# data[].attributes.body
This gives a succinct overview of where legislation started and where it is today. It is important to remember that people have not always supported ELLs so when you see that happen, you know we have both grown a lot and that we came from somewhere not very good.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
English immersion or "sink-or-swim" policies are the dominant method of instruction of language minority students. Few or no remedial services are available, and students are generally held at the same grade level until enough English is mastered to advance in subject areas

Success of a two-way bilingual program for Cuban refugee children in Dade County, Florida, inspires the implementation of similar programs elsewhere.

Civil Rights Act: Title VI prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in the operation of all federally assisted programs.

The Bilingual Education Act, Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1968: Establishes federal policy for bilingual education for economically disadvantaged language minority students, allocates funds for innovative programs, and recognizes the unique educational disadvantages faced by non-English speaking students.

Amendments to Title VII emphasize the strictly transitional nature of native language instruction, expand eligibility to students who are limited English proficient (LEP), and permit enrollment of English-speaking students in bilingual programs.

Amendments to Title VII allow for some native language maintenance, provide program funding for LEP students with special needs, support family English literacy programs, and emphasize importance of teacher training.

Amendments to Title VII include increased funding to state education agencies, expanded funding for "special alternative" programs where only English is used, established a three-year limit on participation in most Title VII, and created fellowship programs for professional training.

Comprehensive educational reforms entail reconfiguration of Title VII programs. New provisions reinforce professional development programs, increase attention to language maintenance and foreign language instruction, improve research and evaluation at state and local level, supply additional funds for immigrant education, and allow participation of some private school students.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB): The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 appropriates funds to states to improve the education of English learners by assisting children to learn English and meet challenging state academic content and student academic achievement standards. Legislation for English learners is found under Title III of NCLB.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 on December 10, 215 replaces NLCB. ESSA strengthens and enhances the equitable services provisions and provides more State and district level accountability.

SUPREME COURT

Lau v. Nichols
This suit by Chinese parents in San Francisco leads to the ruling that identical education does not constitute equal education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. School districts must take affirmative steps to overcome educational barriers faced by non-English speakers. This ruling established that the Office for Civil Rights, under the former Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, has the authority to establish regulations for Title VI enforcement.

Plyler v. Doe
Under the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, the state does not have the right to deny a free public education to undocumented immigrant children.

FEDERAL COURT

United States of America v. State of Texas, et al.
This desegregation case centered on the issue of discrimination and whether the San Felipe and Del Rio school districts were providing Mexican American students an equal educational opportunity. On August 6, 1971, Judge William Wayne Justice ordered the consolidation of the two districts. As a result of the lawsuit, the federal court came down with a court order, Civil Action 5281, which eliminates discrimination on grounds of race, color, or national origin in Texas public and charter schools.

Serna v. Portales
The 10th Circuit Court of Appeals found that Spanish surnamed students' achievement levels were below those of their Anglo counterparts. The court ordered Portales Municipal Schools to implement a bilingual/bicultural curriculum, revise procedures for assessing achievement, and hire bilingual school personnel.

Cintron v. Brentwood
The Federal District Court for the Eastern District of New York rejected the Brentwood School District's proposed bilingual program on the grounds that it would violate "Lau Guidelines" by unnecessarily segregating Spanish-speaking students from their English-speaking peers in music and art. The court also objected to the program's failure to provide for exiting students whose English language proficiency was sufficient for them to understand mainstream English instruction.

Rios v. Reed
The Federal District Court for the Eastern District of New York found that the Pastchogue-Medford School District's transitional bilingual program was basically a course in English and that students were denied an equal educational opportunity by not receiving academic instruction in Spanish. The court wrote: "A denial of educational opportunities to a child in the first years of schooling is not justified by demonstrating that the educational program employed will teach the child English sooner than a program comprised of more extensive Spanish instruction."

