation within species provides the radial patterning that is responsible for the cell division and differentiation. In Arabidopsis thaliana, two genes MERISTEM LAYER1 and the PROTODERMAL FACTOR2 are expressed in order for the normal epidermal identity of the embryo to be established. Various precursors in the procambium are the determinant for the development of the vascular stele in the radial axis. These precursors are characterized by genes such as the WOODEN LEG gene, which is responsible for development of the precursor tissues that lead to the xylem and phloem. WOODEN LEG also encodes one of the several receptors for cytokinin, highlighting its importance for radial axis development. Other genes such as the SCARECROW and the SHORT-ROOT are utilized for the development and formation of the cortex tissues and the endodermal cell layers around it. They are noted for their protein sequences that they encode that are linked with GIBBERELLIN-INSENSITIVE transcription factors. SHORT-ROOT also encodes for the endodermal traits such as the presence of a Casparian strip, while the failure to express either the SHORT-ROOT and SCARECROW genes has led to the cell division failure in the region that is supposed to differentiate into the cortex and the epidermis (Taiz and Zeiger, 2014).

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DIFFERENCE OF A MONOCOT EMBRYO WITH A (EU)DICOT EMBRYO

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DIFFERENCE OF A MONOCOT EMBRYO WITH A (EU)DICOT EMBRYO

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Retrieved from LumenLearning (n.d)

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Embryonic development starts when the egg becomes successfully fertilized with the pollen grain. Once fertilized a series of mitotic divisions will occur together with the polarization of the embryo (positioning of the apical and basal cell). Vertical division of the basal cell will give rise to the suspensor while the continuous division of the apical cell will lead to cell accumulation that will form a globular shape that will consequently form a heart shape. The formation of two protruding lump of cell aggregate in the apical part is the initiation of the cotyledons of the embryo. Once the cotyledons are evident, the embryo is now on its torpedo stage. In this stage, the shoot and root apical meristem is already formed and further development will mature the embryo having established vascular tissue, ground tissue, and epidermis (De Vries & Weijers, 2017).

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Retrieved from Peedia.com (n.d)

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GRAVITROPISM

Gravitropism is an important plant growth response to the environment that directs shoots upward and roots downward, thereby allowing each organ to reach environments that are adequate for performance of their primary functions. Gravity sensing involves the sedimentation of dense amyloplasts within specialized gravity-sensing cells in each organ. This pathway leads to the development of a lateral gradient of the phytohormone auxin across gravity-stimulated organs. Because auxin promotes cell elongation in shoots and inhibits it in roots, this gradient is responsible for an organ tip curvature that allows it to resume growth at a predefined angle from gravity (Strohm et al., 2013).

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PHOTOTROPISM

Phototropism, or the differential cell elongation exhibited by a plant organ in response to directional blue light, provides the plant with a means to optimize photosynthetic light capture in the aerial portion and water and nutrient acquisition in the roots. Tremendous advances have been made in understanding of the molecular, biochemical, and cellular bases of phototropism in recent years. Six photoreceptors and their associated signaling pathways have been linked to phototropic responses under various conditions. Primary detection of directional light occurs at the plasma membrane, whereas secondary modulatory photoreception occurs in the cytoplasm and nucleus. Intracellular responses to light cues are processed to regulate cell-to-cell movement of auxin to allow establishment of a trans-organ gradient of the hormone. Photosignaling also impinges on the transcriptional regulation response established as a result of changes in local auxin concentrations  (Liscum et al., 2014).

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TROPISM

Plants exhibit exquisite sensitivity to their surroundings, possessing a wide array of sensory systems needed to monitor the environment and respond appropriately. It is not surprising therefore to see tropic responses to a host of environmental signals. Thus, plants have been shown to be able to elicit directional growth responses to stimuli from a vast number of abiotic factors (Gilroy, 2008). Two notable plant tropisms, phototropism and gravitropism, will be elucidated below.

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FOOD RESERVE MOBILIZATION

The mobilization of seed storage proteins upon seed imbibition and germination is a vital process in the establishment of the seedling. Storage proteins conform compactly, presenting only a limited number of vulnerable sites for initial proteolytic digestion. Evolutionarily related storage proteins have indistinguishable three-dimensional structure, and therefore tend to be initially split at similar sites. The initial cleavage makes possible subsequent rapid and extensive breakdown catalyzed by endo- and exopeptidases. The proteolytic enzymes that degrade the storage proteins during mobilization identified so far are mostly cysteine proteases, but also include serine, aspartic and metalloproteases. Plants often ensure early initiation of storage protein mobilization by depositing active proteases during seed maturation, in the very compartments where storage proteins are sequestered. Various means are used in such cases to prevent proteolytic attack until after imbibition of the seed with water. This constraint, however, is not always enforced as the dry seeds of some plant species contain proteolytic intermediates as a result of limited proteolysis of some storage proteins (Tan-Wilson & Wilson, 2012).

