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Monitoring group projects requires as much planning and preparation as designing the project itself, but it helps prevent many common problems in group work. Effective monitoring depends on:

Students who have not worked in groups before, or who have experience only with ineffective groups, will need more structure, guidance, and regular communication with you. Students who are more experienced with group work, or who have worked in effective groups before, may need less. However, it is important to monitor all groups to some degree so that you can give feedback and intervene if necessary.

Providing a constructive framework for group interactions

Facilitate communication within groups. At the beginning of a group project, ask group members to exchange contact information and schedules and to plan how they will communicate with each other and exchange their work and ideas (e.g., email, group wiki, face-to-face meetings). Suggest technologies, such as online calendars, that can help group members coordinate their schedules and efforts more effectively.

Develop and practice conflict resolution skills. Before your students begin working together, consider introducing hypothetical group conflict scenarios (e.g., a group member is freeloading). Ask students to role-play or discuss these scenarios and, equally importantly, discuss possible constructive responses. This helps students anticipate potential problems and be prepared with appropriate responses, develop greater awareness of the interpersonal skills needed for effective group work, and draw on a common set of examples when talking to their group members, other classmates, and you.

Explain your own role. Describe how and when students should contact you (or a TA) if they experience problems within their groups, how you will observe their group interactions, and the situations in which you would intervene in group dynamics. Both you and your students may find it useful to set ground rules for their group interactions as a class exercise.

Gathering information and giving feedback on group interactions

Observe group interactions. You can monitor groups for potential or developing problems by observing their interactions in person or through other mediums. If you allocate class time for groups to meet, you can circulate in the classroom and observe the interactions within each group. Even if you cannot allocate class time for groups to meet, you can arrange to attend one of each group's meetings outside of class or observe their exchanges in an online forum, such as a discussion board or wiki. In-person observations allow you to notice body language - for example, if group members are listening attentively to each other or if a group member is texting on a cell phone during a meeting. Regardless of the medium you use to observe groups, you can pay attention to language usage (e.g., whether group members give constructive feedback) and the quality and quantity of contributions from each group member.

Require formal periodic progress reports. To monitor how effectively group members are working together on a project, require group members or a group leader to submit (in writing) or present (orally) progress reports on a regular schedule, such as every week or every two weeks. If you ask groups to report on their progress to the entire class, this gives students the opportunity to solicit and receive advice from and share resources and ideas with other groups. However, depending on the project task, it may also lead to more convergent thinking. As part of a written progress report, consider requesting time logs for both individual and group work as one way of monitoring group members' contributions.

Require formal periodic reports on group dynamics. In addition to progress reports, you might also require reports in which students reflect on the productive and non-productive dynamics and communication practices within their groups. This helps you monitor group interactions, and it helps students develop the metacognitive skills necessary to recognize and address problems.

Give feedback on group processes to groups and the class. It is important to give groups feedback on their interactions so students know that you value how they interact with each other and, if group process is part of the project goals and assessment, how you are assessing these interactions. If you observe a problem within a group, you can address it in several ways. For example, if a group member consistently criticizes other group members' ideas, you can suggest more constructive language. If you observe the same problem occurring in several groups, you can discuss the problem - and its possible resolutions - with the entire class. You can also meet with a group or group member outside of class if more private feedback is appropriate. Remember that giving explicit, positive feedback on group members' interactions (e.g., taking turns to talk in group meetings, providing constructive feedback to each other) helps to reinforce that these behaviors are productive and appropriate.

Anticipating and preparing for potential problems

Identifying project alternatives to address potential problems should be part of your process for planning group projects. Below are some of the most common potential problems that you may encounter while monitoring groups.

When a group member does not contribute... A common complaint from students working on a group project is that one member does not contribute. In addition to meeting with the group and/or individual group member to address this problem, consider allowing a group to dismiss a member who is not contributing and then providing other options to the student who has been dismissed from a group (e.g., completing the project individually, joining another group, forming a group with other students who have been dismissed).