Castañeda v. Pickard
Reputed to be the most significant court decision affecting language minority students after Lau. In responding to the plaintiffs' claim that Raymondville, Texas Independent School District's language remediation programs violated the Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) of 1974, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals formulated a set of basic standards to determine school district compliance with EEOA.
The "Castañeda test" includes the following criteria: (1) Theory: The school must pursue a program based on an educational theory recognized as sound or, at least, as a legitimate experimental strategy; (2) Practice: The school must actually implement the program with instructional practices, resources, and personnel necessary to transfer theory to reality; (3) Results: The school must not persist in a program that fails to produce results.

United States v. State of Texas et al., January 12, 1981
The U.S. District Court for the eastern district of Texas, Tyler division, instructs TEA to phase in mandatory bilingual education in grades K-12. This decision outlined specific requirements including: three year monitoring cycles, identification of ELLs, and a language survey for students entering school. It also established the need for exit criteria.

United States v. State of Texas et al., January 12, 1982
The U.S. Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit reverses the previous judgment of U.S. v. State of Texas et al., January 12, 1981 because of state legislation enacted in 1981.

Keyes v. School District #1
A U.S. District Court found that a Denver public school district had failed to adequately implement a plan for language minority students, which is the second element of the "Castañeda Test."

Gomez v. Illinois
The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that State Education Agencies are also required under EEOA to ensure that language minority student's educational needs are met.

HB 103
The 61st legislature passed the state's first bilingual education bill. This Act acknowledged English as the primary language of instruction in school and allowed but did not require school districts to provide bilingual instruction through Grade 6.

SB 121
The 63rd legislature passed the Texas Bilingual Education and Training Act. This Act directed each school district in which 20 or more LEP students in the same grade shared the same language classification the previous year to institute a program of bilingual instruction beginning with the 1974-75 school year.

In November, the State Board of Education adopted the rules governing the implementation of special language programs for LEP students.

SB 477
This Act strengthened the guidelines necessary to implement the state bilingual plan and established the Language Proficiency Assessment Committees (LPAC).

HB 1
The 79th legislature 3rd called session amended Chapter 29.0561 to specify monitoring criteria during the two (2) years after students exit the special language program.

SB 1871
The 80th legislature enacted the data collection of special language program models for the two state mandated programs; four (4) for bilingual education and two (2) for ESL.

HB 3
The 81st legislature eliminated versions of grade 6 for reading and math Spanish tests.

HB 218
The 84th legislature added language to Section 29.061 that stated that a school district that provides a bilingual education program using a dual language immersion / one-way or two-way program model may assign a teacher certified appropriately for bilingual education for the component of the program provided in a language other than English; and assign a teacher certified appropriately for bilingual education or English as a second language for the component of the program provided in English.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Supporting Emergent Bilingual Students in Texas

# data[].attributes.body
This source gives a succinct reminder of all the rights of ELLs and, more notably, their families. It links to the current legislature concerning ESL and details what parents have a right to.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Children learning English need proper tools to excel. Quality programming, trained teachers, and special resources position them to master English. Here, learn how federal law protects children's right to education on their level, in their language, and considering any potential disabilities.

How does federal law individualize the effort to help students struggling to learn English?

What types of language programs does the Texas Education Agency (TEA) approve for state schools?

Do English learning students have the same access to regular and extracurricular programs?

Do I have a right to receive school information in a language I can understand?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
English Learners' Rights to Educational Access

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Limited English proficiency poses a barrier to education. The Department of Education and the Department of Justice are supposed to coordinate to lessen the impact of that obstacle.

# data[].attributes.body
This handout would be great to give to parents skeptical about bilingual education. It gives cited information about the benefits of being bilingual from an early age.

# data[].attributes.body
This article gives even more reasons for bilingual education to provide for native-language and English skills.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
How Language Barriers Keep Language Minority Families In Poverty

For any student, basic literacy and numeracy skills are key to building a quality education. Even with just basic reading skills in place, UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could escape extreme poverty. Imagine the waste of going through an entire childhood worth of schooling, and still be unable to read.

Students learning a second language often struggle to express themselves if they don't have a full command of that language, notes John Schumann of UCLA's Department of Applied Linguistics. This can lead to emotional stress and affect their ability to learn.