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IMBIBITION OF WATER

Imbibition refers to the stage where moisture or water enters into a plant seed through the cracks, grooves, or any possible entry within the coat of the seed. The water intake is being absorbed by the tissues within the seed. The rate of water uptake is in relation to two factors namely (1) temperature-dependent; and (2) accompanied by increases in respiration rate and in light sensitivity in some seed species. These observations imply that water uptake during imbibition is an active process at an early stage of this phase. The conclusion of this phase is signaled by an asymptotic approach to a final water uptake, or hydration level, which relies on ambient soil-water potential, soil conductivity to water, seed–soil contact, and seed composition (Hadas, 2005).

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What are the different mechanisms/pathways that are involved during the imbibition of water, how food reserves are mobilized, and tropisms? 

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What are the different mechanisms/pathways that are involved during the imbibition of water, how food reserves are mobilized, and tropisms? 

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Retrieved from Eira et al., 2016.

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Seed dormancy that is characterized by physiological features such as the seed coat or external tissues is termed as coat-imposed dormancy. Coat-imposed dormancy can be exhibited through impermeability to water of seeds, wherein waxy cuticles to layered appendages on the seed  of lignin through sclereids contribute in the blocking of water to the seed. It is common in legumes and can be broken through the use of scarification of the seed by mechanical or chemical means. Granivores, or animals that prey on plant seeds, play a crucial role in breaking the dormancy of these seeds, as digestive juices within them can help cause chemical scarification and induce germination after it has been passed through bowel movement back to the soil. An example of these would be how avian granivores in the Amazon have been observed to help in seed dispersal and their germination through the gut treatment of seeds of Ormosia lignivalvis within them (Peres and van Roosmalen, 1996).

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Amazona ochrocephala, an example of a granivorous bird in the Amazon basin.

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Ormosia lignivalvis seeds and their seed dispersal

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Other examples of seed dormancy breaking include the inhibition of radicle growth in Coffee arabica, wherein thick cell walls of the seeds have to be degraded by cell wall-degrading enzymes such as endo-β-mannanase in micropylar endosperm (de Farias et al., 2015). Mechanical and chemical scarification and the application of hot water and acid and finally even exposure to light have been observed to induce germination and stop seed dormancy depending on the physiological characteristics of the seeds in question.

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What is seed dormancy and what are the different types to break it?

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What is seed dormancy and what are the different types to break it?

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Seed dormancy is the state whereby germination of a seed is blocked in otherwise favorable conditions in order to maximize either the dispersal of the seed or increase its survivability. Seed dormancy is regulated in a variety of factors, which can be assessed depending on the time it was dispersed. Seeds that are mature yet are newly dispersed, that are unable to germinate are observed to undergo Primary Dormancy, which is regulated by the abscisic acid levels within it through the inhibition of water uptake and the reversal of embryo development at the point wherein the radicle is beginning to develop. Additionally, seeds that have lost its primary dormancy yet still remain ungerminated exhibit Secondary Dormancy, wherein the environmental conditions aren’t enough yet to support development (Taiz and Zeiger, 2014).

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             What is a seed and what is inside of it?

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             What is a seed and what is inside of it?

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A seed is a reproductive body of spermatophytes which is described as a miniature undeveloped plant (embryo) enveloped with a protective covering referred to as a testa (may also contain a stored food referred to as endosperm for initial development). This reproductive body is the ripened ovule after the fertilization of a flower plant organ that, when stimulated with applicable environmental conditions, will grow and develop into a functioning photosynthetic multicellular plant organism. Noting that they will develop into adult plant organisms, seeds contain the three primary meristems namely the protoderm (epidermis precursor), ground meristem (ground tissue precursor), and procambium (vascular tissue precursor; Stahl & Simon, 2010). Furthermore, the plant embryo is composed of the juvenile structures of the plant viz. the cotyledon (seed leaf), radicle (juvenile root system), hypocotyl (connection between cotyledon and radicle), and epicotyl (juvenile shoot system; Boesewinkel & Bouman, 1984).

