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1. Kinetic energy: energy that a body possesses by virtue of being in motion.
2. Diode:a semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of current in one direction only.
3. Electroscope: an instrument for detecting and measuring electricity, especially as an indication of the ionization of air by radioactivity.
4. Electromagnetic energy: is a form of energy that can be reflected or emitted from objects through electrical or magnetic waves traveling through space

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William displayed this many times when he was having a hard time finding the right materials to use for the windmill and another was the fact that his family was still running low on money for supplies

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Adjustments that William has made for the windmill are the fact that he had to make the Windmill more stable and make the wire and curcuits run properly depending on how much energy he wanted

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I think that Williams life is so much better now for him after he built his windmill because it opened him up to so many new opportunities he may not have has acess to before the fact. The welder I think now has more respect for Williams ideas and dreams for his designs and I believe that the welder like most doesn't believe he is a crazy man on drugs

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an automatic device for stopping the flow of current in an electric circuit as a safety measure.

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A transformer that increases voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer.

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One of our fellow member of the EEC sent us this article few days ago. Remember you can do the same and talk about whatever you want, even yourself!

What is a transformer?

Transformers are devices that change (transform) the voltage of power supplied to meet the individuals needs of power consumers. It uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to change the voltage (alternating difference) from one value to another whether smaller or greater.

A transformer is made of a soft iron coil with two other coils wound around it, but not connected with one another. The iron coils can either be arranged on top of another or be wound on separate limps of the iron core.

The coil to which the alternating voltage is supplied is known as primary winding or primary coil while. The alternating current in the primary winding produces a changing magnetic field around it whenever an alternating potential is supplied. An alternating current is in turn produced by the changing field in the secondary coil and the amount of current produced depends on the number of windings in the secondary coil.

There are two types of transformers, namely: Step down and Step up transformers. Generally, the difference between them is the amount of voltage produced, depending on the number of secondary coils.

Step-Down Transformer

There are two types of transformers, namely: Step down and Step up transformers. Generally, the difference between them is the amount of voltage produced, depending on the number of secondary coils.

In a step-down transformer is one who secondary windings are fewer than the primary windings. In other words, the transformer's secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage. So, the transformer is designed to convert high-voltage, low-current power into a low-voltage, high current power and it is mainly used in domestic consumption.

A common case of step-down application is in the case of door bells. Normally, door bells use 16 volts, but most household power circuits carry 110-120 volts. Therefore, the doorbell's step-down transformer receives the 110 volts and reduces it to lower voltage before supplying it to the doorbell.

Step-down transformers are mostly used to convert the 220 volts electricity to the 110 volts required in most domestic equipment.

A step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down transformer. There are many turns on the secondary winding than in the primary winding in the step-up transformers. Thus, the voltage supplied in the secondary transformer is greater than the one supplied across the primary winding. Because of the principle of conservation of energy, the transformer converts low voltage, high-current to high voltage-low current. In other words, the voltage has been stepped up.

You can find step-up transformers located near power plants that are designed to operate megawatts of power. Apart from the power plants, step-up transformers can also be used for local and smaller applications such as x-ray machine which requires about 50,000 volts to work. Even a micro-wave oven requires a small step-up transformer to operate.

Tip: The type of metal winding used is one of the considerations used in determining the efficiency of transformers. Copper coils are more efficient than many other coil metal choices such as aluminum. However, copper windings tend to cost more, but you can expect to save the initial cost over time as the efficiency of the material will save on electrical cost.

How did you find your fellow member first attempt? Leave your impressions.

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One of our fellow member of the EEC sent us this article few days ago. Remember you can do the same and talk about whatever you want, even yourself! What is a transformer? Transformers are devices that change (transform) the voltage of power supplied to meet the individuals needs of power consumers.

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I think this quote means something good it probably just depends on who you are and how you are doing in life at the time when you use it.

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gaseous fuel, especially methane, produced by the fermentation of organic matter.

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Aids:a disease in which there is a severe loss of the body's cellular immunity, greatly lowering the resistance to infection and malignancy
HIV: potentially life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus

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HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system, the body's natural defence against illness.

If HIV is left untreated, a person's immune system will get weaker and weaker until it can no longer fight off life-threatening infections and diseases.

With treatment, people living with HIV can enjoy a long and healthy life.

AIDS is a set of symptoms and illnesses that develops at the final stage of HIV infection, if left untreated.

Testing regularly for HIV means you can get antiretroviral treatment if you need it and stay healthy.

What is HIV?

HIV is a virus that attacks cells in the immune system (the body's natural defence against illness). The virus destroys a type of white blood cell in the immune system called a T-helper cell - also referred to as a CD4 cell - and uses these cells to make copies of itself.

As HIV destroys more CD4 cells and makes more copies of itself, it gradually weakens a person's immune system. This means that someone who has HIV, and isn't taking treatment for it, will find it harder and harder to fight off infections and diseases.

If HIV is left untreated, it may take up to 10 or 15 years for the immune system to be so severely damaged that it can no longer defend itself. However, the rate at which HIV progresses varies depending on age, general health and background.

Basic facts about HIV

HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus.

People with HIV can enjoy a long and healthy life by taking antiretroviral treatment (ART) which is effective and available to all.

The earlier a person is diagnosed with HIV, the sooner they can start treatment - which means they will enjoy better health in the long term.

When taken properly, ART can reduce the level of HIV in the body (the viral load) to such low levels that blood tests cannot detect it (known as 'undetectable'). Having an undetectable viral load means you cannot pass on HIV.

Regularly testing for HIV will help you to know your status, and start treatment if you need it.

HIV is found in semen (cum), blood, vaginal and anal fluids, and breastmilk. It is mainly passed on through unprotected sex (without a condom), sharing needles or syringes and during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding.

HIV can't be transmitted through sweat, saliva or urine. This means it cannot be passed on through coughing or sneezing, hugging, kissing, or sharing towels or a toilet seat with someone who has the virus.

Preventing HIV

Using male (external) condoms or female (internal) condoms during sex is the best way to prevent HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.

If you inject drugs, always use a clean needle and syringe, and never share equipment.

If you're pregnant and living with HIV, the virus could pass into your baby's body during pregnancy, birth or through breastfeeding. Taking HIV treatment correctly during pregnancy and breastfeeding can virtually eliminate this risk.

What is AIDS?

AIDS is a set of symptoms (or syndrome) caused by the HIV virus. A person is said to have AIDS when their immune system is too weak to fight off infection, and they develop certain symptoms and illnesses (known as 'opportunistic infections '). This is the last stage of HIV, when the infection is very advanced, and if left untreated will lead to death.

Basic facts about AIDS

AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. It's also called advanced HIV infection or late-stage HIV.

AIDS is a set of symptoms and illnesses that develop when an advanced HIV infection has destroyed the immune system.

Fewer people develop AIDS now, as more people are on treatment for HIV and staying well.

Although there is no cure for HIV, with the right treatment and support, people living with HIV can enjoy long and healthy lives. To do this, it's especially important to commit to taking treatment correctly.

HELP US HELP OTHERS
Photo credit: ©iStock.com/Vaniatos

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HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system, the body's natural defence against illness. If HIV is left untreated, a person's immune system will get weaker and weaker until it can no longer fight off life-threatening infections and diseases. With treatment, people living with HIV can enjoy a long and healthy life.

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DAKAR (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - Two former students from Burkina Faso have designed a mosquito-repellent soap, which they hope could be a simple and affordable solution in the fight to end malaria, but more funds are needed to test the idea, according to the startup behind it.

Moctar Dembélé and Gérard Niyondiko, the brains behind Faso Soap, were awarded a $25,000 prize for their invention in 2013 when they became the first African winners of the Global Social Venture Competition at the University of California Berkeley.

Yet Faso Soap must be tested to ensure it is safe for human use and effective at preventing malaria before it can be mass produced by soap manufacturers in Africa, said Franck Langevin, campaigns director for the Ouagadougou-based startup.

The soap, created from natural oils and plants, could prove successful in preventing malaria as it would be cheap and rely on existing habits of African households, Langevin said.

"People in Africa are very reluctant to change their habits, but soap is present in most homes, and is used for bathing, cleaning the house and washing clothes," he said.

The soap is designed to repel mosquitoes up to six hours after being applied, and once soapy water is thrown away on the street, hinder the insects from breeding in stagnant water.

"It is a simple and affordable weapon in the fight against malaria," Langevin told the Thomson Reuters Foundation.

Last month, Faso Soap launched a crowd funding appeal for $113,000 to finalize the development of the soap with the aim of distributing it in six African countries hardest-hit by malaria by 2018, working with soap manufacturers and aid agencies.

Last year, there were 214 million cases of malaria worldwide with the mosquito-borne disease killing 438,000 people, most of them in sub-Saharan Africa.

Jo Lines, reader of malaria control and vector biology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, praised the idea behind the soap, but said it would be dangerous to rely on an untested product to protect against malaria.

As a social startup, Langevin said Faso Soap has struggled to attract funding from donors, including the World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations children's agency (UNICEF), prompting the inventors to turn to crowd funding.

World leaders committed to ending malaria by 2030 when they adopted the Sustainable Development Goals last year.

Europe last month became the first region to be declared malaria-free after reporting no indigenous cases in 2015, and a former WHO official said the world can eliminate the disease soon, but only with more investment to end and keep it at bay.

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Mosquito-repellent soap invention seeks to wash away Africa malaria threat

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Two former students from Burkina Faso have designed a mosquito-repellent soap, which they hope could be a simple and affordable solution in the fight to end malaria, but more funds are needed to test the idea, according to the startup behind it.

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Technology, Entertainment, Design
This represents all of the scientists who are making a difference in the world and are being innovative and creative to better their enviroment

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Come and See why Windsor Chico Care Center has become the choice for skilled nursing and rehab services in the area. Our team of professionals understand the importance of creating a warm, comfortable environment for all residents. Let us show you how we help people recover from surgery, injury and serious illness.

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recognition or affirmation that a person or their feelings or opinions are valid or worthwhile.
William received validation when he finally finished the windmill and everyone was so curious that reporters started coming in and taking picture and writing articles then, defiantly when he was accepted at TED and got to experience so many new things because of the creation of the windmill.

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1. Curious
2.Hard working
3. Investigative

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the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (buildings, roads, and power supplies) needed for the operation of a society or enterprise.

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Allusion: an indirect or passing reference
Epilogue: is a piece of writing at the end of a work of literature, usually used to bring closure to the work

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A venture capitalist is an investor who either provides capital to startup ventures or supports small companies that wish to expand but do not have access to equities markets

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Location and geography: The term "Silicon Valley" usually refers to the Santa Clara Valley in California, although it is an imprecise term that often includes other parts of the greater San Francisco Bay Area. It is generally considered to be centered around the city of San Jose in Santa Clara County.

Population: The population of Silicon Valley is as indeterminate as its borders. The population of the Santa Clara Valley is about 1.8 million people, but what is considered to be "Silicon Valley" could possibly have several million more if surrounding counties are also included.

Story behind the name: Silicon Valley became famous as the birthplace of the silicon-based transistor in the 1950s. A man named Don Hoefler later entered the nickname into the public consciousness through a series of articles he wrote for the Electronic News in 1971, having borrowed the term from his friend Ralph Vaerst. By this time, the rapid growth of the tech industry was well underway in California.

Counties and cities: The matter of which specific communities make up Silicon Valley is notoriously vague, but the most prominent are as follows:

Campbell (Santa Clara County)

Cupertino (Santa Clara County)

East Palo Alto (San Mateo County)

Foster City (San Mateo County)

Fremont (Alameda County)

Los Altos (Santa Clara County)

Los Altos Hills (Santa Clara County)

Los Gatos (Santa Clara County)

Menlo Park (San Mateo County)

Milpitas (Santa Clara County)

Monte Sereno (Santa Clara County)

Mountain View (Santa Clara County)

Morgan Hill (Santa Clara County)

Newark (Alameda County)

Palo Alto (Santa Clara County)

Redwood City (capital, San Mateo County)

San Jose (capital, Santa Clara County)

San Mateo (San Mateo County)

Santa Clara (Santa Clara County)

Saratoga (Santa Clara County)

Scotts Valley (Santa Cruz County)

Sunnyvale (Santa Clara County)

Union City (Alameda County)

History of Silicon Valley: Because of the U.S. Navy's attachment to San Francisco, the surrounding areas became a center for the development of radio and aerospace technology, even hosting a failed attempt to create a fleet of blimps in the 1930s and 40s. In later years, Stanford professor Frederick Terman encouraged the university to lease some of its property to high-tech corporations, creating what was called the Stanford Industrial Park. Major engineering companies such as Eastman Kodak and General Electric opened offices there, which provided plum opportunities for technically-minded students and stimulated a boom in research and discovery. For this reason, Terman is often known as the one of the "fathers" of Silicon Valley, together with William Shockley.
William Shockley is the reason behind Silicon Valley's nickname, due to his innovations to the design of the semiconductor. Although he himself was never able to profit from this research, eight of his employees left Shockley and founded many successful tech companies, most notably Intel Corporation in the 1960s. These companies gave rise to others, and continued to drive progress in California's central region. One of Silicon Valley's oldest and most successful technology companies, Hewlett-Packard, thrived in several of these newly created markets.

