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Seed banks located in the Svalbard archipelago (Fig 1.) and Millenium Seed Bank (Fig 2.) are built for collecting millions billions of seed samples copy from gene banks globally. They are used as storage for crops and other important plants that are essential for humans. Svalbard is located in the deeps of permafrost with 0 up to -18 degrees celsius of temperature is maintained. It is considered the “Noahs ark of plant diversity”, “The world's largest collection of genetic diversity of crops", or “World's most important room” as it can produce plant varieties as needed just by using genes. While the primary aim of the Millenium Seed Bank is to save habitats and also save the plans that are rare and endangered in the wild by having a backup. It is essential called the "Number 1 biodiversity hotspot for the seed bank ".

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Most of the seed banks are established by the communities such as in the Cordillera region were 12 indigenous rice varieties, 29 endemic sweet potato varieties, 7 bean varieties. This is brought by Cordillera Ecological Center more known as PINE TREE in support of the global seed banking system (Bengwayan, 2020).  The Community seed banks provide food security for the indigenous people and their farmers  (Vernooy et al., 2019).

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Figure 5. Map of Cavite showing the forest fragments (Causaren, Lagat, & Agoo (2017)

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Figure 5. Map of Cavite showing the forest fragments (Causaren, Lagat, & Agoo (2017)

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Below are the 10 Native species we have chosen found in the Cavite area. I. caviteana is one of the very few plants that are endemic in the area. We have decided to include this as a representative plant of the area. With its ombre purple petals that bloom and its simple appearance, it perfectly encapsulates the area; simple and not as grande as Manila, but it is filled with beautiful people that will show you a good time when you visit.

The other nine species are all trees found in the area. Despite these plants being common in other areas, We have chosen these plants because even the most common ones deserve appreciation, especially the ones that help the economy with the fruits it bear, as well as protects the people from the blazing heat in the summertime.

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Figure 6. Impatiens caviteana

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Ericales
Family: Balsaminaceae

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Figure 7. Canarium ovatum

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Ericales
Family: Balsaminaceae

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Figure 8. Diospyros blancoi

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Ericales
Family: Ebenaceae

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Figure 9. Pterocarpus indicus

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae

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Figure 10. Citrus maxima

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae

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Figure 11. Dillenia philippinensis

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Dilleniales
Family: Dilleniaceae

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Figure 12. Celtis luzonica

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Cannabaceae

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Figure 13. Tamarindus indicus

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae

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Figure 14. Vitex parviflora

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae

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Figure 15. Artocarpus blancoi

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae

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Figure 16. Ficus balete

Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae

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(Taiz et al., 2015)

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This is the anatomy of the seed. The beginning of the plant life. A seed protects a young plant's embryo and its food source. Seeds come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and they differ from plant to plant, but they all share similar structures including the embryo, endosperm, and seed coat. From seeds, fruits arise, which are mature ovaries that form from fertilized eggs in the ovary of a flowering plant. And from the fruits, a new seed arise, and the cycle continues.

The embryo, endosperm, and seed coat are the three main components of a seed. Before it emerges from the seed, the embryo is an immature multicellular creature. The endosperm, which is mostly made up of carbohydrates, provides a source of stored nourishment. The seed coat is made up of one or more layers of protection that surround the seed.

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The process through which a single cell transforms into a multicellular creature with a distinct, albeit often rudimentary, organization is known as embryogenesis. Embryogenesis occurs in most seed plants within the boundaries of the ovule, a specialized structure generated within the flower's carpels (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Figure 20. The Stages of Embryogenesis (Eudictos)

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Figure 20. The Stages of Embryogenesis (Eudictos)

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The haploid egg and sperm fuse to generate the single-celled zygote in the first stage of the diploid life cycle. This cell's polarized development is followed by asymmetric transverse division, producing a small apical cell and an elongated basal cell.

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A sequence of divisions occur in the apical cell, resulting in a spherical, octant globular embryo with radial symmetry. Additional cell divisions increase the number of cells in the globular embryo and form the protoderm, which becomes the epidermis.

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The two cotyledons are formed by cell divisions occuring in two locations on either side of the future shoot apical meristem, providing the embryo bilateral symmetry.

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Throughout the embryonic axis, cell elongation and differentiation occur. The cotyledons' adaxial and abaxial tissues begin to show obvious differences.

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The embryo and seed lose fluids and become metabolically inert as they enter dormancy at the end of development. At the mature stage, storage compounds accumulate in the cells.