When a group member is or becomes unavailable... Sometimes the number and demographics of students enrolled in a course change and no longer allow for the group composition that you had planned. For example, you may want students to work in pairs but one student drops the course and you now have an odd number of students, or you want students to work only with classmates in other majors but there is too much overlap among the groups. Consider if students whose group members have withdrawn from the course should join another group, complete the project individually, and so on. If student demographics do not allow students to meet a learning objective in the way you intended-for example, learning to communicate effectively with classmates in other disciplines-consider how this objective can be met in other ways for the group project or even in other assignments and activities.

When a group is not making adequate progress... A group may miss several deadlines or may produce work that does not meet your expectations in some way. In these cases, consider a range of possible causes. One or more group members may be freeloading, a group may not have sufficient scaffolding to perform some of the tasks related to the project, or the expectations for performance may be unclear. Although meeting with the group leader or the entire group about their progress may seem like the most logical solution, it is possible that students may not feel comfortable asking for additional support or clarification from you. In addition to reiterating or clarifying your expectations for progress, consider other ways of monitoring the group, such as observing a group meeting or asking group members to submit individual reports on group dynamics.

When the project's scope is inappropriate... As students work on a group project, they or you may realize that the scope of the project is too large to complete within the context of the course or too small to provide adequate opportunity for the group to practice particular skills or demonstrate knowledge. Consider the relevance, frequency, and quantity of tasks and deliverables to identify where you can scale tasks and deliverables to accommodate the constraints of the course schedule, the number of group members (which may change over the course of the project), the learning objectives for the project, and other factors. For example, when a project's scope is too large, you might tell a group that they can run fewer user-testing sessions as long as each group member gets the experience of running a session. Conversely, when a project's scope is too small, you might tell a group that you expect them to provide additional documentation for a deliverable or to produce an in-depth reflection on their own learning as well as the strengths and weaknesses of their group's interactions.

When a client becomes unavailable... If a client becomes unavailable after the group has made progress in terms of research or deliverables, consider ways in which you, another instructor, or a new client can mimic the feedback and other interactions that the group would have had with the initial client. In such situations, it is important to emphasize to the group that this experience, although unfortunate and unanticipated, provides another layer of "real world" experience that they can cite as a learning experience in job interviews and similar contexts.

When resources are or become unavailable... Sometimes the resources that a group needs to complete a project-such as a particular version of software or a car for traveling to meet with an external client-are or become unavailable. If a resource becomes unavailable at the beginning of a group project, it may be possible for a group to switch to a different project or revise the goals and product of the current project. You might also consider other means of analysis or production that are available, even if it changes some aspects of the final product, or identify related tasks and deliverables that a group can complete and that satisfy the same learning objectives.

Remember, if you encounter problems when monitoring groups and aren't sure how to respond to them, you can always contact the Eberly Center for help.

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How Can I Monitor Groups? - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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Monitoring group projects requires as much planning and preparation as designing the project itself, but it helps prevent many common problems in group work. Effective monitoring depends on: Students who have not worked in groups before, or who have experience only with ineffective groups, will need more structure, guidance, and regular communication with you.

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Grace Coyle and group work

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Grace Coyle and group work. Grace Coyle made an extraordinary contribution to our understanding of group work. She was also an important advocate for the work within US social work and an innovatory trainer.

Contents: introduction · on group work · conclusion · bibliography · how to cite this article.

Grace Longwell Coyle (1892-1962) made a profound impact on the development of thinking about, and the practice of, group work. Her books were landmark contributions to the field and she made a significant contribution to the development of teaching about group work

Grace Coyle was born in North Adams, Massachusetts. She received her bachelor's degree in 1914 from Wells Lake College, and a certificate from the New York School of Philanthropy 1915. She gained a master's degree in economics in 1928 and a doctoral degree in sociology from Columbia University in 1931.

She worked in settlement houses for several years (both with children and adults), but it was her activities within the YWCA (in the Industrial Women's Department) where she was responsible for adult education and recreation that provided her with a platform for her exploration of group work. From 1934 to 1962 she taught at the School of Applied Social Sciences at Western Reserve University in Cleveland. She had already developed one of the first group work courses there in 1923. Grace Coyle became president of the National Conference of Social Work in 1940, the president of the American Association of Social Workers in 1942 and the Council on Social Work Education from 1958 to 1960 (details from NASW 2003). Her books include Social Process in Organized Groups (1930), Studies in Group Behavior (1937), Group Experiences and Democratic Values (1947), Group Work with American Youth (1948), and Social Science in the Professional Education of Social Workers (1958).