In the 1970s, Xerox Corporation opened the Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in Silicon Valley in order to develop new technologies. PARC proved to be a hotbed of invention and innovation, leading to the advent of such technologies as the graphical user interface, ethernet cables, and laser printing. Xerox famously failed to capitalize on most of these ingenious technologies, but Steve Jobs and Bill Gates were two of the people who were able to see their potential. Apple Computer and Microsoft Corporation would go on to spark a revolution in personal computing that would not only pave the way for countless other companies, but also change everything about modern technology.

As the Internet became popular in the 1990s, Silicon Valley found itself to be the center of an explosion in dot-com businesses. Young engineers trained at Stanford and/or employed at older tech companies began creating their own start-ups in droves, fueling an economic and real estate boom in California. Although the dot-com bubble eventually burst, many of the companies that were founded in that era have grown to dominate the web services of today: notable examples include eBay, Netflix, and Google.

Major companies: Below are just a handful of the important companies, in the past or present, to have been founded in or have strong associations with the region of Silicon Valley.

Google Inc.

Hewlett-Packard Company

Intel Corporation

Apple Inc.

Facebook Inc.

Adobe Systems

eBay Inc.

Nvidia

Symantec Corporation

Varian Associates

Yahoo! Inc.

Cisco Systems

LinkedIn Corporation

Mozilla Foundation

Xerox PARC

Netflix Inc.

AOL Inc.

Sun Microsystems

TiVo Inc.

VMware Inc.

Last Updated on: September 29th, 2017

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Location and geography: The term "Silicon Valley" usually refers to the Santa Clara Valley in California, although it is an imprecise term that often includes other parts of the greater San Francisco Bay Area. It is generally considered to be centered around the city of San Jose in Santa Clara County.

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"Africans bend what little they have to their everyday. Using creativity, they overcome Africa's challenges. Where the world sees trash, Africa recycles, Where the world sees junk, Africa sees rebirth.

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1. Determined
2. Hard Working
3. Passionate

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Other inventors who faced Humiliation from Society.

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Other inventors who faced Humiliation from Society.

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Every nutjob in the world with some out-there theory thinks he's Galileo, rejected for daring to think different. Virtually all of them are, in fact, simply insane.

Yet, there have been brilliant rebels who put their own world-changing ideas on the line, only to end up like Doc Brown in his alternate timeline: humiliated, ridiculed, ignored and/or straight driven to insanity.

You probably know Mendel as the guy who pioneered the science of genetics, and for keeping eighth-graders busy while science teachers watch porn at their desks. Anybody with a high school diploma has filled out those dominant/recessive trait Punnett squares ...

... though astute readers are probably wondering why that technique is called a Punnett square if it predicts patterns Mendel discovered.

What you probably didn't know was that before making his revolutionary discovery, Gregor Mendel flunked his ass out of school and resigned himself to a quiet life as the abbot of a monastery. It had an extensive experimental garden and there Mendel patiently spent the next seven years of his life breeding and cross-breeding peas.

He carefully documented his work and developed what would eventually be known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. Then he wrote it up and got it published in an lesser-known journal, the Journal of the Brno Natural History Society in 1866.

His Genius Was Rewarded By ...

A quiet life of complete anonymity. Mendel's work was read by about zero people, even after he took it upon himself to contact the highest minds of his time by personally sending them copies of his theory. It turns out he would have been better off writing it on a paper bag filled with dog shit and leaving the whole flaming mess on porches.

Why did they ignore him? Because the greatest minds of his time couldn't understand him. It wasn't until 16 years after his death that three independent botanists rediscover Mendel's work and started the genetics ball rolling.

We've brought up poor old Semmelweis once before, but just in case you don't have a running loop of Cracked articles going through your head, here's the recap: Back in 1847, Semmelweis found himself in charge of two maternity clinics. The first clinic was a teaching school, with medical students learning birthing, autopsying and everything in between. The second clinic was intended for women who couldn't afford health care and was serviced by midwives, not actual doctors or students.

Yet it was the second clinic that women of all social statuses begged to get into. Why? Because if they went to the first clinic they'd have a 10 percent chance of dying of puerperal fever, a six percent greater rate of death than in the midwife-run hospital. Women literally had a better chance of surviving a birth on the street than in the first clinic. After an exhaustive study, Semmelweis figured out that medical students were smothered in disease cooties from cadavers, and that maybe, just maybe, they should wash their hands in between the autopsy room and the birthing rooms.

He insisted students perform a simple chlorine wash after handling dead guys and immediately got the death rate down to one to two percent. With numbers like that, you'd think the whole continent of Europe, much less the medical community, would have crowned him "king of live babies" or something.

His Genius Was Rewarded By ...

First dementia, then a beatdown at an insane asylum, then death, by virtually the same disease he had eradicated in his own hospital.

Semmelweis didn't just have the disregard of his contemporaries, he had their flat-out scorn. Maybe it was because he didn't get around to explaining himself on paper right away, so no one understood what hand-washing had to do with keeping people alive. Some doctors were actually insulted that he was accusing Viennese medical students being dirty enough to kill people.

Within 14 years of his groundbreaking discovery, Semmelweis just stopped giving a fuck. He got drunk all the time and called all his detractors "ignoramuses" and "murderers." He started chilling with prostitutes and lashing out at family. That last part proved to be a bad move, because in 1865 they had him committed to an insane asylum, where he was promptly beat up and stuck in a dark cellar.

He died two weeks later. It took another 20 years and Louis Pasteur's germ theory for the rest of the world to come around to the concept of washing your hands to keep from getting sick.

The year 1964 was a watershed year by any measure. The Beatles arrived, the Civil Rights Act was passed, Nicolas Cage was born and in two separate parts of the world, two separate scientists proposed the existence of quarks, the teeny-tiny subatomic particles that combine to form matter. If you've been paying attention, you know one of these guys is about to get screwed. (Hint: It's George Zweig.)

Zweig had three things going against him in 1964. One, he was a young graduate student, unpublished and unproven. Two, he was working at a particle research center in Geneva. You'd think that would be an advantage, but it turns out his institute had a stringent model for publication, and his paper on quarks, which he called "aces," didn't meet its standards (even though he had come up with a much cooler name for the particle). And three, an older scientist from his grad school proposed the exact same theory at the exact same time and because of his stature was able to publish that exact same theory with the exact same publication that rejected Zweig's.

At first, both men were called crazy for their insane notions of invisible particles. They had no model of behavior for the buggers and no methods of ever actually looking at them. But eventually the science world came around, and by 1969, Zweig's rival was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work. As for Zweig ...

His Genius Was Rewarded By ...

Being blackballed by a major university and accusations of being a "charlatan."

It wasn't until the 1970s that anyone could actually prove the existence of quarks, and by that time, the Nobel Prize committee felt it had already given the little particles enough attention, so it was reluctant to revisit the subject. Nevertheless, in 1977, Zweig and his rival were both nominated, but neither won. Zweig ended up changing his field of study to neurobiology, presumably believing that if he made a seminal contribution to every area of science, he'd eventually get credit for something.

Trying to convince you that Albert Einstein was rejected in any way during his lifetime let alone a moron is a hard sell, considering that he was one of the most famous men on the planet at the time. But buried deep in a lifetime of utter brilliance, Einstein was saddled with one big mistake. One that it turned out wasn't a mistake at all.

To understand, you have to know a little bit about Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. Not a whole lot, just the fact that it didn't allow for a static universe. Einstein believed the universe had to be static, or else the forces of gravity would cause the whole universe to contract onto itself, which it apparently wasn't doing. So, to make up for this weird conundrum, he invented something called the cosmological constant, an unknown, unchanging force that allowed him to have his cake (General Theory of Relativity) and eat it, too (stand by a static-universe model).

But not too long after Einstein came up with the cosmological constant, Edwin Hubble burst his little unmoving universe bubble by finding evidence that the whole shebang was expanding. Einstein called the cosmological constant his "biggest blunder" and went to his grave thinking he was an idiot for having proposed it. And so did everyone else. For a while.

"Way to go,
Einstein."

His Genius Was Rewarded By ...

Einstein didn't get heaped with scorn like some of the other geniuses on this list, so he got off with a little self-deprecation with a side of regret. And he also dropped the whole idea of the cosmological constant. But here's the thing -- it turns out he may have been right all along. Not about the universe being static, of course, but that this mysterious, unknown entity existed in the first place.

In the 1990s, scientists discovered that the universe was expanding faster than they had previously thought and that the rate of expansion was being fueled by a mysterious, unknown entity. There are several contenders up for consideration as the cause, but everyone's favorite? You guessed it: Einstein's cosmological constant. His math of the constant magically fit the bill. Also because you never go wrong when you bet on Einstein.

Ludwig Boltzmann had the unfortunate luck of being born with a genius brain at the wrong time. Back in the 19th century, there was a huge debate over the nature of matter. Boltzmann not only had the audacity to presuppose the existence of atoms at a time when the atomic model was still controversial among scientists, but also built every one of his brilliant theories as if there was no debate at all. How brilliant? Hang on to your test tubes, because thing are about to get sciencey.

With a beard like that, how could the man
not be a genius?

For one, he pioneered the study of statistical thermodynamics, which is a field of physics that provides a framework for predicting how a large number of particles will behave in a system. So, let's say you're camping and you start a fire. Boltzmann was the guy who tried to figure out what the crap was going on in those logs on a molecular level that allowed the fire to kindle, and he used fancy math formulas to figure it out. His work ultimately paved the way for the field of quantum mechanics, which eventually paved the way for the greatest time travel show ever.

His Genius Was Rewarded By ...

Death. He got death.

Back then, defending the existence of atoms was akin to defending creationist version of the origins of man today. Boltzmann wasn't just forced to defend something that would be accepted as fact within a few years, he was shamed for his stubborn refusal to yield and for his so-called materialist beliefs.

Nobody ever told scientists that nonmaterial science is already called philosophy. A long series of uneven debates left nearly every other supporter of atoms silent, leaving Boltzmann as their chief defender. Even colleagues who originally agreed with him began to question atoms' existence when his work seemingly undermined previously understood laws of physics.

A Helium atom, seen here being a
total dick to Physics.

The emotional burden of being the only right guy in the world, coupled with what was probably undiagnosed bipolar disorder, proved too much for Boltzmann to handle, and he hung himself in 1906, only three years before another scientist proved the undeniable existence of atoms. Nice job, science.
For more from the world of science, check out 7 Incredible Scientific Innovations Held Back by Petty Feuds and 5 Famous Inventors (Who Stole Their Big Idea). And stop by Linkstorm instead spending time with your family. And don't forget to follow us on Facebook and Twitter to get sexy, sexy jokes sent straight to your news feed. Do you have an idea in mind that would make a great article? Then sign up for our writers workshop! Do you possess expert skills in image creation and manipulation? Mediocre? Even rudimentary? Are you frightened by MS Paint and simply have a funny idea? You can create an infograpic and you could be on the front page of Cracked.com tomorrow!

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5 Famous Scientists Dismissed as Morons in Their Time

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Every nutjob in the world with some out-there theory thinks he's Galileo, rejected for daring to think different. Virtually all of them are, in fact, simply insane. Yet, there have been brilliant rebels who put their own world-changing ideas on the line, only to end up like Doc Brown in his alternate timeline: humiliated, ridiculed, ignored and/or straight driven to insanity.

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the quality of being thankful; readiness to show appreciation for and to return kindness

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South African National Department of Basic Education

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I feel that they shouldn't have killed Khamba because they knew that the harvesting was just right around the corner, but at the same time he was in really bad shape so I guess that if William felt that it was best for Khamba to be put to rest to ease his pain it isn't as bad. But I don't like the way they killed him it was very brutal for him.