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Figure 21. The Stages of Embryogenesis (Monocots)

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Figure 21. The Stages of Embryogenesis (Monocots)

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The stages of embryogenesis are similar up until the Globular Stage. They start to differ with one another later on (Sliwinska & Bewley, 2014).

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The first cell division after fertilization is asymmetrical and results in the formation of an apical and basal cell. The embryo develops from the apical cell, which divides faster than the basal cell.

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The globular stage of the proembryo is similar to that of eudicots, except that the suspensor is neither a single or double row of cells and is less developed. The outer epidermal layer is visible in the late globular stage, and a group of cells on one side of the proembryo divides more rapidly. The embryo axis will emerge from this.

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Monocots have replaced the two cotyledons found in dicot embryos with a single modified cotyledon known as the scutellum. Between the endosperm and embryo axis, the scutellum works as a conducting tissue. The embryo axis and suspensor are established during the coleoptile stage of development.

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The shoot and root meristems are developed later, and leaf primordia are differentiated.

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During maturation, embryonic cells stop dividing, and the embryo dessicates and remains dormant. The coleorhiza, a specific thin tissue that surrounds the radicle in mature graminaceous embryos, is also present.

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Polarity, in which tissues and organs are arranged in a stereotyped order along an axis running from the shoot apical meristem to the root apical meristem, is a distinguishing trait of seed plants. The zygote, which elongates threefold and becomes polarized in terms of its intracellular composition, is an early expression of the apical–basal axis. In contrast to the basal end, which contains a huge central vacuole, the zygote's apical end is densely cytoplasmic. When the zygote divides asymmetrically, resulting in a short, cytoplasmically dense apical cell and a longer, vacuolated basal cell, these disparities in cytoplasmic density are captured. The developmental potential of the basal cell is limited. The filamentous suspensor, which connects the embryo to the parent plant's vascular system, is formed by a series of transverse divisions. Only the hypophysis, the topmost of the division products, is integrated into the mature embryo.

The cotyledons and the shoot apical meristem are produced by the apical region, which is formed from the apical quartet of cells. The hypocotyl, root, and apical parts of the root meristem are formed from the middle region, which is produced from the basal quartet of cells. The rest of the root meristem is formed by the hypophysis, which is generated from the topmost cell of the suspensor.

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An acetyl-CoA carboxylase is encoded by this gene. Because acetyl-CoA carboxylase is necessary for the production of VLCFA (very-long-chain fatty acids) and sphingolipids, these molecules or their derivatives are essential for the appropriate patterning of the embryo's apical region.

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Encodes a sterol C-14 reductase, implying that sterols are important for cotyledon, hypocotyl, root, and shoot meristem pattern creation formation during embryogenesis.

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Encodes a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), which establishes a polar distribution of PIN auxin efflux carriers, allowing for directional auxin transport.

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It encodes an auxin response transcription factor (ARF), which is required for the production of basal components such as the root and hypocotyl.

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Figure 25. Auxin: a vital hormone in plant embryogenesis

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Figure 25. Auxin: a vital hormone in plant embryogenesis

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Auxin (indole-3-acetic acid, or IAA) and its synthetic analogs are morphogens because they can trigger the creation of embryos from somatic cells and evoke specific concentration-dependent responses in target tissues. These reactions are linked to distinct gradients that arise throughout embryonic development and are caused by a combination of localized auxin production and intercellular activities known as polar auxin transport.

Long-distance polar auxin transfer from apical tissues and young leaves to the root tip has been shown to control stem elongation, apical dominance, and lateral branching. It was discovered that auxin fluxes redirected at the root apex into the root epidermis are required for root gravitropic responses.

Shootward or basipetal flow refers to auxin transport from the shoot and root apices to the root–shoot transition zone, whereas rootward or acropetal flow refers to auxin transport downward in the root. Polar auxin transfer, both shootward and rootward, is a key factor in directing growth in a controlled and plastic manner.

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Germination is dependent on the same environmental factors that govern vegetative growth: water and oxygen must be accessible, and the temperature must be appropriate. However, even if all of the environmental parameters are met, a viable seed may not germinate, a process known as seed dormancy.

It is an inherent temporal block to germination that allows for more time for the seed to spread over longer distances or seasonal dormancy cycling in the soil seed bank. It also increases seedling survival by inhibiting germination in unfavorable environments. (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Figure 27.