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A genebank in tatters. (2021, May 26). Retrieved from https://grain.org/article/entries/4203-a-genebank-in-tatters

Adams, V. M., Marsh, D. M., & Knox, J. S. (2005). Importance of the seed bank for population viability and population monitoring in a threatened wetland herb. Biological Conservation, 124(3), 425–436. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.02.001

Boesewinkel, F. D., & Bouman, F. (1984). The Seed: Structure. Embryology of Angiosperms, 567–610. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-69302-1_12

de Farias, E. T., da Silva, E. A. A., Toorop, P. E., Bewley, J. D., & Hilhorst, H. W. M. (2015). Expression studies in the embryo and in the micropylar endosperm of germinating coffee (Coffea arabica cv. Rubi) seeds. Plant Growth Regul., 75(2), 575–581. doi: 10.1007/s10725-014-9960-6

De Vries, S. C., & Weijers, D. (2017). Plant embryogenesis. Current Biology, 27(17), R870–R873. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.026

Development Seeds and Fruit | Biology for Majors II. (2021, May 26). Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/development-seeds-and-fruit/?fbclid=IwAR276I0kSMBqcpF-KgmoDPHF9E0SJE0qcr21jekzciHzMANyV6dPCJrokVA

Difference Between Monocot and Dicot Embryo - Pediaa.Com. (2018, April 26). Retrieved from https://pediaa.com/difference-between-monocot-and-dicot-embryo

Eira, M. T. S., Silva, E. A. A. d., De Castro, R. D., Dussert, S., Walters, C., Bewley, J. D., & Hilhorst, H. W. M. (2006). Coffee seed physiology. Braz. J. Plant Physiol., 18, 149–163. doi: 10.1590/S1677-04202006000100011

Gilroy, S. (2008). Plant tropisms. Current Biology, 18(7), R275–R277. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.02.033

Hadas, A. (2005). GERMINATION AND SEEDLING ESTABLISHMENT. Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 130–137. doi:10.1016/b0-12-348530-4/00149-1

Lecture 3: Plant Embryogenesis. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/SBT403/scormPackages/path_2/lecture_3_plant_embryogenesis.html

Liscum, E., Askinosie, S. K., Leuchtman, D. L., Morrow, J., Willenburg, K. T., & Coats, D. R. (2014). Phototropism: growing towards an understanding of plant movement. The Plant cell, 26(1), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.113.119727

Novellino, D. (2000). Forest Conservation in Palawan. Philippine Studies, 48(3): 347-372

Sopsop, L.B. & Buot, I.E. (2009). The endangered plants of Palawan Island, Philippines. Asia Life Sciences, 18(2):251-279

Stahl, Y., & Simon, R. (2010). Plant primary meristems: shared functions and regulatory mechanisms. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 13(1), 53–58. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2009.09.008

Strohm, A., Baldwin, K., & Masson, P. H. (2013). Gravitropism in Arabidopsis thaliana. Brenner’s Encyclopedia of Genetics, 358–361. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374984-0.00662-8

Tan-Wilson, A. L., & Wilson, K. A. (2012). Mobilization of seed protein reserves. Physiologia plantarum, 145(1), 140–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2011.01535.x

Taiz, L., & Zeiger, E. (2014). Plant Physiology and Development:6th Revised edition. Sunderland: SINAUER Associates Inc., U.S.

Peres, C. A., & van Roosmalen, M. G. M. (1996). Avian Dispersal of “Mimetic Seeds” of Ormosia lignivalvis by Terrestrial
Granivores: Deception or Mutualism? Oikos, 75(2), 249. doi:10.2307/3546248

Vernooy, Ronnie, Pitambar Shrestha, and Bhuwon Sthapit, eds. Community seed banks: Origins, evolution and prospects. Routledge, 2015.

Wabnik, K., Robert, H. S., Smith, R. S., & Friml, J. (2013). Modeling framework for the establishment of the apical-basal embryonic axis in plants. Current biology : CB, 23(24), 2513–2518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.038

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If you will be asked to give seeds of 10 native species (endemic/indigenous) that are found in your Plant Area, what would these be and why did you choose them? 

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If you will be asked to give seeds of 10 native species (endemic/indigenous) that are found in your Plant Area, what would these be and why did you choose them? 

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Listed below are ten plant species native to Palawan, Philippines whose seeds should be deposited in a seed bank for they are endemic in the island and play a vital role in maintaining the tradition and culture of the province.

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Scientific name: Ipomoea pes-caprae

Common name: Beach Morning Glory
This plant is a common pantropical creeping vine that grows on the upper parts of beaches and endures salted air. Its leaves are used to hasten the bursting of boils; sap from the young leaves are boiled in coconut juice and used to treat sores and ulcers; and the seeds chewed with areca nut, soothe abdominal pains and cramps. Its leaves when boiled are also used as a traditional treatment against rheumatism.

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Scientific name: Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

Common name: Oriental mangrove

This mangrove species which grows up to 35 meters high is usually found on the seaward side of mangrove swamps, often in the company of Rhizophora. Its bark, when powdered, is used in the processing of a local alcoholic drink in the Philippines called “tuba”.

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Scientific name: Epithema madulidii
(no common name)
Epithema madulidii is an endemic plant in Palawan, Philippines. It came from the genus Epithema from the family  Gesneriaceae and subfamily Didymocarpoideae. Species distribution records are mostly from western tropical Africa to Uganda, tropical and subtropical Asia.