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Is Society Obligated to take care of its Weak/Sick

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Is Society Obligated to take care of its Weak/Sick

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I feel like if you are doing good yourself that you should help them out a little bit but not to where you can no longer take care of yourself. But I do feel at the same time that if its your family you should help them no matter what.

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by Racles Bogdan There have been times in our lives when we've heard the expression 'if your friends jumped off a cliff, would you do the same?' from our parents or our teachers. We answered with 'no' most of the times. The sad fact is that, every now and then, without realizing why, we would...

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Summary of country findings: Malawi

This study is one of 5 country studies (Bangladesh, Malawi, Nepal, Rwanda and Tanzania) exploring planning and costing agriculture's adaptation to climate change. The agricultural system described was subsistence rain-fed food production with associated cultivation tobacco (for cash), cassava, sweet potato, beans and some livestock.

Background

In Malawi the agricultural sector contributes about 39% of GDP and more than 90% of the foreign exchange earnings, supplies more than 65% of the manufacturing sector's raw materials and makes up 87% of the total employment (DAES, 2000). The smallholder sub-sector, which is based on customary land tenure and is primarily subsistence, contributes more than 70% to agricultural GDP, with the remaining 30% ascribed to large estates growing tobacco, sugar, tea, coffee and tree-nuts.

Subsistence Rain-fed Food Production

The main crop of subsistence is maize and it is cultivated twice per year by households along the Shire River and once by those in upland areas. Maize is the main staple in Malawi and grown on two-thirds of the country's arable land, largely on smallholdings of 0.5 - 0.8 ha. It is grown during the rainy season (November to April), but communities along the river grow it also after this season taking advantage of the residual moisture. Due to increasing flood incidences, farmers now rely more on the residual moisture as floods also bring in nutrients from the upland regions. This increases soil fertility, reducing the need for additional fertilizers to maintain soil nutrients (see Box).

Depending on their geographical location, farmers grow either one or two maize crops over a year alongside a range of other subsistence crops including cassava, sweet potato and beans. Moreover, small amounts of cash crops such as tobacco are cultivated as well as a small number of livestock are kept. Additionally, poor rural households obtain around a third of their income from 'off own farm' activities (Kydd, Dorward, Morrison & Cadisch, 2004), including as seasonal labour to the estate sector. The Malawian farming system is also characterized by poor backward linkages, like uncoordinated input supply as well as limited access to technologies, extension services and credit.

High temperatures of up to a maximum of 37.2 degrees in November and unreliable rainfall ranging from 170 - 968mm per year mean water availability is often a limiting factor to agriculture in Chikwawa District, in the south of the country, where this study focused. Although the diversified crop base and the use of drought-resistant and early-maturing varieties help farmers withstand climate variability in the form of droughts and floods, the system's dependence on rain-fed crops means it remains vulnerable to variations in weather, as well as commodity price shocks.

As well as general trends of increasing temperatures and delays in the rains, the magnitude and frequency of both droughts and floods have increased over the past two decades, with farmers noting that droughts and serious floods now occur every two to three years. While floods have devastating immediate impacts including the loss of lives, livestock and crops, the residual moisture allows them to grow more crops over subsequent months. The farmers therefore highlighted that drought poses the greatest threat to food security, particularly as they affect both crops and livestock over a broader area, which means that it is often even not possible even to buy food in neighbouring villages. These types of impacts are likely to increase in number and severity as a result of climate change.

Existing coping strategies for spreading the risks of climate change effects depend on the duration of the hazardous climate change event and range from eating wild tubers (Nyika) from the Shire River to temporary migrating out of the area to seek food and water. However, the most common strategy was casual labour (ganyu) that involves short-term rural employment relationships and thus provide additional income, which could be used to buy food. This strategy was commonly independent of the length of the hazards. However, during short drought incidences, households resorted to replant their maize crops. In longer drought cases they focused on different strategies such as irrigation and migration. Irrigation is especially common for communities along the Shire River (see Box).

The Future of Subsistence Rain-fed Food Production

Over the past decade a number of policies have been introduced that indicate that the farming system benefits from broad government support. In order to address food security issues, particular large scale input subsidies were re-introduced at the start of the 2005/06 agricultural season. The 2010 Greenbelt Initiative also seeks to support agriculture by introducing irrigation along Lake Malawi and the Shire Valley. However, subsistence rain-fed food production and Chikwawa District in particular face a number of challenges if they are to meet food security demands over the coming decades.

Adaptation Options

The range of strategies farmers currently use to withstand droughts, for instance relying on food aid, eating wild tubers, engaging in casual labour and temporary migration shows how the system is struggling to cope with the adverse effects of climate change and indicates that new and additional measures will need to be employed to generate effective adaptation. One interesting emerging trend is the growth in land rental markets along the Shire River, which allows families who are based 20km away to grow maize crops in the dry season by using the residual moisture following the flooding of the river.

Other measures that can support local communities to adapt to climate change include assessing land tenure laws, crucial to development of the land rental market, and increasing the market linkages farmers have, which would allow them to increase their income and therewith reduce their vulnerability to climate change.

Technologies such as drought tolerant crops and animals, irrigation and rainwater harvesting each play potentially significant roles in reducing the vulnerability of subsistence agriculture in Malawi to droughts. This requires further research and investments in extension services to allow the technologies to be disseminated more widely as well as investment in the inputs, in particular the materials, required for their implementation. Furthermore, greater coordination between government and NGO activities is crucial for this process as well. Regarding this aspect, a suggestion of this study is to establish an institution responsible for coordinating climate change adaptation actions (see Box).

Farming System

Subsistence rain-fed maize production in Malawiis characterized by small land holding size (0.5 - 0.8 ha), continuous cultivation of maize on the same land without adding organic or inorganic fertilizers, low productivity (which will get worse with the effects of climate change), high dependence on rainfall. However, farmers use two sources of water: Rainfall and the residual moisture following the regular flooding of the Shire River, which allows a second maize crop to be grown in strips of land along the river banks.

Coping with Climate Variability

Eating wild tubers (Nyika) from the Shire River.

Resorting to ecosystem services / Dietary change

Temporary migration to seek employment, food and water and is conducted in cases of longer drought periods.

Spatial diversification

Engaging in casual labour (ganyu), which incentivizes people to migrate and thus provides them with an additional income. This strategy occurs for all durations of climate change hazards.

Income diversification

Replanting maize crops is commonly applied during short drought incidences.

Seasonal diversification

Suggested future adaptation actions

Assessing land tenure laws to further facilitate growing of crops during the dry season.

Increasing market linkages for farmers.

Increasing capacity building through extension services.

Developing technologies such as drought tolerant crops and animals.

Increasing livestock production.

Improving irrigation and rainwater harvesting technologies.

Promoting further research as well as investments in inputs and extension services.

Facilitating a wider dissemination and effective implementation of climate resilient technologies.

Enhancing cooperation among governments and NGOs for instance through the establishment of a responsible institution to coordinate climate change adaptation activities.

Promoting village saving banks.

Summary of adaptation costs

The total adaptation costs for the Malawi system were estimated for the different functions to be played by different actors, including the private sector. These are shown in the table below.

National Institutional Arrangements

Malawi has a wide range of programmes and plans at national level that deal with climate-related constraints in some capacity. At the local level, the country also has various government and NGO projects addressing climate-related issues, mostly droughts and floods, even though these are not necessarily coined as adaptation projects. What is interesting is that most of the proposed adaptation actions do not differ from current activities, many of which are not categorised as adaptation projects.

While there is an evident separation between climate change institutions and agricultural institutions, there is a significant recognition of the vulnerability of agriculture. Consequently, the country's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), contains several agriculture-related strategies such as:

1. Improving community resilience to climate change through the development of sustainable rural livelihoods

2. Restoring forests in Upper and Lower Shire River to reduce siltation and associated water flow problems that affect hydro-power generation.

3. Improving agricultural production under erratic rains and changing climatic conditions

4. Improving Malawi's preparedness to cope with droughts and floods

5. Improving climate monitoring to enhance Malawi's early warning capability and decision making

This is mostly explained by the fact that Malawi has in the past followed highly consultative planning processes that involve different stakeholders. Significantly, Malawi has also developed an agricultural development programme under the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD). These and other programmes have a strong focus on addressing the constraints facing Malawi's agriculture, which is a natural starting point for building adaptive capacity.

Malawi receives significant external support, and has developed mechanisms for channeling funds to different sectors through the Ministry of Finance. The complexity for agricultural adaptation brought about by the separation between the Climate Change line ministry (Ministry of Environment), the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Transport (in which the Meteorological Department is housed), requires that a mechanism for sourcing climate finance and deploying it to the identified adaptation activities at all levels be well coordinated. This is especially important if the most important and most immediate adaptation actions required for the country fall within the agricultural sector.

The development of Malawi's maize sector has been significantly attributed to the country's subsidy programme, which has channeled resources to smallholder maize farmers. With or without external resources, it is important that these programmes incorporate climate adaptation to avoid maladaptation and locking smallholder farmers in single crop systems.

The role of the private sector is quite significant in Malawi, especially in market linkages, which suggests that that adaptation and food security responses required in the country go beyond just production to include access and utilization. Market linkages could also be a way of building a strong, community-wide and community-district-national adaptive base that does not solely depend on the level of production on individual households. The role of the private sector was also evident in the case study research when the sugar company in the case study community provided the time-series weather data that was used for downscaling climate models.

National Study Team

Content produced by: Matiya G., Lunduka, R., and Sikwese, M. 2011. "Costing climate change adaptation in agriculture: A case study of small-scale maize production in Malawi."

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Planning and costing agriculture's adaptation in Malawi: Subsistence rain-fed food production (maize)

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This study is one of 5 country studies (Bangladesh, Malawi, Nepal, Rwanda and Tanzania) exploring planning and costing agriculture's adaptation to climate change. The agricultural system described was subsistence rain-fed food production with associated cultivation tobacco (for cash), cassava, sweet potato, beans and some livestock.

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the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation

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During the Rwandan genocide of 1994, members of the Hutu ethnic majority in the east-central African nation of Rwanda murdered as many as 800,000 people, mostly of the Tutsi minority. Started by Hutu nationalists in the capital of Kigali, the genocide spread throughout the country with shocking speed and brutality, as ordinary citizens were incited by local officials and the Hutu Power government to take up arms against their neighbors. By the time the Tutsi-led Rwandese Patriotic Front gained control of the country through a military offensive in early July, hundreds of thousands of Rwandans were dead and 2 million refugees (mainly Hutus) fled Rwanda, exacerbating what had already become a full-blown humanitarian crisis.

Rwandan Ethnic Tensions

By the early 1990s, Rwanda, a small country with an overwhelmingly agricultural economy, had one of the highest population densities in Africa. About 85 percent of its population was Hutu; the rest were Tutsi, along with a small number of Twa, a Pygmy group who were the original inhabitants of Rwanda.

Part of German East Africa from 1897 to 1918, Rwanda became a Belgium trusteeship under a League of Nations mandate after World War I, along with neighboring Burundi.

Rwanda's colonial period, during which the ruling Belgians favored the minority Tutsis over the Hutus, exacerbated the tendency of the few to oppress the many, creating a legacy of tension that exploded into violence even before Rwanda gained its independence.

A Hutu revolution in 1959 forced as many as 330,000 Tutsis to flee the country, making them an even smaller minority. By early 1961, victorious Hutus had forced Rwanda's Tutsi monarch into exile and declared the country a republic. After a United Nations referendum that same year, Belgium officially granted independence to Rwanda in July 1962.

Ethnically motivated violence continued in the years following independence. In 1973, a military group installed Major General Juvenal Habyarimana, a moderate Hutu, in power.

The sole leader of Rwandan government for the next two decades, Habyarimana founded a new political party, the National Revolutionary Movement for Development (NRMD). He was elected president under a new constitution ratified in 1978 and reelected in 1983 and 1988, when he was the sole candidate.

In 1990, forces of the Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), consisting mostly of Tutsi refugees, invaded Rwanda from Uganda. Habyarimana accused Tutsi residents of being RPF accomplices and arrested hundreds of them. Between 1990 and 1993, government officials directed massacres of the Tutsi, killing hundreds. A ceasefire in these hostilities led to negotiations between the government and the RPF in 1992.

In August 1993, Habyarimana signed an agreement at Arusha, Tanzania, calling for the creation of a transition government that would include the RPF.

This power-sharing agreement angered Hutu extremists, who would soon take swift and horrible action to prevent it.