Eight year old Darline Alténor Fadner, a participant in the Concern-supported mother tongue education initiative in Ecole Bon Samaritan De Durverger, Saut d'Eau, Haiti. Photo: Kieran McConville

Parents may also not speak the language used in school. This hinders progress even further when they can't understand their children's homework in order to help them complete it.

As UNESCO notes, language is a double-edged sword. "While it strengthens an ethnic group's social ties and sense of belonging, it can also become a basis for their marginalization."

Rewriting The Rules - In The Mother Tongue

One solution to these language barriers is the concept of teachers leading earlier grades in the students' first language. Tests in both Kenya and Haiti, as well as Liberia and Niger, showed promising results.

"Children can get comfortable with reading and writing in a language that they know," explains Wendy Erasmus in Kenya. "Then over year three and four they phase into English and Swahili.What we've seen is terribly exciting... an impressive increase in these children's ability to read and write."

This method is in line with UNESCO's recommendation for early teaching in the mother tongue. Gains from this early education will be sustained as students transition into classes taught in a national language. Bilingual training for teachers is also a critical element for success.

Concern has been supporting these initiatives with curriculum design, training classroom teachers, and providing learning materials.

Second Grade Teacher, Gyo Burje Sode, at St. Peter's Primary School in Sagante, Marsabit County, Kenya. Lessons are in Borana, which is the children's mother tongue, and this helps them to establish a foundation in reading and writing, before learning the official national languages of Kiswahili and English.

"A Continuation Of What They Have Learned At Home."

Meanwhile, in the second grade classroom of St. Peter's Primary School in Sagante, Kenya, teacher Mr. Sode asks a question in Borana. In response, 6-year-old Daki Guyo enthusiastically leaps to her feet. It's plain to see that she knows the topic and is eager to show off her knowledge.

Watching on, Concern's Benson Thuku remarks, "This really enables children to learn in school more effectively, because it is a continuation of what they have learned at home... and what they learn in school is also reinforced at home."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Language barriers in the classroom: From mother tongue to national language

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Back to school has a new meaning when it's not taking place in your mother tongue. More transition time can break down language barriers in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
This study goes over in detail but still not too long the difference between how first and second languages are learned.

# data[].attributes.body
This page gives an overview of the different SLA theories to remember which is which quickly.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The main purpose of theories of second-language acquisition (SLA) is to shed light on how people who already know one language learn a second language. The field of second-language acquisition involves various contributions, such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and education. These multiple fields in second-language acquisition can be grouped as four major research strands: (a) linguistic dimensions of SLA, (b) cognitive (but not linguistic) dimensions of SLA, (c) socio-cultural dimensions of SLA, and (d) instructional dimensions of SLA. While the orientation of each research strand is distinct, they are in common in that they can guide us to find helpful condition to facilitate successful language learning. Acknowledging the contributions of each perspective and the interdisciplinarity between each field, more and more second language researchers are now trying to have a bigger lens on examining the complexities of second language acquisition.

As second-language acquisition began as an interdisciplinary field, it is hard to pin down a precise starting date. However, there are two publications in particular that are seen as instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: (1) Corder's 1967 essay The Significance of Learners' Errors, and (2) Selinker's 1972 article Interlanguage. Corder's essay rejected a behaviorist account of SLA and suggested that learners made use of intrinsic internal linguistic processes; Selinker's article argued that second-language learners possess their own individual linguistic systems that are independent from both the first and second languages.

In the 1970s the general trend in SLA was for research exploring the ideas of Corder and Selinker, and refuting behaviorist theories of language acquisition. Examples include research into error analysis, studies in transitional stages of second-language ability, and the " morpheme studies" investigating the order in which learners acquired linguistic features. The 70s were dominated by naturalistic studies of people learning English as a second language.