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Scientific name: Pongamia pinnata

Common name: Poonga Oil Tree

This tree can usually be found growing in beach areas. The oil extract from the fruit of this tree is widely used in traditional medications such as in curing ulcers, gonorrhea, vaginal and skin diseases, and for cleaning of teeth and gums.

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Scientific name: Dioscorea hispida

Common name: Intoxicating Yam

This yam plant is popular among the natives of Palawan for it is considered as a delicacy. However, this yam plant should undergo various preparations before serving for it contains cyanide toxin.

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Scientific name: Tarenna palawanensis

(no common name)

This plant species is endemic in Palawan, Philippines and is one of the 370 known species under the genus Tarenna of the family Rubiaceae. A notable feature of this plant is its majestic flower that can be in colors white, green, or yellow.

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Scientific name: Xanthostemon speciosus

Common name: Palawan Mangkono
Palawan mangkono is another endemic ironwood species found only in the province of Palawan including nearby islands of Busuanga, Culion, and Manamoc. Its wood is of great interest due to its stiffness and hardness not to mention its heaviness.

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is an ecoregion recognized by the WWF, encompassing the whole main island of Palawan and the surrounding islands of Balabac, Calamian and Ursula.

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The archipelagic province of Palawan is one of the noteworthy regions in the Philippines that has an astonishing environment to offer. This natural hotspot is one of the most botanically diverse islands in the Philippines inhabiting 1,700 to 3,500 flowering plant species; 15%-20% of those are endemic in the province (Sopsop & Buot, 2009). The rich ecosystem that the province houses is one of the reasons why the Philippines is regarded as a Biodiversity Hotspot worldwide. However, this natural treasure that the province possesses has long been of great risk due to human-environment interactions as well as industrializations (Novellino, 2000). With this reason, the province was acclaimed as a Man and Biosphere Reserve and recognized as one of the Philippine Priority Area for Biodiversity Conservation. Aside from implementing rules and regulations with regards to biodiversity conservation, another way of preserving biodiversity is to deposit and secure a seed of the plant species in a seed bank.

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Scientific name: Nepenthes Palawanensis
Common name: Palawan Pitcher Plant
Nepenthes Palawanensis, a tropical pitcher plant, is endemic to Sultan Peak in the island of Palawan in the Philippines. It can be found in places with elevations of 1,100 to 1,236 meters above sea level. This carnivorous plant contains proteolytic enzymes which they use to obtain nutrients from insects.

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Scientific name: Ixora palawanensis
Common name: Palawan Santan
The Palawan Santan is a wild flower species endemic in Palawan, Philippines. This flowering plant is one of the 562 known species from the genus Ixora, a group of flowering plants that centers its diversity in Tropical Asia.

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Scientific name: Garcinia busuangensis
(no common name)
This tree species can only be found in Palawan, Philippines and nowhere else on Earth. Species under the genus Garcinia are evergreen trees that are dioecious thus implying that they are prone to natural ways of extinction

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What is a seed bank and why is it important? 

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What is a seed bank and why is it important? 

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A seed bank, also referred to as a gene bank for seeds, is a storage reserve facility where plant seeds of a vast number of species are stored to preserve floral genetic diversity in the years to come. With a mission to serve as a viable backup of the floral biodiversity that the world currently has, seed banks are built as flood, bomb, and radiation-proof vaults that provide adequate conditions for the longevity of the seed it contains. These reserves mainly act as a preventive measure in the case that catastrophic events take place such as natural and man-made disasters, plagues, and climate change that would wipe out the entire biotic ecosystem as well as to preserve crop diversity and source of seed material for research. The world’s ecosystem is continuously changing both naturally and due to human causes such as industrialization, urbanization, and consumption; and having these banks will secure the lineage of the plant species that we currently have and prevent it from going into extinction (Adams et al., 2005).

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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According to Vernooy, Shrestha and Sthapit (2015), the Philippines is one of the countries in the developing world that pioneered small-scale local community seed banks. Local efforts made by the different ethnic tribes in the Cordillera Region of the Philippines regarding home and community seed banks has been an age-old tradition passed through generations in the form of a su-ulan, a type of agricultural storage used by the natives to store and preserve rice harvest, corn, root crops and seeds, protecting the from fungus and other rot-inducing phenomena. In modern times, there have been several instances already where a national seed bank was established by the different biological and agricultural authorities in the country. Republic Act 7308 of 1992, otherwise known as the Seed Industry Development Act, which created the National Seed Industry Council that was tasked to support farmers through seed cataloging in a single database for quality control and diversity studies. Until 2006, the National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory (NPGRL) in Los Banos had the one of the largest collection of seeds in the country accounting 45,000 accessions of over 500 species stored in the facility for diversity and botanical conservation. However, during the destruction of Typhoon Milenyo in 2006, 70% of its collection was destroyed, losing about 20 Million pesos worth of seeds in the gene bank depository (GRAIN, 2007).