Rwandan Genocide Begins

On April 6, 1994, a plane carrying Habyarimana and Burundi's president Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down over the capital city of Kigali, leaving no survivors. (It has never been conclusively determined who the culprits were. Some have blamed Hutu extremists, while others blamed leaders of the RPF.)

Within an hour of the plane crash, the Presidential Guard, together with members of the Rwandan armed forces (FAR) and Hutu militia groups known as the Interahamwe ("Those Who Attack Together") and Impuzamugambi ("Those Who Have the Same Goal"), set up roadblocks and barricades and began slaughtering Tutsis and moderate Hutus with impunity.

Among the first victims of the genocide were the moderate Hutu Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana and 10 Belgian peacekeepers, killed on April 7. This violence created a political vacuum, into which an interim government of extremist Hutu Power leaders from the military high command stepped on April 9. The killing of the Belgium peacekeepers, meanwhile, provoked the withdrawal of Belgium troops. And the U.N. directed that peacekeepers only defend themselves thereafter.

Slaughter Spreads Across Rwanda

The mass killings in Kigali quickly spread from that city to the rest of Rwanda. In the first two weeks, local administrators in central and southern Rwanda, where most Tutsi lived, resisted the genocide. After April 18, national officials removed the resisters and killed several of them. Other opponents then fell silent or actively led the killing. Officials rewarded killers with food, drink, drugs and money. Government-sponsored radio stations started calling on ordinary Rwandan civilians to murder their neighbors. Within three months, some 800,000 people had been slaughtered.

Meanwhile, the RPF resumed fighting, and civil war raged alongside the genocide. By early July, RPF forces had gained control over most of country, including Kigali.

In response, more than 2 million people, nearly all Hutus, fled Rwanda, crowding into refugee camps in the Congo (then called Zaire) and other neighboring countries.

After its victory, the RPF established a coalition government similar to that agreed upon at Arusha, with Pasteur Bizimungu, a Hutu, as president and Paul Kagame, a Tutsi, as vice president and defense minister.

Habyarimana's NRMD party, which had played a key role in organizing the genocide, was outlawed, and a new constitution adopted in 2003 eliminated reference to ethnicity. The new constitution was followed by Kagame's election to a 10-year term as Rwanda's president and the country's first-ever legislative elections.

International Response

As in the case of atrocities committed in the former Yugoslavia around the same time, the international community largely remained on the sidelines during the Rwandan genocide.

A United Nations Security Council vote in April 1994 led to the withdrawal of most of a U.N. peacekeeping operation (UNAMIR), created the previous fall to aid with governmental transition under the Arusha accord.

As reports of the genocide spread, the Security Council voted in mid-May to supply a more robust force, including more than 5,000 troops. By the time that force arrived in full, however, the genocide had been over for months.

In a separate French intervention approved by the U.N., French troops entered Rwanda from Zaire in late June. In the face of the RPF's rapid advance, they limited their intervention to a "humanitarian zone" set up in southwestern Rwanda, saving tens of thousands of Tutsi lives but also helping some of the genocide's plotters - allies of the French during the Habyarimana administration - to escape.

In the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide, many prominent figures in the international community lamented the outside world's general obliviousness to the situation and its failure to act in order to prevent the atrocities from taking place.

As former U.N. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali told the PBS news program Frontline: "The failure of Rwanda is 10 times greater than the failure of Yugoslavia. Because in Yugoslavia the international community was interested, was involved. In Rwanda nobody was interested."

Attempts were later made to rectify this passivity. After the RFP victory, the UNAMIR operation was brought back up to strength; it remained in Rwanda until March 1996, as one of the largest humanitarian relief efforts in history.

Did you know? In September 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) issued the first conviction for genocide after a trial, declaring Jean-Paul Akayesu guilty for acts he engaged in and oversaw as mayor of the Rwandan town of Taba.

Rwandan Genocide Trials

In October 1994, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), located in Tanzania, was established as an extension of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) at The Hague, the first international tribunal since the Nuremburg Trials of 1945-46, and the first with the mandate to prosecute the crime of genocide.

In 1995, the ICTR began indicting and trying a number of higher-ranking people for their role in the Rwandan genocide; the process was made more difficult because the whereabouts of many suspects were unknown.

The trials continued over the next decade and a half, including the 2008 conviction of three former senior Rwandan defense and military officials for organizing the genocide.

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During the Rwandan genocide of 1994, members of the Hutu ethnic majority in the east-central African nation of Rwanda murdered as many as 800,000 people, mostly of the Tutsi minority. Started by Hutu nationalists in the capital of Kigali, the genocide spread throughout the country with shocking speed and brutality, as ordinary citizens were incited by local officials and the Hutu Power government to take up arms against their neighbors.

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Three years ago, on July 20, the United Nations declared a famine in Somalia. The devastating famine took the lives of a quarter of million Somalis, half of them children under the age of five. Former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has called it "the most severe humanitarian emergency in the world today -- and the worst East Africa has seen in decades."

Without urgent aid the future of those who've survived remains bleak. Recently, in a joint NGO statement, including Oxfam and International Rescue Committee, it was reported that out of the required $933 million, only 12 percent of Somalia's annual humanitarian needs had been funded.

The current figures are staggering:

50,000 children are severely malnourished;

Only 30 percent of the population has access to clean water;

1.1 million people are displaced in their own country;

There is a risk of outbreak and spread of Polio;

Women in Somalia face the second-highest risk of maternal death in the world, and babies are at the highest risk of dying on the day of their birth.

In the statement, aid agencies warn, again, that signs of drought are reemerging in Southern-Somalia regions. As we seen from the 2011 famine, it spreads like wildfire to other regions. Unfortunately, with the proper funding, the 2011 famine could have been avoided. Aid workers urge that we act now. The delayed response in 2011 cost the lives of thousands of people.

Generally, donors wait until a famine is actually declared, and so humanitarian agencies wait until the UN declares a famine. However, the UN does not declare a famine until acute malnutrition rates among children exceed 30 percent, more than two people per every 10,000 die per day, and people are not able to access food and other basic necessities. We need to establish a long-lasting solution to solve the famine and food crisis. We've seen that tactic of waiting for famine to be declared fail. It failed 260,000 men, women and children.

After the famine of 2011, Oxfam's Chief Executive, Barbara Stocking stated, "We all bear responsibility for this dangerous delay that cost lives in East Africa and need to learn the lessons of the late response."

Fifty-two aid agencies in Somalia warn that Somalia is at risk of another famine. In their statement they reported that conflict (Al-Shebab militants) and low rainfall could trigger another famine.

Now, without proper funding, 2.9 million lives are at risk of dying, displacement and catching infectious diseases. The United Nations cannot idly stand by and allow another humanitarian catastrophe to occur as they wait for the criteria for famine to met. They must swiftly respond to the urgent call of the fifty-two aid workers.

Somali children should not have to measure their lives by the number of famines they've survived.

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Warning Signs of Another Famine, Lessons to Be Learned From the Past

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Three years ago, on July 20, the United Nations declared a famine in Somalia. The devastating famine took the lives of a quarter of million Somalis, half of them children under the age of five. Former U.S.

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Reflection from "I Just Sued The School System"

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Reflection from "I Just Sued The School System"

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I feel like this video shows how the school system needs to change its way of teaching. If a person is falling behind and is not able to do something, like telling a fish to climb a tree then your system is not going to be successful. Also when a person is stressed due to work and don't have time or anyone to help them then they just get through it, they wont do well. I think we need to change our schools because if other countries are doing better than us with different standards then why stay the way we are and keep failing?

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WFP provides relief assistance in times of emergency to save lives and protect livelihoods. Currently, WFP is assisting 6 million drought-affected Malawians with in-kind food, cash and vouchers in order to restore food and nutrition security.

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Overview

Cholera is a bacterial disease usually spread through contaminated water. Cholera causes severe diarrhea and dehydration. Left untreated, cholera can be fatal in a matter of hours, even in previously healthy people.

Modern sewage and water treatment have virtually eliminated cholera in industrialized countries. The last major outbreak in the United States occurred in 1911. But cholera is still present in Africa, Southeast Asia and Haiti. The risk of cholera epidemic is highest when poverty, war or natural disasters force people to live in crowded conditions without adequate sanitation.

Cholera is easily treated. Death results from severe dehydration that can be prevented with a simple and inexpensive rehydration solution.

Symptoms

Most people exposed to the cholera bacterium (Vibrio cholerae) don't become ill and never know they've been infected. Yet because they shed cholera bacteria in their stool for seven to 14 days, they can still infect others through contaminated water. Most symptomatic cases of cholera cause mild or moderate diarrhea that's often hard to distinguish from diarrhea caused by other problems.

Only about 1 in 10 infected people develops more-serious signs and symptoms of cholera, usually within a few days of infection.

Symptoms of cholera infection may include:

Diarrhea. Cholera-related diarrhea comes on suddenly and may quickly cause dangerous fluid loss - as much as a quart (about 1 liter) an hour. Diarrhea due to cholera often has a pale, milky appearance that resembles water in which rice has been rinsed (rice-water stool).

Nausea and vomiting. Occurring especially in the early stages of cholera, vomiting may persist for hours at a time.

Dehydration. Dehydration can develop within hours after the onset of cholera symptoms. Depending on how many body fluids have been lost, dehydration can range from mild to severe. A loss of 10 percent or more of total body weight indicates severe dehydration.

Signs and symptoms of cholera dehydration include irritability, lethargy, sunken eyes, a dry mouth, extreme thirst, dry and shriveled skin that's slow to bounce back when pinched into a fold, little or no urine output, low blood pressure, and an irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia).

Dehydration may lead to a rapid loss of minerals in your blood (electrolytes) that maintain the balance of fluids in your body. This is called an electrolyte imbalance.

Electrolyte imbalance

An electrolyte imbalance can lead to serious signs and symptoms such as:

Muscle cramps. These result from the rapid loss of salts such as sodium, chloride and potassium.

Shock. This is one of the most serious complications of dehydration. It occurs when low blood volume causes a drop in blood pressure and a drop in the amount of oxygen in your body. If untreated, severe hypovolemic shock can cause death in a matter of minutes.

Signs and symptoms of cholera in children

In general, children with cholera have the same signs and symptoms adults do, but they are particularly susceptible to low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) due to fluid loss, which may cause:

An altered state of consciousness

Seizures

Coma

When to see a doctor

The risk of cholera is slight in industrialized nations, and even in endemic areas you're not likely to become infected if you follow food safety recommendations. Still, sporadic cases of cholera occur throughout the world. If you develop severe diarrhea after visiting an area with active cholera, see your doctor.

If you have diarrhea, especially severe diarrhea, and think you may have been exposed to cholera, seek treatment right away. Severe dehydration is a medical emergency that requires immediate care regardless of the cause.

Causes

A bacterium called Vibrio cholerae causes cholera infection. However, the deadly effects of the disease are the result of a potent toxin called CTX that the bacterium produce in the small intestine. CTX binds to the intestinal walls, where it interferes with the normal flow of sodium and chloride. This causes the body to secrete enormous amounts of water, leading to diarrhea and a rapid loss of fluids and salts (electrolytes).

Contaminated water supplies are the main source of cholera infection, although raw shellfish, uncooked fruits and vegetables, and other foods also can harbor V. cholerae.

Cholera bacteria have two distinct life cycles - one in the environment and one in humans.

Cholera bacteria in the environment

Cholera bacteria occur naturally in coastal waters, where they attach to tiny crustaceans called copepods. The cholera bacteria travel with their hosts, spreading worldwide as the crustaceans follow their food source - certain types of algae and plankton that grow explosively when water temperatures rise. Algae growth is further fueled by the urea found in sewage and in agricultural runoff.

Cholera bacteria in people

When humans ingest cholera bacteria, they may not become sick themselves, but they still pass the bacteria in their stool. When human feces contaminate food and water supplies, both can serve as ideal breeding grounds for the cholera bacteria.

Because more than a million cholera bacteria - approximately the amount you'd find in a glass of contaminated water - are needed to cause illness, cholera usually isn't transmitted through casual person-to-person contact.

The most common sources of cholera infection are standing water and certain types of food, including seafood, raw fruits and vegetables, and grains.

Surface or well water. Cholera bacteria can lie dormant in water for long periods, and contaminated public wells are frequent sources of large-scale cholera outbreaks. People living in crowded conditions without adequate sanitation are especially at risk of cholera.

Seafood. Eating raw or undercooked seafood, especially shellfish, that originates from certain locations can expose you to cholera bacteria. Most recent cases of cholera occurring in the United States have been traced to seafood from the Gulf of Mexico.