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Seed dormancy can be caused by embryo dormancy, inhibitory effects of tissues around the embryo, or a combination of the two. Coat-imposed dormancy refers to the physiological dormancy inflicted on the embryo by the seed coat and other structures, such as endosperm, pericarp, or extrafloral organs. After the seed coat and other surrounding tissues have been destroyed or removed, the embryos of these seeds germinate quickly in the presence of water and oxygen

Embryo dormancy refers to seed dormancy that is caused by the embryo itself rather than the seed coat or other surrounding tissues. The cotyledons can be removed in some situations to ease embryo dormancy. European hazel (Corylus avellana) and European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) are two species in which the cotyledons have an inhibitory impact..

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Primary dormancy is produced by abscisic acid (ABA) during seed development in newly dispersed, mature seeds that fail to germinate under optimal conditions. Many variables can contribute to this (Taiz et al., 2015).

Figure 28.

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Non-dormant seeds may acquire secondary dormancy after losing primary dormancy if they are subjected to unfavorable conditions that prevent germination over time.

The seed dormancy cycles of annual dicot weed species are examples of secondary dormancy in nature. A population of seeds buried in the soil, known as a soil seed bank, must be able to discern when the climatic conditions are right for germination and seedling growth in order to synchronize themselves with the seasons. Dicot weed seeds germinate at specific periods of the year in temperate zones. Summer annuals, for example, often germinate for a short period of time in the spring, with a second cycle of germination occurring later in the summer.

Although soil moisture or disturbance can encourage emergence, the annual cycle of germination is determined by a seasonal fluctuation in the environment rather than the current environmental variables. Seeds may establish secondary dormancy if germination conditions are adverse.

Warm summer temperatures promote secondary dormancy in summer annuals like Polygonum persicaria. Summer temperatures interrupt dormancy in winter annuals like Veronica hederofolia, whereas low winter temperatures cause secondary dormancy. As a result, summer annuals germinate in the spring and winter annuals in the autumn (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Figure 30.

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Considering germination is an irreversible process that commits a seed to grow into a seedling, many species have evolved sophisticated mechanisms for detecting the ideal environmental circumstances for this to transpire. As in the case of secondary dormancy, the ultimate "choice" of a seed to germinate often has seasonal components.

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Figure 31.

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In seeds, light is a crucial signal that causes them to emerge from their dormancy. Coat-imposed dormancy affects all light-dependent seeds, and removing the endosperm allows the embryo to germinate in the absence of light. The major sensor for light-regulated seed germination is Phytochrome, which detects red (R) and far-red (FR) wavelengths of light.

Photoperiod varies with every plant. In birch (Betula spp.), seeds take a long time to germinate, whereas eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) seeds take only a few days.

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Figure 32.

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To disrupt dormancy, some seeds require cooling or after-ripening. Stratification is the process of chilling seeds to break their dormancy. Stratification also provides the advantage of synchronizing germination, ensuring that plants mature at the same time. This is evident on Apple (Malus domestica) seeds.

Before germination, some seeds may require a period of after-ripening, or dry storage at room temperature. This can happen with winter annuals when the seeds' dormancy is disturbed by warm summer temperatures, allowing them to germinate in the fall. Many summer annuals, on the other hand, benefit from damp chilling throughout the cold winter months. The mechanism by which after-ripening causes dormancy to be broken is not well known.

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Figure 33.

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In specific species, a variety of chemicals have been proven to break seed dormancy. Only a few of these, however, are found naturally in the environment. The most essential of these is nitrate, which is frequently combined with light.

Smoke, which is created during forest fires, is another major chemical stimulator of seed germination in many species under natural settings. Smoke is likely to include a variety of germination stimulants, but karrikinolide, a member of the class karrikins, which are structurally similar to strigolactones, is one of the most potent. This was evident in Anthocercis littorea as shown in the image above.

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Germination is the development of a seed from dormancy and a process that starts at its water uptake; it is also considered the first phase of the growth cycle in plants.

Water uptake is a necessity for the cell expansion, which starts the vegetative growth and development of the plant

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This causes the seeds to expand and hydrates the enzymes and food supplies. Due to the enzymes being hydrated, it now becomes active, and the seed's metabolic rate produces energy for plant growth.

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Phase I.  Rapid uptake of water.

In the seed, the matric potential (Ψm) component of the water potential
equation lowers the Ψ which then results in a gradient. The increase in matric potentials is due to the water that is binding into solid surfaces (Microcapillaries of cell walls, proteins, other macromolecules).