On group work

Grace Coyle's initial formulation of group process in her PhD dissertation and in Social Process in Organized Groups (1930) drew significantly on Dewey and writers like MacIver and Laski. Although there had been previous discussions and explorations in the area (e.g. Lindeman 1924) her book, in many respects, set the scene for the examination and development of group work in the United States during the 1930s. It reviewed and examined the organized group in its social setting; the process of group formation; the determination of membership; the evolution of structure; the functions of leadership; the process of communication; the development of esprit de corps; the process of collective thinking; and some functions of the organized group. Her focus was on organized life - the associations 'of every variety' that 'arise and gather together individuals from the milieu that comes within the range of their activity'. Such associations, she continued, 'form themselves into a more or less stable pattern of relationships with certain processes and functions in time, perhaps, dissolve again into the surrounding sea of the community' (Coyle 1930: 3). Her study of organized groups highlighted some of the key points at which interventions could be made to improve functioning and to make processes and outcomes more satisfying to members - however, it is not a study of group work as such.

By the mid 1930s, there appears to have been a growing discourse in the United States around the notion of social group work - with Grace Coyle being a significant participant. The 1935 National Conference of Social Work was the first to have papers specifically on group work. For example W. I. Newstetter gave a paper 'What is social group work?'; Neva Boyd gave an influential paper on 'Group work experiments in state institutions in Illinois'; and Coyle herself discussed 'Group work and social change' (Reid 1981: 126-30). At the conference Grace Coyle received the Pugsley Award in respect of her paper (it is reprinted in Coyle 1947).

In Studies in Group Behavior (1937), Grace Coyle brought together five detailed and illuminating case studies of work with groups from records written by students in the School of Applied Social Sciences, Western Reserve University. It was assembled in the hope that it would contribute to 'a critical analysis of group leadership generally and an improvement in the quality of such leadership' (Coyle 1937: vii). They all derived from an informal education context: the groups were all organized as clubs, four were what might be called 'natural groups' (which she defined as 'small, congenial groups of children or young people based on a gang impulse rather than united around some single common interest' ibid.: viii). She outlined three, key objectives that govern the efforts of group leaders:

Such groups provide... an opportunity for developing social attitudes and the ability to adjust to others in mutually enriching ways. Here in the club is a school in human relationships....

Secondly, in addition to such experience in social adjustment to one's fellows these groups provide opportunity for the development of new interests, the broadening of knowledge and the acquiring of new skills. Like the proressive educator, the group worker must begin with existing interests, but building upon them he may, if he has the skill, lead his group into enriching new experiences, into higher degrees of useful skills, into new realms of knowledge, or into the wider ranges of social responsibility.

In the third place, the group can provide training and experience in community living and in active participation in community affairs. These groups exist within a network of social relationships... As the members mature they must find their way into this intricate web of the community. These groups within a social agency afford an opportunity for them to learn cooperative effort for common ends. (Coyle 1937: 1-2)

Within this framework she was able to examine the relation of group and leader; the relationship of the leader to individuals; the handling of social interactions; problems of group control; programme construction; the handling of group feeling; and the relationship of the group to the community.

Grace Coyle remained a strong advocate of group work's contribution to the nurturing of democratic life (see, in particular, Group Experiences and Democratic Values 1947), however, the context in which she was operating was shifting. As Kenneth Reid (1981) notes, there had been a separation of group work and recreation. There was a movement away from what might be called an informal education frame of reference and a location more strongly within social work (and as a result took in many of the concerns of casework, for example, with regard to improvements in individual functioning rather than what we have come to know as social capital). By 1947 she was recognizing the roots of group work in informal education and recreation but arguing that it had moved beyond its boundaries. She argued for an expanded appreciation of the nature of social work and for group work as a method within it (Reid 1981: 160).

Group Work with American Youth (1948) proved to be an influential text within youth work. It was the first of Grace Coyle's books to find a small, but significant audience in Britain, and was picked up by many within North American youth organizations and settlements. The approach bears the marks of the movement from informal education to social work. The group worker was presented as a problem-solver. Drawing upon an appreciation of the insights afforded by psychology and sociology she or he could work with members to deal with both their personal and group problems. She was also able to draw upon the growing body of small group research to explore implications for the leadership, processes and structures of groups, and for the roles within them.