Raw fruits and vegetables. Raw, unpeeled fruits and vegetables are a frequent source of cholera infection in areas where cholera is endemic. In developing nations, uncomposted manure fertilizers or irrigation water containing raw sewage can contaminate produce in the field.

Grains. In regions where cholera is widespread, grains such as rice and millet that are contaminated after cooking and allowed to remain at room temperature for several hours become a medium for the growth of cholera bacteria.

Risk factors

Everyone is susceptible to cholera, with the exception of infants who derive immunity from nursing mothers who have previously had cholera. Still, certain factors can make you more vulnerable to the disease or more likely to experience severe signs and symptoms. Risk factors for cholera include:

Poor sanitary conditions. Cholera is more likely to flourish in situations where a sanitary environment - including a safe water supply - is difficult to maintain. Such conditions are common to refugee camps, impoverished countries, and areas devastated by famine, war or natural disasters.

Reduced or nonexistent stomach acid (hypochlorhydria or achlorhydria). Cholera bacteria can't survive in an acidic environment, and ordinary stomach acid often serves as a first line defense against infection. But people with low levels of stomach acid - such as children, older adults, and people who take antacids, H-2 blockers or proton pump inhibitors - lack this protection, so they're at greater risk of cholera.

Household exposure. You're at significantly increased risk of cholera if you live with someone who has the disease.

Type O blood. For reasons that aren't entirely clear, people with type O blood are twice as likely to develop cholera compared with people with other blood types.

Raw or undercooked shellfish. Although large-scale cholera outbreaks no longer occur in industrialized nations, eating shellfish from waters known to harbor the bacteria greatly increases your risk.

Complications

Cholera can quickly become fatal. In the most severe cases, the rapid loss of large amounts of fluids and electrolytes can lead to death within two to three hours. In less extreme situations, people who don't receive treatment may die of dehydration and shock hours to days after cholera symptoms first appear.

Although shock and severe dehydration are the most devastating complications of cholera, other problems can occur, such as:

Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). Dangerously low levels of blood sugar (glucose) - the body's main energy source - may occur when people become too ill to eat. Children are at greatest risk of this complication, which can cause seizures, unconsciousness and even death.

Low potassium levels (hypokalemia). People with cholera lose large quantities of minerals, including potassium, in their stools. Very low potassium levels interfere with heart and nerve function and are life-threatening.

Kidney (renal) failure. When the kidneys lose their filtering ability, excess amounts of fluids, some electrolytes and wastes build up in your body - a potentially life-threatening condition. In people with cholera, kidney failure often accompanies shock.

Prevention

Cholera is rare in the United States with the few cases related to travel outside the U.S. or to contaminated and improperly cooked seafood from the Gulf Coast waters.

If you're traveling to cholera-endemic areas, your risk of contracting the disease is extremely low if you follow these precautions:

Wash hands with soap and water frequently, especially after using the toilet and before handling food. Rub soapy, wet hands together for at least 15 seconds before rinsing. If soap and water aren't available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.

Drink only safe water, including bottled water or water you've boiled or disinfected yourself. Use bottled water even to brush your teeth. Hot beverages are generally safe, as are canned or bottled drinks, but wipe the outside before you open them. Avoid adding ice to your beverages unless you made it yourself using safe water.

Eat food that's completely cooked and hot and avoid street vendor food, if possible. If you do buy a meal from a street vendor, make sure it's cooked in your presence and served hot.

Avoid sushi, as well as raw or improperly cooked fish and seafood of any kind.

Stick to fruits and vegetables that you can peel yourself, such as bananas, oranges and avocados. Stay away from salads and fruits that can't be peeled, such as grapes and berries.

Be wary of dairy foods, including ice cream, which is often contaminated, and unpasteurized milk.

Cholera vaccine

For adults traveling to areas affected by cholera, a vaccine is now available in the United States. The Food and Drug Administration recently approved Vaxchora, a vaccine for the prevention of cholera. It is a liquid dose taken by mouth at least 10 days before travel.

A few countries offer oral vaccines as well. Contact your doctor or local office of public health for more information about these vaccines. Keep in mind that no country requires immunization against cholera as a condition for entry.

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Cholera is a bacterial disease usually spread through contaminated water. Cholera causes severe diarrhea and dehydration. Left untreated, cholera can be fatal in a matter of hours, even in previously healthy people. Modern sewage and water treatment have virtually eliminated cholera in industrialized countries. The last major outbreak in the United States occurred in 1911.

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Cholera: an infectious and often fatal bacterial disease of the small intestine, typically contracted from infected water supplies and causing severe vomiting and diarrhea.

Epidemic: a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.

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Traditional wedding and engagement ceremonies in Malawi. Customs and traditions explained by Local Malawian Chimwemwe Siyabu.

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Did you know how Malawian do engagements? This article explains the traditional Malawian wedding and engagement ceremony.

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During World War II, men voluntarily starved themselves so that researchers and relief workers could learn about how to help people recover from starvation.

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relating to the way in which a living organism or bodily part functions

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arvest should be the time for celebrations, weddings and full bellies in southern Malawi. But Christopher Witimani, Lilian Matafle and their seven children and four grandchildren had nothing to celebrate last week as they picked their meagre maize crop.

Last year's drought, followed by erratic rains, hit the village of Nkhotakota hard. But this year the rains never came and, for a second year running, the family grain store is empty. If they manage their savings carefully and eat just one small meal a day, they may just have enough food for two more months.

By August, said Irish charity Concern Worldwide, they and tens of thousands of other small farmers in southern Malawi will have completely run out of food, with no prospect of another harvest for at least seven months. With nothing to sell and no chance of earning money, Witimani, Matafle and family will starve.

"I am worried the children will starve to death. I don't know what to do," said Matafle.

"We need food. We are in a desperate situation," her husband added.

Countries are just waking up to the most serious global food crisis of the last 25 years. Caused by the strongest El Niño weather event since 1982, droughts and heatwaves have ravaged much of India, Latin America and parts of south-east Asia. But the worst effects of this natural phenomenon, which begins with waters warming in the equatorial Pacific, are to be found in southern Africa. A second consecutive year without rain now threatens catastrophe for some of the poorest people in the world.

The scale of the crisis unfolding in 10 or more southern African countries has shocked the United Nations. Lulled into thinking that Ethiopia in 1985 was the last of the large-scale famines affecting many millions, donor countries have been slow to pledge funds or support. More than $650m and 7.9m tonnes of food are needed immediately, says the UN. By Christmas, the situation will have become severe.

Malawi, Mozambique, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Madagascar, Angola and Swaziland have already declared national emergencies or disasters, as have seven of South Africa's nine provinces. Other countries, including Botswana and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, have also been badly hit. President Robert Mugabe has appealed for $1.5bn to buy food for Zimbabwe and Malawi is expected to declare that more than 8 million people, or half the country, will need food aid by November.

Serena Gadinala, from the in Neno district of Malawi, has tried different planting techniques but nothing worked and her crops continue to wilt. Photograph: Tamara van Vliet/OCHA

More than 31 million people in the region are said by the UN to need food now, but this number is expected to rise to at least 49 million across almost all of southern Africa by Christmas. With 12 million more hungry people in Ethiopia, 7 million in Yemen, 6 million in Southern Sudan and more in the Central African Republic and Chad, a continent-scale food crisis is unfolding.

"Food security across southern Africa will start deteriorating by July, reaching its peak between December 2016 and April 2017," says the UN's office for humanitarian affairs. The regional cereal deficit already stands at 7.9m tonnes and continues to put upward pressure on market prices, which are already showing unprecedented increases, diminishing purchasing power and thereby reducing food access. As food insecurity tightens and water scarcity increases due to the drought, there are early signs of acute malnutrition in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabawe.

For Coco Ushiyama, head of the UN's World Food Programme in Lilongwe, Malawi's capital, just working out how to import a million tonnes of food, needed to support between five million and eight million people in Malawi over the next 12 months, is proving nightmarishly difficult. With no guarantees of money from donors, she cannot buy the food on the open market, or book ships and transport.

"We are very concerned. Last year, like many other countries in the region, Malawi had a double disaster with erratic rains and then floods which led into droughts," said Ushiyama. "Last year, 2.8 million people were affected. Then we had a deficit of 220,000 tonnes of food. This year, we are anticipating it will be four times as bad. The maize price is already exceptionally high.

"We are monitoring 50 markets throughout the country and already they are seeing abnormally high prices. We have very worryingly high admission rates for childhood malnutrition in health clinics. In some areas it is very serious already and it is likely to get much more serious. It will be a regional issue," she said.

The government has declared a disaster and will publish a new assessment of its needs in the next few weeks. The vice-president, Saulos Chilima, has said that about 1.3m tonnes of maize will be needed.

Politicians may talk of going on to the world market to buy a million tonnes of maize, but Ushiyama is unsure where it will come from. There is usually enough food in the region, but South Africa, which usually exports a million tonnes of food a year, will need to import 3.5m tonnes this year. Only Zambia may have enough food to export and it has imposed restrictions, she said.

"South Africa is in trouble. Nearby Zambia has had a better harvest than most countries but it has put export restrictions on its food. If we import it [from outside Africa], the food will take four to six months [to arrive]. We have learned from experience that the rains start in November so the roads will be terrible when the food is most needed and some lorry drivers will refuse to come. By November, we will need to have pre-positioned food in key areas. But to get it there by then means ordering the food right now," she said.

People are divide pulses among themselves at a United Nations World Food Programme food distribution centre in Chikwawa district, Malawi. Photograph: Tamara van Vliet/OCHA

Finding the cash to feed possibly 50 million people for eight or more months is the biggest problem of all, says the UN, because Africa's slow-burn crisis must compete with Middle East wars, refugees and natural disasters for attention. According to the UN, which is holding an unprecedented humanitarian summit this week in Istanbul, 125 million people worldwide need long-term assistance and a further 60 million have been forced from their homes by war, violence and disaster.

More than $1.5bn has been requested by southern African governments, says Ocha, the UN's Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, but less than a quarter of this has been pledged. Officially, the deficit is $677 million (87%) but this will grow when countries complete their assessments of the harvests in the next few weeks.

"The window for responding in a meaningful manner is closing rapidly," said Shadrack Omol, senior adviser to the UN children's fund, Unicef. "The concern is that slow-onset emergencies, like the one we are dealing with in southern Africa, do not get enough attention because they creep up on us."

John Makina, Oxfam country director in Malawi, said: "The donors just do not have the money; there is donor fatigue. Malawi has been hit by drought, then floods, then drought. The donors are getting tired of it. In 2015, Malawi alone needed $170m. In 2016-17, it will be far more.

"The full impact will be felt from October to March 2017. It's looking really bad. The most affected will be the poorest and jobless. They will end up selling what little they possess. The price of maize flour has already gone to 9,000 kwachas (£8.70) for 50kg. It will double again for sure," he said.

International development minister Nick Hurd, who has visited Mozambique, wants Britain to lead the humanitarian effort. But money cannot be given directly to the country following a corruption scandal, and the government must work through a consortium of NGOs, providing food vouchers, medical aid and food-for-work schemes.

"We cannot and will not stand idly by while millions suffer. Britain is playing a leading role in helping countries across Africa to cope with the impact of El Niño. Support for people affected by El Niño is important to Africa and also firmly in Britain's national interest," says Hurd.

In villages across southern Africa, people are fearful, unsure how they will survive. In Mozambique, where Britain is contributing £11.8m over three years, some food aid has arrived in the village of Mblalava.

A farmer tries to grow crops with the help of a United Nations supported irrigation scheme in the Neno district of Malawi. Photograph: Tamara van Vliet/OCHA

The women are ecstatic: "It's been two and a half years since we had good rain," said Rosita Chauque, a mother of three. "When the drought started we used to be able to find vegetables in the bush, but even these have gone now. We used to make and sell charcoal, but there are so many other people doing that now it's not possible. We have thought of leaving, but where to? We have no crops in the fields, no food for the cattle and nothing for ourselves. There is no water, no grass. People are selling their animals. They have no other resources. There is a lot of suffering."

"The situation is critical," said Abdoulaye Balde, the World Food Programme country director in Mozambique's capital, Maputo. "We are at the point of no return."

Droughts and "hungry seasons" are common throughout southern Africa, but the breadth of this year's crisis is very unusual, says Caoimhe de Barra, Malawi country director of Concern Worldwide. Her frontline workers see rural people already employing traditional coping strategies, including eating wild foods, taking children out of school, selling their animals and assets.