By the 1980s, the theories of Stephen Krashen had become the prominent paradigm in SLA. In his theories, often collectively known as the Input Hypothesis, Krashen suggested that language acquisition is driven solely by comprehensible input, language input that learners can understand. Krashen's model was influential in the field of SLA and also had a large influence on language teaching, but it left some important processes in SLA unexplained. Research in the 1980s was characterized by the attempt to fill in these gaps. Some approaches included White's descriptions of learner competence, and Pienemann's use of speech processing models and lexical functional grammar to explain learner output. This period also saw the beginning of approaches based in other disciplines, such as the psychological approach of connectionism.

The 1990s saw a host of new theories introduced to the field, such as Michael Long's interaction hypothesis, Merrill Swain's output hypothesis, and Richard Schmidt's noticing hypothesis. However, the two main areas of research interest were linguistic theories of SLA based upon Noam Chomsky's universal grammar, and psychological approaches such as skill acquisition theory and connectionism. The latter category also saw the new theories of processability and input processing in this time period. The 1990s also saw the introduction of sociocultural theory, an approach to explain second-language acquisition in terms of the social environment of the learner.

From a UG perspective, learning the grammar of a second language is simply a matter of setting the correct parameters. Take the pro-drop parameter, which dictates whether or not sentences must have a subject in order to be grammatically correct. This parameter can have two values: positive, in which case sentences do not necessarily need a subject, and negative, in which case subjects must be present. In German the sentence " Er spricht" (he speaks) is grammatical, but the sentence " Spricht" (speaks) is ungrammatical. In Italian, however, the sentence " Parla" (speaks) is perfectly normal and grammatically correct. A German speaker learning Italian would only need to deduce that subjects are optional from the language he hears, and then set his pro-drop parameter for Italian accordingly. Once he has set all the parameters in the language correctly, then from a UG perspective he can be said to have learned Italian, i.e. he will always produce perfectly correct Italian sentences.

Universal Grammar also provides a succinct explanation for much of the phenomenon of language transfer. Spanish learners of English who make the mistake "Is raining" instead of "It is raining" have not yet set their pro-drop parameters correctly and are still using the same setting as in Spanish.

The main shortcoming of Universal Grammar in describing second-language acquisition is that it does not deal at all with the psychological processes involved with learning a language. UG scholarship is only concerned with whether parameters are set or not, not with how they are set. Schachter (1988) is a useful critique of research testing the role of Universal Grammar in second language acquisition.

In his Input Hypothesis, Krashen proposes that language acquisition takes place only when learners receive input just beyond their current level of L2 competence. He termed this level of input "i+1." However, in contrast to emergentist and connectionist theories, he follows the innate approach by applying Chomsky's Government and binding theory and concept of Universal grammar (UG) to second-language acquisition. He does so by proposing a Language Acquisition Device that uses L2 input to define the parameters of the L2, within the constraints of UG, and to increase the L2 proficiency of the learner. In addition, Krashen (1982)'s Affective Filter Hypothesis holds that the acquisition of a second language is halted if the learner has a high degree of anxiety when receiving input. According to this concept, a part of the mind filters out L2 input and prevents intake by the learner, if the learner feels that the process of SLA is threatening. As mentioned earlier, since input is essential in Krashen's model, this filtering action prevents acquisition from progressing.

A great deal of research has taken place on input enhancement, the ways in which input may be altered so as to direct learners' attention to linguistically important areas. Input enhancement might include bold-faced vocabulary words or marginal glosses in a reading text. Research here is closely linked to research on pedagogical effects, and comparably diverse.

Other concepts have also been influential in the speculation about the processes of building internal systems of second-language information. Some thinkers hold that language processing handles distinct types of knowledge. For instance, one component of the Monitor Model, propounded by Krashen, posits a distinction between "acquisition" and "learning." According to Krashen, L2 acquisition is a subconscious process of incidentally "picking up" a language, as children do when becoming proficient in their first languages. Language learning, on the other hand, is studying, consciously and intentionally, the features of a language, as is common in traditional classrooms. Krashen sees these two processes as fundamentally different, with little or no interface between them. In common with connectionism, Krashen sees input as essential to language acquisition.