Conclusion

The citation in the National Association of Social Workers listing of social work pioneers reads as follows:

All of her writings and speeches are institutes contributed to the acceptance of group work as a social work method. Grace Coyle felt that case work and group work had a common philosophy and that both would be enriched by their integration. She felt that the uniting of the two would result in better quality services for the client. She argued that group workers need to become more aware of personality issues and family relationships, while at the same time case workers need to be more knowledgeable of group dynamics and the use of leisure activity. It was also her belief that a better acquaintance with case work by group workers would reveal the therapeutic possibilities of a group experience.

Coyle's great early contribution was to lay bear some of the key processes and elements in associational life thus allowing us to develop thinking and practice around points of intervention. She pioneered group work training and was a key figure in the emergence of group work as professional form.

Bibliography

Coyle, G. L. (1930) Social Process in Organized Groups, New York: Richard R. Smith.

Coyle, G. L. (ed.) (1937) Studies in Group Behavior, New York: Harper and Brothers.

Coyle, G. L. (1947) Group Experience and Democratic Values, New York: Women's Press.

Coyle, G. L. (1948) Group Work and American Youth. A guide to the practice of leadership, New York: Harper and Brothers.

Lindeman, E. C. (1924) Social Discovery. An approach to the study of functional groups, New York: Republic Publishing.

National Association of Social Workers (2003) 'Grace Coyle' in Social Work Pioneers, http://www.naswfoundation.org/pioneers/c/coyle.htm. Accessed December 12, 2003.

Reid, K. E. (1981) From Character Building to Social Treatment. The history of the use of groups in social work, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.

How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (2004) 'Grace Coyle and group work, the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/mobi/grace-coyle-and-group-work/.

© Mark K. Smith 2004

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Contents: introduction · on group work · conclusion · bibliography · how to cite this article. Grace Longwell Coyle (1892-1962) made a profound impact on the development of thinking about, and the practice of, group work.

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Theories of Team Building

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1. Bruce Tuckman's Model of Team Stages
The Bruce Tuckman theory was created in 1965, and has been applied in countless organizations and scenarios. With four main stages titled forming, storming, norming, and performing; this theory is commonly referred to as the origin for successful team building.

2. Belbin's Theory of team roles
Belbin created a list of nine roles that every team should have. These roles are Plant, Resource investigator, Coordinator, Shaper, Monitor Evaluator, Team Worker, Implementer, Completer-Finisher, and Specialist.

3. Hierarchy of Needs theory by Abraham Maslow
Maslow created a pyramid of the motivation in humans. The bottom starts off with Physiological items like food. The next section is Safety like the security of health. The third section is Love/belonging and an example would be family. The fourth is Esteem, meaning something like respect by others. The final section is Self-actualization and an example of this is morality.

4. Isabel Briggs-Myers and her MBTI theory
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test that perceives how people perceive the world. This is good for teamwork because it can help the team understand each other better.

5. John Adair's Leadership theory
This theory is a perfect model for what leadership and management should look like.

6. Carl Jung's Color theory
Jung's theory is about how color is a determinant of human behavior. By understanding this, you can better understand why people in your team do what they do.

7. Tajfel's theory on Social Identity
This theory presented the idea of social identity as a great way to describe inter-group behavior.

8. X and Y theory developed by Douglas McGregor
The X and Y theory is a description of how humans are motivated. This is also one of the most important theories that managers and employees should be familiar with.

9. Strength Theory
This idea is that if for the best teamwork you have to continually work at it and become strong, like a muscle.

10. Team Analysis Theory
This theory is that eventually your team will fall apart, so you will need to re-evaluate the situation and analyze what went wrong.

By a keen understanding of these teamwork theories, you will be able to get the most out of a group of people. Whether this is for a manager trying to create team unity, or a sports team looking for teamwork, these theories are perfect for your objective.

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The Different Theories About Teamwork And Teambuilding

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1. Bruce Tuckman's Model of Team Stages The Bruce Tuckman theory was created in 1965, and has been applied in countless organizations and scenarios. With four main stages titled forming, storming, norming, and performing; this theory is commonly referred to as the origin for successful team building. 2.

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