"Early action is key. If we can start supporting people now, we can save lives and prevent an even worse situation later this year. People are not currently dying of hunger but the overall health of the population will be severely affected by hunger-related illnesses. Malnutrition will blight the life chances of countless more Malawian children," she said.

The secretary general of the International Red Cross, Elhadj As Sy, who visited Malawi and Zimbabwe last week, said: "Much more needs to be done to support communities to survive and strive over the coming months. We met families who have received no external support and who are simply desperate. We need to urgently scale up our interventions to prevent this situation from becoming a catastrophe," he said.

Relief from Africa's long drought may finally be coming, says the World Meteorological Organisation, which is monitoring the temperature of waters in the Pacific. These are said to be cooling rapidly and are expected to be "neutral" by mid-June. That, says the UN, signals the coming end of the El Niño, the droughts and the worldwide heatwaves.

The effects, however, will not be felt in southern Africa until April 2017 when the next main harvest should be in. But, says the WMO, there may be a sting in the tale. There is a 50:50 chance that the continent will be hit from September by El Niño's climatic "twin", known as La Niña, which develops as the Pacific Ocean equatorial waters cool after an El Niño.

Instead of droughts, La Niña usually brings heavier monsoon rains in south-east Asia and much cooler and wetter conditions in southern Africa.

"We pray hard for rain and then we must pray harder that it stops. Is there no end of extreme weather?" said Malawian villager Richard Kapenda.

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Across Africa, the worst food crisis since 1985 looms for 50 million

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A second year without rain threatens to bring catastrophe for some of the poorest people in the world. Donor countries, in the grip of wars and refugee crises, have been slow to pledge funds. But by the time they do, it could be too late

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Malaria is a life-threatening mosquito-borne blood disease caused by a Plasmodium parasite.

It is transmitted to humans through the bite of the Anopheles mosquito.

Once an infected mosquito bites a human, the parasites multiply in the host's liver before infecting and destroying red blood cells.

In some places, malaria can be treated and controlled with early diagnosis. However, some countries lack the resources to do this effectively.

Currently, no vaccine is licensed for use in the United States or globally, although one is available in Europe.

Malaria was eliminated from the U.S. in the early 1950s, but between 1,500 and 2,000 cases still occur each year, mostly in those who have recently traveled to malaria-endemic areas.

Fast facts on malaria:

Here are some key points about the malaria. More detail is in the main article.

Malaria is typically spread by mosquitoes.

Symptoms resemble those of flu, but, without treatment, the effects can sometimes be long-term and fatal.

Travelers, hikers, and campers can protect themselves with medication, pest control, clothing, and nets.

What is malaria?

Malaria is passed on by the Anopheles mosquito.

Over 100 types of Plasmodium parasite can infect a variety of species. They replicate at different rates, and this affects how quickly the symptoms escalate, and the severity of the disease.

Five types of Plasmodium parasite can infect humans. They are found in different parts of the world. Some cause a more severe type of malaria than others.

Symptoms

Malaria symptoms can be classified into two categories: uncomplicated and severe malaria.

Uncomplicated malaria

This is diagnosed when symptoms are present, but there are no signs to indicate severe infection or dysfunction of the vital organs.

This form can become severe malaria if left untreated, or if the host has poor or no immunity.

Symptoms of uncomplicated malaria typically last 6 to 10 hours and recur every second day. Some strains of the parasite can have a longer cycle or cause mixed symptoms.

As symptoms resemble those of flu, they may be undiagnosed or misdiagnosed in areas where malaria is less common.

In uncomplicated malaria, symptoms progress as follows, through cold, hot, and sweating stages:

a sensation of cold with shivering

fever, headaches, and vomiting

seizures sometimes occur in younger people with the disease

sweats, followed by a return to normal temperature, with tiredness

In areas where malaria is common, many patients recognize the symptoms as malaria and treat themselves without visiting a doctor.

Severe malaria

In severe malaria, clinical or laboratory evidence shows signs of vital organ dysfunction.

Symptoms of severe malaria include:

fever and chills

impaired consciousness

prostration, or adopting a prone position

multiple convulsions

deep breathing and respiratory distress

abnormal bleeding and signs of anemia

clinical jaundice and evidence of vital organ dysfunction

Severe malaria can be fatal without treatment.

Causes

Malaria happens when a bite from the female Anopheles mosquito infects the body with Plasmodium. Only the Anopheles mosquito can transmit malaria.

The successful development of the parasite within the mosquito depends on several factors, the most important being humidity and ambient temperatures.

When an infected mosquito bites a human host, the parasite enters the bloodstream and lays dormant within the liver.

The host will have no symptoms for an average of 10.5 days, but the malaria parasite will begin multiplying during this time.

The new malaria parasites are then released back into the bloodstream, where they infect red blood cells and multiply further. Some malaria parasites remain in the liver and are not released until later, resulting in recurrence.

An unaffected mosquito becomes infected once it feeds on an infected individual. This restarts the cycle.

Diagnosis

Early diagnosis is critical for a patient's recovery.
Anyone showing signs of malaria should be tested immediately.
The World Health Organization (WHO) strongly advise confirmation of the parasite through microscopic laboratory testing or by a rapid diagnostic test (RDT), depending on the facilities available.

No combination of symptoms can reliably distinguish malaria from other causes, so a parasitological test is vital for identifying and managing the disease.

In some malaria-endemic areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, the disease's severity can cause mild immunity in a large proportion of the local population.

As a result, some people carry the parasites in their bloodstream but do not fall ill.

Treatment

Treatment aims to eliminate the Plasmodium parasite from the patient's bloodstream.

Those without symptoms may be treated for infection to reduce the risk of disease transmission in the surrounding population.

Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is recommended by the WHO to treat uncomplicated malaria.

Artemisinin is derived from the plant Artemisia annua, better known as sweet wormwood. It is known for its ability to rapidly reduce the concentration of Plasmodium parasites in the bloodstream.

ACT is artemisinin combined with a partner drug. The role of artemisinin is to reduce the number of parasites within the first 3 days of infection, while the partner drugs eliminate the rest.

Expanding access to ACT treatment worldwide has helped reduce the impact of malaria, but the disease is becoming increasingly resistant to the effects of ACT.

In places where malaria is resistant to ACT, treatment must contain an effective partner drug.

The WHO has warned that no alternatives to artemisinin are likely to become available for several years.

Prevention

There are several ways to keep malaria at bay.

Vaccination

Research to develop safe and effective global vaccines for malaria is ongoing, with one vaccine already licensed for use in Europe. No vaccine is yet licensed in the U.S.

It is essential to seek medical attention for suspected symptoms of malaria as early as possible.

Prevention: Advice for travelers

Travelers to places where malaria is prevalent should take precautions, for example, using mosquito nets.

While malaria is not endemic to the U.S., travel to many countries around the world entails a risk.

Travelers are advised to:

find out what the risk of malaria is in the country and city or region they are visiting

ask their doctor what medications they should use to prevent infection in that region

obtain antimalarial drugs before leaving home, to avoid the risk of buying counterfeit drugs when away

consider the risk for individual travelers, including children, older people, pregnant women, and the existing medical conditions of any travelers

ensure they will have access to preventative tools, many of which are available to purchase online. These include insect repellants, insecticides, pre-treated bed nets, and appropriate clothing

be aware of the symptoms of malaria

In emergency situations, local health authorities in some countries may carry out "fogging," or spraying areas with pesticides similar to those used in household sprays.

The WHO points out that these are not harmful for people, as the concentration of pesticide is only strong enough to kills mosquitoes.

While away, travelers should, where possible, avoid situations that increase the risk of being bitten by mosquitoes. Precautions include taking an air-conditioned room, not camping by stagnant water, and wearing clothes that cover the body at times when mosquitoes are most likely to be around.

For a year after returning home, the traveler may be susceptible to symptoms of malaria. Donating blood may also not be possible for some time.

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Malaria: Symptoms, treatment, and prevention

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Malaria is a disease that is spread by the female Anopheles mosquito. There are two types of malaria: uncomplicated and severe malaria. The symptoms vary according to the type but can range from fever and vomiting to organ dysfunction and death. This article looks at causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention methods.

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Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for other uses.

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RIPPLE Africa receives many general enquiries asking about the natural environment in Malawi, Africa, and particularly about deforestation in Africa. To help people wishing to gain a better understanding of some of the complex environmental issues Malawi is facing, we have provided a page about the environment and deforestation in Malawi and, most specifically, the Nkhata Bay District where RIPPLE Africa is based.

The environment is one of RIPPLE Africa's three main pillars of activity. It is also the charity's only area of focus which goes beyond our own local community: RIPPLE Africa's environmental projects span the entire Nkhata Bay District, an area of just over 4,000km². RIPPLE Africa's environmental projects include tree planting, fruit tree projects, fuel-efficient cookstoves, forest conservation, and more.

Environmental Overview

Malawi is a landlocked country in south-eastern Africa, bordered by Tanzania, Zambia, and Mozambique. Malawi is 118,000km², but one fifth of the country is made up of Lake Malawi, so actual land area is 94,080km², roughly the size of Scotland and Wales combined. The Great Rift Valley runs through the country from north to south, and Lake Malawi lies to the east. Land is made up of mountains, plateaux, hills, valleys, flatlands, and lakeshore. Malawi has a sub-tropical climate, and experiences a rainy season from December to March, a cold dry season from April to August, and a hot dry season from September to November.

Malawi was previously heavily forested. However, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), forest cover is now just 34.4% of the total land area of Malawi (UN data 2010) (fallen from 41.4% in 1990). The Northern Region, where RIPPLE Africa is based, has more forested areas than the heavily populated Southern and Central Regions combined.

The challenge for Malawi for the future, with its rapidly growing population, is to help communities to develop a more sustainable approach to the environment.

Deforestation for Farming

Most of Malawi was originally covered by forest but, over the years, people have been cutting down the trees and burning them where they fall to open up areas for farming - this is commonly known as "slash and burn" agriculture. In the past, these areas were farmed for one to three years, and then the farmer would move on, cut down some more forest, and start all over again. Whilst the population of Malawi was small, the environment was able to recover as the trees would regenerate but now, with the population doubling every 25 years (in July 2011, the population of Malawi is estimated to be 17.2 million (2015 Source World Bank) - see Malawi Facts and Figures), there is increased pressure on available land. Today, more than 80% of Malawians live in the rural areas and are subsistence farmers.

During President Hastings (Kamuzu) Banda's time in office following Malawi's independence from Britain in 1964 until 1994, the forests in Malawi were protected. However, with the arrival of multi-party politics and democracy in 1994, the people believed that they had the freedom to do what they liked, and huge areas of forest have been cut down in the past 17 years to provide more farmland to produce food. The result is that much of the country has very few forests left and, in fact, it is not possible to see a large tree in many places in south and central Malawi.

In Nkhata Bay District, the area in which RIPPLE Africa is working, there are still large areas of forested hills, but these are disappearing very quickly because people from other areas of Malawi are now moving into the District and cutting down the trees illegally. The deforestation in the hills is causing a major change to the landscape and to the climate. As soon as the trees are cut down, the soil is exposed to the rain and, in many places, most of the top soil is washed away into the rivers and eventually into Lake Malawi. This is leaving the hills infertile so that trees and crops do not grow well, and the soil that is being deposited in the lake is affecting fish stocks which, together with over-fishing, is causing a dramatic reduction in the number of fish that are being caught in the lake.

Other Reasons Why Trees Are Cut Down

The main reasons why the trees in Malawi are cut down are as follows.

Wood is the main fuel in Malawi, and 95% of homes still use wood or charcoal for cooking. Nearly everybody uses three-stone fires for cooking, and each fire consumes about three large bundles (weighing about 30kg each) of wood per week. In many areas, wood is now becoming very scarce. Although the government has a number of laws to restrict the sale of wood and charcoal without a licence, the practice is very common throughout the country. The use of charcoal for cooking is more common in the major towns, but charcoal production and the sale of charcoal is illegal. However, despite this, the people in rural areas produce many bags of charcoal which are transported to the towns. This fuel is incredibly wasteful as it uses a considerable number of trees to produce one bag of charcoal.

Most houses in Malawi are made from bricks, and these are commonly made by putting clay soil into moulds and then drying them in the sun. These sun-dried bricks are then built into a large kiln and vast amounts of wood are used to fire them. In October/November, it is normal to see people burning their bricks all over the country, but there is no restriction on this activity at the moment. To make enough bricks for a small family house would require three large mango trees or the equivalent.

There is now very little hardwood available in Malawi for timber production. Sawyers walk up into the hills and cut down the best hardwood trees to make planks for building and for furniture.