Rehydrated cellular molecules will activate more metabolic process (Respiration, transcription, and translocation

Phase II. Enhanced water uptake

After the saturation due to the water and lowered Ψm, the water uptake slows down and will eventually reestablish the water potential once again. The embryo becomes negative on its solute potential because of the breakdowns of food reserves. The volume of seeds increases, therefore, breaking the seed coat and other metabolic processes now start due to the activation of DNA repair. Once the radicle emerges by seed coat rupture or endosperm weakening, Phase II marks the end of the seed germination.

This phase is considered important as it where the biochemical events are established (DNA repair, DNA translation, and new mRNAs.

Phase III. Uptake of water along with the initiation of growth

Radicle protrusion has already happened
Water uptake rate increases rapidly due to the cell wall loosening and expansion. Thus the water potential is maintained with the help of relaxation of cell walls and accumulation of the solutes

(Taiz et al., 2015)

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Figure 35

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The food reserves of the seeds are commonly found on cotyledons or endosperm. The stored food acts as a nutrient provider by mobilization for the seedling to grow until it can generate its own food (autotrophic).

Specialized Organelles

Carbohydrates (starches) in amyloplasts

proteins,

and lipids

Starch Degradation

1.  α-amylase - hydrolyze starch chains > oligosaccharides

2.  β-amylase - degrades oligosaccharides > maltose > maltase converts maltose > glucose

Protein storage vacoules

Amino acids

Phytin

The K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ salt of phytic acid a (myo-inositol hexaphosphate)

Mobilization happens when:

phytase hydrolyzes phytin > releases phosphate & ions

Oil/Lipid bodies

Lipids (Triacylglycerols and phospholipids)

Proteins (oleosins)

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Figure 36

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Tropisms are the plant's response to external stimuli such as abiotic factors (light, gravity, touch) which the plant can change its orientations or positions to adapt to these factors.

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The gravity guides or deflect the plant on how it will orient itself for growth with proper positioning to efficiently collect nutrient materials and photosynthesize with the help of the plant hormone auxin (Chen, Rosen, & Masson, 1999).

There are two types of gravitropism; positive geotropism in roots and negative geotropism mainly on upper organs of the plants.

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The light can guide the plant to allow it to orient the organism towards the light which increases the available light for photosynthesis

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Triggered by the touch stimuli. Vine tendrils wraps around an object it touches and helps roots grow around obstacles

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References

Bengwayan M. (2020). Philippine Indigenous NGO Seed Banking For Food Security – OpEd. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/10122020-philippine-indigenous-ngo-seed-banking-for-food-security-oped/

Chen, R., Rosen, E., & Masson, P. H. (1999). Gravitropism in higher plants. Plant physiology, 120(2), 343-350. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.120.2.34

Finet, C., & Jaillais, Y. (2012). AUXOLOGY: When auxin meets plant evo-devo. Developmental Biology, 369(1), 19-31. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.05.039

Flematti, G. R., Dixon, K. W., & Smith, S. M. (2015). What are karrikins and how were they ‘discovered’ by plants? BMC Biology, 13(1), 108. doi: 10.1186/s12915-015-0219-0

Mauseth, J. D. (2017). Botany: An introduction to plant biology

Medecilo, M. M. P., & Lagat, M. N. (2017). Floristic composition of the remaining forests in upland Cavite, Luzon Island, Philippines. Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology, 11, 74-94.

Sliwinska, E., & Bewley, J. (2014). Overview of seed development, anatomy and morphology (pp. 1-17).

Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

Vernooy, R., Mulesa, T. H., Gupta, A., Jony, J. A., Koffi, K. E., Mbozi, H., ... & Wakkumbure, C. L. K. (2020). The role of community seed banks in achieving farmers’ rights. Development in Practice, 30(5), 561-574.

Image Credits

[Figure 1]  CropTrust (2018). Retrieved from https://report.croptrust.org/2018/take-action/thank-you/

[Figure 2] Crop Trust (n.d.) Svalbard Global Seed Vault. Retrieved from https://www.croptrust.org/our-work/svalbard-global-seed-vault/

[Figure 3] Kew Botanic Gardens (n.d.) Millennium Seed Bank. Retrieved from https://www.kew.org/wakehurst/whats-at-wakehurst/millennium-seed-bank

[Figure 4] Unknown (2020). Retrieved from https://theqoo.net/square/1433891840

[Figure 5] Causaren, R. M., Lagat, R. D., & Agoo, E. M. G. (2017). Tree species diversity of the remaining forest fragments in Cavite, Luzon Island, Philippines. Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology, 11(2), 56-73.