Further, Bialystok and Smith make another distinction in explaining how learners build and use L2 and interlanguage knowledge structures. They argue that the concept of interlanguage should include a distinction between two specific kinds of language processing ability. On one hand is learners' knowledge of L2 grammatical structure and ability to analyze the target language objectively using that knowledge, which they term "representation," and, on the other hand is the ability to use their L2 linguistic knowledge, under time constraints, to accurately comprehend input and produce output in the L2, which they call "control." They point out that often non-native speakers of a language have higher levels of representation than their native-speaking counterparts have, yet have a lower level of control. Finally, Bialystok has framed the acquisition of language in terms of the interaction between what she calls "analysis" and "control." Analysis is what learners do when they attempt to understand the rules of the target language. Through this process, they acquire these rules and can use them to gain greater control over their own production.

Monitoring is another important concept in some theoretical models of learner use of L2 knowledge. According to Krashen, the Monitor is a component of an L2 learner's language processing device that uses knowledge gained from language learning to observe and regulate the learner's own L2 production, checking for accuracy and adjusting language production when necessary.

Long's interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of the target language in interaction. Similarly to Krashen's Input Hypothesis, the Interaction Hypothesis claims that comprehensible input is important for language learning. In addition, it claims that the effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to negotiate for meaning.

Interactions often result in learners receiving negative evidence. That is, if learners say something that their interlocutors do not understand, after negotiation the interlocutors may model the correct language form. In doing this, learners can receive feedback on their production and on grammar that they have not yet mastered. The process of interaction may also result in learners receiving more input from their interlocutors than they would otherwise. Furthermore, if learners stop to clarify things that they do not understand, they may have more time to process the input they receive. This can lead to better understanding and possibly the acquisition of new language forms. Finally, interactions may serve as a way of focusing learners' attention on a difference between their knowledge of the target language and the reality of what they are hearing; it may also focus their attention on a part of the target language of which they are not yet aware.

In the 1980s, Canadian SLA researcher Merrill Swain advanced the output hypothesis, that meaningful output is as necessary to language learning as meaningful input. However, most studies have shown little if any correlation between learning and quantity of output. Today, most scholars[citation needed ] contend that small amounts of meaningful output are important to language learning, but primarily because the experience of producing language leads to more effective processing of input.

In 1967, Eric Lenneberg argued the existence of a critical period (approximately 2-13 years old) for the acquisition of a first language. This has attracted much attention in the realm of second language acquisition. For instance, Newport (1990) extended the argument of critical period hypothesis by pointing to a possibility that when a learner is exposed to an L2 might also contribute to their second language acquisition. Indeed, she revealed the correlation between age of arrival and second language performance. In this regard, second language learning might be affected by a learner's maturational state .

Some of the major cognitive theories of how learners organize language knowledge are based on analyses of how speakers of various languages analyze sentences for meaning. MacWhinney, Bates, and Kliegl found that speakers of English, German, and Italian showed varying patterns in identifying the subjects of transitive sentences containing more than one noun. English speakers relied heavily on word order; German speakers used morphological agreement, the animacy status of noun referents, and stress; and speakers of Italian relied on agreement and stress. MacWhinney et al. interpreted these results as supporting the Competition Model, which states that individuals use linguistic cues to get meaning from language, rather than relying on linguistic universals. According to this theory, when acquiring an L2, learners sometimes receive competing cues and must decide which cue(s) is most relevant for determining meaning.

Connectionism

These findings also relate to Connectionism. Connectionism attempts to model the cognitive language processing of the human brain, using computer architectures that make associations between elements of language, based on frequency of co-occurrence in the language input. Frequency has been found to be a factor in various linguistic domains of language learning. Connectionism posits that learners form mental connections between items that co-occur, using exemplars found in language input. From this input, learners extract the rules of the language through cognitive processes common to other areas of cognitive skill acquisition. Since connectionism denies both innate rules and the existence of any innate language-learning module, L2 input is of greater importance than it is in processing models based on innate approaches, since, in connectionism, input is the source of both the units and the rules of language.