Although wood is such an important resource in Malawi, the Malawians have been very poor at managing their woodland and replanting their trees.

Agriculture

Malawians used to farm the old traditional crops of millet and sorghum which are disease and drought resistant but, as with most of the other countries in Africa, maize was introduced by the World Bank in the 1950s and is now the most popular crop as the staple food in Malawi. Ideally, maize needs good soil and nutrients, and sufficient water, but it is susceptible to disease and drought. Maize is commonly grown in the rainy season from seed which farmers have to buy, and it is planted in December. Unfortunately, Malawians rarely rotate their crops and often, at the end of the season, the fields are burnt to clear them so that the nutrients are destroyed and there is very little organic matter in the soil. Hence, increasingly, farmers rely on expensive, chemical fertilisers to increase their crop yields.

In Nkhata Bay District, the most common crop is cassava from which a flour similar to maize flour is produced, and this is used as the staple food in the area. Cassava is reasonably easy to grow - a short piece of stem is planted in the ground, and this will grow throughout the rainy and dry seasons. As with maize, this crop is regularly planted without rotation. In the dry season, October/November, many farmers burn the bush as a quick way to clear their land, and children set fire to the dry vegetation for fun, with devastating results. All of the organic matter is destroyed, and homes, trees, and seeds are also burnt, often leaving the soil sterile.

Lake Malawi

Lake Malawi, which is the ninth largest lake in the world, is a major part of life in Malawi. It covers one fifth of the country and, traditionally, people who live along the lakeshore are fishermen. As a result of large-scale soil erosion due to deforestation, the lake is suffering from siltation which, together with over-fishing, has caused the fish stocks to reduce. In the 1970s, the average consumption of fish was 14kg per person per year, but it has now fallen to about 4kg per person per year because of the reduction of fish stocks in the lake and the growth in population.

Videos

Forest Conservation: Signing of Bylaws (9:08)

Deforestation, Bush Burning and Forest Conservation (2:51)

Fish Conservation: Fish for Tomorrow (6:41)

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RIPPLE Africa receives many general enquiries asking about the natural environment in Malawi, Africa, and particularly about deforestation in Africa. To help people wishing to gain a better understanding of some of the complex environmental issues Malawi is facing, we have provided a page about the environment and deforestation in Malawi and, most specifically, the Nkhata Bay District where RIPPLE Africa is based.

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Alternating Current (AC) vs. Direct Current (DC) - learn.sparkfun.com

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Where did the Australian rock band AC/DC get their name from? Why, Alternating Current and Direct Current, of course! Both AC and DC describe types of current flow in a circuit. In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in one direction.

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Bicycle Lighting Systems--Unbiased Information on Dynamo Powered Lights

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The Backwards Brain Bicycle - Smarter Every Day 133

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Discover how cultivating an inquiring mind can help you lead a happier, healthier life.

What do you want most in life? For the vast majority of us, the answer is "to be happy." In a 2007 survey of more than 10,000 people from 48 countries published in Perspectives on Psychological Sciences, happiness was viewed as more important than success, intelligence, knowledge, maturity, wisdom, relationships, wealth and meaning in life.

Happiness is a good thing. Yet, both in my professional research and in my personal experience, I've observed that when we focus solely on what we think will make us happy, we can lose track of what actually does.

In 2007 the Princeton economist Alan Krueger, Nobel Laureate Daniel Kahneman and their colleagues published a paper called "Are We Having More Fun Yet?" They posed this question: Have the social progress, economic prosperity and technological advancements of the past 50 years changed the quality of our lives? Have these new opportunities allowed us to spend more time doing what we care about most, thus increasing our satisfaction and meaning in life?

For most of us, the answer is no. The majority of Americans spend less than 20 percent of each day doing what could be termed very engaging, enjoyable and meaningful activities (such as talking with close friends, bonding with loved ones, creating, playing, or pursuing a spiritual practice). Instead, most of our time and energy are spent either engaged in unsatisfying work activities and chores (commuting, standing in line at the post office, fixing broken appliances), or decompressing in ways that bring neither joy nor challenge (watching TV, snacking or just "doing nothing").

It doesn't have to be this way, though - if we're willing to shake up our pursuit of happiness by introducing some elements of surprise.

One of the most reliable and overlooked keys to happiness is cultivating and exercising our innate sense of curiosity. That's because curiosity - a state of active interest or genuinely wanting to know more about something - creates an openness to unfamiliar experiences, laying the groundwork for greater opportunities to experience discovery, joy and delight.

Curiosity is something that can be nurtured and developed. With practice, we can harness the power of curiosity to transform everyday tasks into interesting and enjoyable experiences. We can also use curiosity to intentionally create wonder, intrigue and play out of almost any situation or interaction we encounter.

It all starts with wanting to know more.

5 Benefits of an Inquiring Mind

Curiosity, at its core, is all about noticing and being drawn to things we find interesting. It's about recognizing and seizing the pleasures that novel experiences offer us, and finding novelty and meaning even in experiences that are familiar.

When we are curious, we see things differently; we use our powers of observation more fully. We sense what is happening in the present moment, taking note of what is, regardless of what it looked like before or what we might have expected it to be.

We feel alive and engaged, more capable of embracing opportunities, making connections, and experiencing moments of insight and meaning - all of which provide the foundation for a rich, aware and satisfying life experience.

Here are five of the important ways that curiosity enhances our well-being and the quality of our lives:

1. Health

In a 1996 study published in Psychology and Aging, more than 1,000 older adults aged 60 to 86 were carefully observed over a five-year period, and researchers found that those who were rated as being more curious at the beginning of the study were more likely to be alive at its conclusion, even after taking into account age, whether they smoked, the presence of cancer or cardiovascular disease, and so on.

It is possible that declining curiosity is an initial sign of neurological illness and declining health. Nonetheless, there are promising signs that enhancing curiosity reduces the risk for these diseases and may even reverse some of the natural degeneration that occurs in older adults.

In his book, The Power of Premonitions (Dutton, 2009), Larry Dossey, MD, cites studies that have shown women "who regularly engage in mini-mysteries ... taking on novel experiences that get them out of familiar routines (better) preserve their mental faculties later in life." In short, a regular dose of the unexpected helps keep your brain healthy.

A 2005 report in the journal Health Psychology described a two-year study involving more than 1,000 patients that found higher levels of curiosity were also associated with a decreased likelihood of developing hypertension and diabetes. While correlation does not imply causation, these relationships suggest that curiosity may have a variety of positive connections with health that deserve further study.

2. Intelligence

Studies have shown that curiosity positively correlates with intelligence. In one study published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology in 2002, researchers correctly predicted that high novelty-seeking (or highly curious) toddlers would have higher IQs as older children than toddlers with lower levels of curiosity. Researchers measured the degree of novelty-seeking behavior in 1,795 3-year-olds and then measured their cognitive ability at age 11. As predicted, the 11-year-olds who had been highly curious 3-year-olds later scored 12 points higher on total IQ compared with low stimulation seekers. They also had superior scholastic and reading ability.

Other studies have shown that high levels of curiosity in adults are connected to greater analytic ability, problem-solving skills and overall intelligence. All of which suggests that cultivating more curiosity in your daily life is likely to make you smarter.

3. Social Relationships

It is far easier to form and maintain satisfying, significant relationships when you demonstrate an attitude of openness and genuine interest. One of the top reasons why couples seek counseling or therapy is because they've become bored with each other. This often sparks resentment, hostility, communication breakdowns and a lack of interest in spending time together (only adding to the initial problem). Curious people report more satisfying relationships and marriages. Happy couples describe their partners as interested and responsive.

Curious people are inclined to act in ways that allow relationships to develop more easily. In one of my studies, participants spent five minutes getting acquainted with a stranger of the opposite sex, and each person made judgments about his or her partner's personality. We also interviewed their closest friends and parents to gain added insight into the qualities that curious people bring to relationships. Each of these groups - acquaintances of a mere five minutes, close friends and parents - characterized curious people as highly enthusiastic and energetic, talkative, interesting in what they say and do, displaying a wide range of interests, confident, humorous, less likely to express insecurities, and lacking in timidity and anxiety compared with less curious people.

Curious people ask questions and take an interest in learning about partners, and they intentionally try to keep interactions interesting anaging d playful. This approach supports the development of good relationships.

4. Happiness

The Gallup organization recently reported the results of a survey conducted with more than 130,000 people from some 130 nations, a sample designed to represent 96 percent of the world's population. The poll identified two factors that had the strongest influence on how much enjoyment a person experienced in a given day: "being able to count on someone for help" and "learned something yesterday."

What this poll confirms is that developing good relationships with other people (see above) and growing as a person are foundational components of a "happy" life. Both factors are supported by curiosity.

In fact, in one of the largest undertakings in the field of psychology, two pioneers in the field of positive psychology, Martin Seligman, PhD, and Chris Peterson, PhD, devised a scientific classification of the basic human strengths. This system was the end result of reading the works of ancient philosophers, religious texts and contemporary literature, then identifying patterns, and finally subjecting these ideas to rigorous scientific tests. Their research eventually recognized 24 basic strengths. And, of those 24 strengths that human beings can possess, curiosity was one of the five most highly associated with overall life fulfillment and happiness.

There are other important relationships between curiosity and happiness. In his book Stumbling on Happiness (Knopf, 2006), Harvard University psychology professor Daniel Gilbert, PhD, shows that, while we think we know what will make us happy in the future, we are actually less likely to find joy as a result of a planned pursuit than by simply stumbling upon it. It follows that by cultivating curiosity and remaining open to new experiences, we increase our likelihood of encountering those surprising and satisfying activities.

5. Meaning

If we are going to find a meaningful purpose or calling in life, chances are good we will find it in something that unleashes our natural curiosity and fascination. Indeed, curiosity is the entry point to many of life's greatest sources of meaning and satisfaction: our interests, hobbies and passions.

While being passionate about something naturally renders you curious to know as much as you can about it, it also works the other way around: The more curiosity you can muster for something, the more likely you are to notice and learn about it, and thus the more interesting and meaningful it will become for you over time.

This is true of people, books, sports, skills and conversations. Often, the more curiosity and energy we invest in exploring and understanding them, the more compelling they become.

This has important implications for how much meaning and passion we experience in life: The greater the range and depth of our curiosity, the more opportunities we have to experience things that inspire and excite us, from minute details to momentous occasions.

Tune in to Your Curiosity

One of the best ways to better appreciate the power of curiosity is to start exercising it more consciously in your daily experiences. By doing so, you can transform routine tasks, enlivening them with new energy. You will also likely begin to notice more situations that have the potential to engage you, giving your curiosity even more opportunities to flourish.

Here are four strategies to consider:

Build knowledge.

Knowledge opens our eyes to interesting gaps about what we don't know. When a marine biologist goes snorkeling and is able to name specific fishes by the size, color, texture, and shape of eyes and fins, he or she is going to be acutely aware of the unusual features that the rest of us will miss - a pattern of orange stripes that are vertical when they are usually horizontal. The child who can name 45 states is much more interested in discovering the five he or she doesn't know than the child with only three states in the brain bank. The person learning to play the piano will hear more nuances in a piano concerto than the person who doesn't know treble clef from bass clef. If you want to be curious, start accumulating knowledge. (For some suggestions on how to do that, see "Awaken Your Inner Sherlock," below.)

Thrive on uncertainty.

We rarely look forward to anxiety and tension, but research shows that these mixed emotions are often what lead to the most intense and longest-lasting positive experiences. People who take part in new and uncertain activities are happier and find more meaning in their lives than people who rely on the familiar.

Most of us mistakenly believe that certainty will make us happier than uncertainty. Imagine that you go to a football game knowing that your team will win. Most people would say that, yes, that would make them happy. Yet knowing the outcome in advance takes away the thrill of watching each play and the good tension that comes with not knowing what will happen next. We forget about the pleasures of surprise
and uncertainty.

Remind yourself of the pleasures of surprise by thinking back to the last five positive events in your life that began with an uncertain, unknown outcome. Think of sporting events, first dates, job interviews and so on. You will likely be surprised to find how big a role surprise plays in your joyful experiences.

Reconnect with play.

We can add play and playfulness to almost any task, and the attitude of play naturally builds interest and curiosity. This dynamic was captured wonderfully in a National Public Radio story about an assembly-line worker in a potato chip factory whose job was to make sure that the chips rolling down the conveyor belt were uniform and aesthetically pleasing before being bagged.