[Figure 6] Fern at al ph. (2020). Impatiens caviteana, a flowering plant endemic to the Province of Cavite, Luzon Island, Philippines. from https://www.picuki.com/media/2230241199246324415

[Figure 7] Rozendale (n.d.) Pili nut tree - Canarium ovatum. Retrieved from https://rozendale.com/rad/Canarium_ovatum.html

[Figure 8] Judgefloro (n.d.) Diospyros blancoi. Retrieved from https://rozendale.com/rad/Canarium_ovatum.html

[Figure 9] National Tropical Botanical Garden (n.d.) Pterocarpus indicus. Retrieved from https://ntbg.org/database/plants/detail/Pterocarpus-indicus

[Figure 10] Planting Man (n.d.) Pomelo (Citrus maxima) – Fruit garden. Retrieved from https://plantingman.com/pomelo-citrus-maxima-fruit-garden/

[Figure 11] BD (2020). Katmon’s phytochemical constituents and biological activities studied. Retrieved from https://businessdiary.com.ph/12839/katmons-phytochemical-constituents-and-biological-activities-studied/

[Figure 12] Miliken W. (n.d.) Celtis L.. Retrieved from http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002308-2

[Figure 13] Mansum (n.d.) tamarind tree in garden - Tamarindus indica. Retrieved from https://www.123rf.com/photo_49848464_tamarind-tree-in-garden-tamarindus-indica.html

[Figure 14] Starr & Starr (n.d.) Cultivated tree in Hawaii. [Image]. Retrieved May 15, 2021 from http://tropical.theferns.info/image.php?id=Vitex+parviflora

[Figure 15] Forest treasures (n.d.) Artocarpus Blancoi 'Antipolo' (endemic/Philippines) [Image]. Retrieved from http://www.forest-treasures.com/exoticplants/variegated/VARIEGATED_1846.JPG.html

[Figure 16] Bagonoc D. (2017). Twig with figs. Retrieved from http://phytoimages.siu.edu/imgs/pelserpb/r/Moraceae_Ficus_balete_120347.html

[Figure 17] Oneirys (n.d.). Retrieved from https://giphy.com/stickers/plant-seed-oneirys-2OptaFKx2lO4Butwnn

[Figure 18] Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

[Figure 19] Cell Press (2011). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LL28rMiZIPI

[Figure 20] Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

[Figure 21] Sliwinska, E., & Bewley, J. (2014). Overview of seed development, anatomy and morphology (pp. 1-17).

[Figure 22] Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

[Figure 23] Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

[Figure 24] Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

[Figure 25] Finet, C., & Jaillais, Y. (2012). AUXOLOGY: When auxin meets plant evo-devo. Developmental Biology, 369(1), 19-31. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.05.039

[Figure 26] Simple Happy Kitchen (n.d.). Retrieved from https://giphy.com/gifs/simplehappykitchen-vegan-simple-happy-kitchen-cartoon-eeC2QkUR5kggLtEhPz

[Figure 27] Historic London Town & Gardens (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.historiclondontown.org/post/2019/08/23/botanists-lens-seed-dormancy-surviving-the-adverse

[Figure 28] Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

[Figure 29] Taiz, L., Zeiger E., Moller, I.M., Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.

[Figure 30] Unknown (n.d.). Retrieved from https://gfycat.com/creamywillingaztecant

[Figure 31] WebStockReview (n.d.). Retrieved from https://webstockreview.net/image/energy-clipart-sun-energy/2657461.html

[Figure 32] Howell, J. (2018). How to Prechill Seeds. Retrieved from https://www.gardengatemagazine.com/articles/how-to/start-seeds/how-to-prechill-your-seeds

[Figure 33] Flematti, G. R., Dixon, K. W., & Smith, S. M. (2015). What are karrikins and how were they ‘discovered’ by plants? BMC Biology, 13(1), 108. doi: 10.1186/s12915-015-0219-0

[Figure 34] Unknown. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://giphy.com/gifs/days-plant-growth-txCo7WXCwZpmM

[Figure 35] Kathpalia R., Bhatla S.C. (2018) Seed Dormancy and Germination. In: Plant Physiology, Development and Metabolism. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2023-1_28

[Figure 36] Unknown. (n.d.) Sunflower gif. Retrieved from padlet.com