This man found the job dreary. So he developed a game that made it more interesting: He searched for potato chips resembling famous people and kept a collection (imagine silhouettes of Elvis, Charles Manson, Marilyn Monroe and Jimi Hendrix). Because he was constantly scanning odd and bizarre shapes for celebrity resemblances, the day moved quickly. He also became incredibly efficient at catching misshapen chips.

Find the unfamiliar in the familiar.

One way to become more curious is to intentionally circumvent expectations, labels and assumptions about "seemingly" familiar activities and events. It's easy to prejudge an activity because we think we have seen it before or avoid an activity entirely because we expect it to be boring or unpleasant.

The goal of discovering the unfamiliar in the familiar is to suspend judgments and attend to how things are, not how you expect them to be.

In a recent study, researchers asked people to do something they reported disliking and pay attention to three novel features when they did it. This small exercise altered the way they viewed and felt about the activity. For example, an 18-year-old male bodybuilder who scoffed at crocheting spent 90 minutes practicing the task. The three novel discoveries he reported were 1) how demanding the process of making small stitches could be (he hadn't anticipated that this "easy" task would tire him); 2) that it could be meditative ("time flew by"); and 3) that the crochet stitches could be tight enough to create flip-flop sandals (which was the project he worked on).

When the study subjects were contacted weeks later, those individuals who were asked to search for the novel and unfamiliar in their laboratory task were more likely to have done the task on their own without being asked or prompted (though it is unknown if the bodybuilder continued crocheting). A window of opportunity and willingness opened for these participants that had been previously closed off by their preconceived ideas.

This same little experiment can be applied to any activity in your life. Consider the list of low-interest, but necessary, activities in your typical day. Choose one of these ho-hum activities and, as you do it, search for any three novel or unexpected things about it.

With tasks that are new to you or that you haven't even considered (like the bodybuilder who tried crocheting), ask yourself if you can find one thing that is surprising to you as a newcomer to this particular activity.

Also keep in mind that, even though recurring situations may look identical on the surface, any event - especially one involving people - has some degree of novelty each time it occurs. Be on the lookout for even the tiniest thing that is different, special or notable, and chances are good that you'll find something.

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curious? discover the missing ingredient to a fulfilling life

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Discover how cultivating an inquiring mind can help you lead a happier, healthier life. What do you want most in life? For the vast majority of us, the answer is "to be happy."

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Genre Local
City Blantyre
Country Malawi
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Robert Fumulani was born in Zomba, Malawi, 1948 and died in 1998. He was an award-winning popular musician, nightclub owner, and businessman in Malawi. He fronted the Likhubula River Dance Band, known for its Afroma ("Afro-Malawi") funk rock reggae fusion.

Fumulani has been described as "one of Malawi's most popular bandleaders of the late 1980s and 1990s", and as "the blessed father of our national music". In the 1980s he was a three-time winner of MBC's "Entertainer of the Year" award.

His earnings from music went towards a number of business enterprises, including the Chileka nightclub, Likhubula Entertainment Centre, and a cargo services company at Chileka airport. His musical legacy is kept alive by three of his seven sons; Anjiru, Musamude, and Chizondi- who are the core of the Black Missionaries, one of Malawi's most popular groups.

MP3

Released

1990

Format

MP3

Type

Tape

Label

Likhubula Productions

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robert fumulani likhubula river dance band

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Genre Local City Blantyre Country Malawi Tags To view this page on the Malawi-Music.com mobile site Click here Robert Fumulani was born in Zomba, Malawi, 1948 and died in 1998. He was an award-winning popular musician, nightclub owner, and businessman in Malawi. He fronted the Likhubula River Dance Band, known for its Afroma ("Afro-Malawi") funk rock reggae fusion.

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Nestled between Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique, Malawi has earned it's nickname as 'the warm heart of Africa'. And 'warm' is precisely the adjective I would use to describe Malawian music. There is a sunny optimism in much of the Malawian music I've heard, and after a grim weekend of cold, rain, and snow, here in Washington D.C., I figured I'd warm myself up with a few Malawian recordings from our collection.

One of the most popular styles of music in Malawi, in the late 1960s was South African Kwela; a driving dance music, powered by virtuoso penny whistle players. Migrant workers returning from South Africa and Zimbabwe brought kwela music to Malawi, and it was in Salisbury, the capital of the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (which is now Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe), that Daniel and Donald Kachamba discovered Kwela music. When the brothers returned, in 1961, to Nyasaland (which became Malawi in 1964), they started to perform Kwela music on the streets, at markets, and in nightclubs. Daniel played the guitar, and his younger brother Donald was a penny whistle virtuoso; he had been playing the instrument since the age of six.

In 1967, the Austrian ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik heard the Kachamba brothers playing for a large crowd near the main market in Blantyre, Malawi's largest city. And at some point that same year, he brought the Kachamba brothers band to the United States Cultural Center in Blantyre. In February of 1968, the United States Information Service office in Blantyre, sent a four-song tape to the Voice of America, with the following description: 'enclosed is [a recording, made on December 4, 1967 of] an African combo consisting of four boys aged 7-16. They were recently discovered by a German musicologist who was researching African music in Malawi.'

In fact, at the time of these recordings Daniel was 20 years old (he was born in 1947, and passed away in 1987), and Donald was 14 (he was born in 1953, and passed away in 2001); two younger boys accompanied them, one playing the string bass, and the other the rattle. Donald's penny whistle playing on these two tracks is fantastic.

Let's jump ahead a couple of decades, with one of Malawi's most popular bandleaders of the late 1980s and 1990s, Robert Fumulani (he is the man crouching in the picture above). He was born, in 1948, in the city of Zomba (which is 40 miles northeast of Blantyre), and first started to draw the attention of Malawian audiences in the 1970s. During the 1980s, Fumulani won the Malawian 'Entertainer of the Year' award three times. And by the time he passed away, in 1998, his musical earnings had allowed him to open several businesses, including the Likhubula Entertainment Centre, his nightclub in Chileka (a suburb of Blantyre), and a cargo services company at Chileka airport. His musical legacy is kept alive by three of his seven sons; Anjiri, Musandide, and Chizondi- who are the core of the Black Missionaries, currently one of Malawi's most popular groups.

This track gives you a good idea of Fumulani's relaxed Afroma (a contraction of Afro-Malawian) groove. In this one Fumulani pleads with 'Patricia', he sings, 'don't leave us, stay with us, don't break up your family.'

One of the key ingredients of the Likhubula River Dance Band's sound was the guitar playing of Ernest Mapemba. Near the end of 'Mwana Wanga', or 'My Child', Mapemba breaks things down with some wonderfully relaxed playing.

This last track has got a nice reggae beat. Fumulani asks for guidance and advice.

Let's keep the reggae beat going with Evison Matafale, who before he passed away in 2001, was one of Malawi's most loved artists. In 2000, he surprised music fans with his debut release 'Kuyimba I', which became one of the year's best-selling releases. Matafale recorded the album with Robert Fumulani's three aforementioned sons, who after Evison passed away, renamed themselves the Black Missionaries.

In 2001, after a long battle with tuberculosis, Matafale released 'Kuyimba II'. He passed away several months later, however, dying suddenly while in police custody. He was only 32 years old. According to an article published by the BBC, Matafale's brother Elton believes Evison was killed, because of letters he had written to then-president Bakilu Muluzi, denouncing his government's policies. In 'Yang'ana Nkhope', Evison sings 'Look at my face, look at your face, we are all God's Children.'

Next up is Joseph Tembo, a great guitar player, from southern Malawi. He was born in 1997, in southern Malawi, and is a member of the Sena ethnic group, who are related to the Shona people of Zimbabwe. This relationship helps explain the similarities between Tembo's music and the Shona melodies and rhythms of Zimbabwean Chimurenga music.

This last song is by Coss Chiwalo, who for many years was (and may still be) the bandleader of the 'Alleluya Band', a Malawian musical institution. He was born in 1974 and has released three solo albums. 'Wakwatiwa', one of his biggest hits, is a song that is usually played at weddings. He sings of the joy of the bride and groom.

I hope the music hit the spot. I would like to thank Dr. John Lwanda of Pamtondo records for his help with research and song translations.

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Nestled between Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique, Malawi has earned it's nickname as 'the warm heart of Africa'. And 'warm' is precisely the adjective I would use to describe Malawian music. There is a sunny optimism in much of the Malawian music I've heard, and after a grim weekend of cold, rain, and snow, here in [...]

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Hastings Kamuzu Banda | president of Malawi

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Hastings Kamuzu Banda: Hastings Kamuzu Banda, first president of Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) and the principal leader of the Malawi nationalist movement. He governed Malawi from 1963 to 1994, combining totalitarian political controls with conservative economic policies. Banda's birthday was officially given as May 14,

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Yao, various Bantu-speaking peoples inhabiting southernmost Tanzania, the region between the Rovuma and Lugenda rivers in Mozambique, and the southern part of Malaŵi.

By 1800 the Yao had become known as traders plying between the inland tribes and the Arabs on the east coast. Much of this trade was in slaves, which led eventually to clashes with European powers who were establishing control over former Yao territory in the 19th century. The Yao were never united but lived as small groups ruled by chiefs who were predominantly military and commercial leaders; by 1900 all Yao chiefdoms had come under German, Portuguese, or British rule.

The Yao are an agricultural people using slash-and-burn techniques to cultivate their staples, corn (maize) and sorghum. Fish provide protein in areas near lakes or larger rivers. In Malaŵi they cultivate tobacco as an important cash crop.

The Yao live in compact villages of 75 to 100 persons under traditional headmen. These headmen, like the chiefs, succeed matrilineally, the office usually going to the eldest sister's firstborn son. On marriage the man leaves his village to live in that of his wife, so that villages are composed basically of groups of women related through the female line, together with their spouses. Yao social life features annual initiation ceremonies involving circumcision for boys. Originally, these ceremonies were closely connected with the worship of ancestor spirits, but through Arab contact most Yao are Muslims, and the rites incorporate Islamic elements.

Elizabeth Prine Pauls.

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Yao, various Bantu-speaking peoples inhabiting southernmost Tanzania, the region between the Rovuma and Lugenda rivers in Mozambique, and the southern part of Malaŵi. By 1800 the Yao had become known as traders plying between the inland tribes and the Arabs on the east coast. Much of this trade was

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Farm Africa works to provide the tools and expertise to enable farmers in eastern Africa to increase their harvests.

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About the Black Rhinoceros

Both black and white rhinoceroses are actually gray. They are different not in color but in lip shape. The black rhino has a pointed upper lip, while its white relative has a squared lip. The difference in lip shape is related to the animals' diets. Black rhinos are browsers that get most of their sustenance from eating trees and bushes. They use their lips to pluck leaves and fruit from the branches. White rhinos graze on grasses, walking with their enormous heads and squared lips lowered to the ground.

Except for females and their offspring, black rhinos are solitary. Females reproduce only every two and a half to five years. Their single calf does not live on its own until it is about three years old.

Black rhinos feed at night and during the gloaming hours of dawn and dusk. Under the hot African sun, they take cover by lying in the shade. Rhinos are also wallowers. They often find a suitable water hole and roll in its mud, coating their skin with a natural bug repellent and sun block.

Rhinos have sharp hearing and a keen sense of smell. They may find one another by following the trail of scent each enormous animal leaves behind it on the landscape.

Rhino Horn and Threats to Survival

Black rhinos boast two horns, the foremost more prominent than the other. Rhino horns grow as much as three inches a year, and have been known to grow up to five feet long. Females use their horns to protect their young, while males use them to battle attackers.

The prominent horn for which rhinos are so well known has also been their downfall. Many animals have been killed for the hard, hairlike growth, which is revered for medicinal uses in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The horn is also valued in North Africa and the Middle East as an ornamental dagger handle.

The black rhino once roamed most of sub-Saharan Africa, but today is on the verge of extinction due to poaching fueled by commercial demand for its horn.

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About the Black Rhinoceros Both black and white rhinoceroses are actually gray. They are different not in color but in lip shape. The black rhino has a pointed upper lip, while its white relative has a squared lip. The difference in lip shape is related to the animals' diets.

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Quote & Summary

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TED talk

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When he was just 14 years old, Malawian inventor William Kamkwamba built his family an electricity-generating windmill from spare parts, working from rough plans he found in a library book.

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TED talk

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At age 14, in poverty and famine, a Malawian boy built a windmill to power his family’s home. Now at 22, William Kamkwamba, who speaks at TED, here, for the second time, shares in his own words the moving tale of invention that changed his life.

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"a historical account or biography written from personal knowledge or special sources"