Attention is another characteristic that some believe to have a role in determining the success or failure of language processing. Richard Schmidt states that although explicit metalinguistic knowledge of a language is not always essential for acquisition, the learner must be aware of L2 input in order to gain from it. In his "noticing hypothesis," Schmidt posits that learners must notice the ways in which their interlanguage structures differ from target norms. This noticing of the gap allows the learner's internal language processing to restructure the learner's internal representation of the rules of the L2 in order to bring the learner's production closer to the target. In this respect, Schmidt's understanding is consistent with the ongoing process of rule formation found in emergentism and connectionism.

Some theorists and researchers have contributed to the cognitive approach to second-language acquisition by increasing understanding of the ways L2 learners restructure their interlanguage knowledge systems to be in greater conformity to L2 structures. Processability theory states that learners restructure their L2 knowledge systems in an order of which they are capable at their stage of development. For instance, In order to acquire the correct morphological and syntactic forms for English questions, learners must transform declarative English sentences. They do so by a series of stages, consistent across learners. Clahsen proposed that certain processing principles determine this order of restructuring. Specifically, he stated that learners first, maintain declarative word order while changing other aspects of the utterances, second, move words to the beginning and end of sentences, and third, move elements within main clauses before subordinate clauses.

Thinkers have produced several theories concerning how learners use their internal L2 knowledge structures to comprehend L2 input and produce L2 output. One idea is that learners acquire proficiency in an L2 in the same way that people acquire other complex cognitive skills. Automaticity is the performance of a skill without conscious control. It results from the gradated process of proceduralization. In the field of cognitive psychology, Anderson expounds a model of skill acquisition, according to which persons use procedures to apply their declarative knowledge about a subject in order to solve problems. On repeated practice, these procedures develop into production rules that the individual can use to solve the problem, without accessing long-term declarative memory. Performance speed and accuracy improve as the learner implements these production rules. DeKeyser tested the application of this model to L2 language automaticity. He found that subjects developed increasing proficiency in performing tasks related to the morphosyntax of an artificial language, Autopractan, and performed on a learning curve typical of the acquisition of non-language cognitive skills. This evidence conforms to Anderson's general model of cognitive skill acquisition, supports the idea that declarative knowledge can be transformed into procedural knowledge, and tends to undermine the idea of Krashen that knowledge gained through language "learning" cannot be used to initiate speech production.

Declarative/procedural model

An example of declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge

Perhaps certain psychological characteristics constrain language processing. One area of research is the role of memory. Williams conducted a study in which he found some positive correlation between verbatim memory functioning and grammar learning success for his subjects. This suggests that individuals with less short-term memory capacity might have a limitation in performing cognitive processes for organization and use of linguistic knowledge.

For the second-language learner, the acquisition of meaning is arguably the most important task. Meaning is at the heart of a language, not the exotic sounds or elegant sentence structure. There are several types of meanings: lexical, grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic. All the different meanings contribute to the acquisition of meaning resulting in the integrated second language possession.

Lexical meaning - meaning that is stored in our mental lexicon;

Grammatical meaning - comes into consideration when calculating the meaning of a sentence; usually encoded in inflectional morphology (ex. - ed for past simple, -'s for third person possessive)

Semantic meaning - word meaning;

Pragmatic meaning - meaning that depends on context, requires knowledge of the world to decipher; for example, when someone asks on the phone, "Is Mike there?" he doesn't want to know if Mike is physically there; he wants to know if he can talk to Mike.

Larsen-Freeman

Sociocultural theory was originally coined by Wertsch in 1985 and derived from the work of Lev Vygotsky and the Vygotsky Circle in Moscow from the 1920s onwards. Sociocultural theory is the notion that human mental function is from participating cultural mediation integrated into social activities. The central thread of sociocultural theory focuses on diverse social, historical, cultural, and political contexts where language learning occurs and how learners negotiate or resist the diverse options that surround them. More recently, in accordance with this sociocultural thread, Larsen-Freeman (2011) created the triangle form that shows the interplay of four Important concepts in language learning and education: (a) teacher, (b) learner, (c) language or culture and (d) context. In this regard, what makes sociocultural theory different from other theories is that it argues that second learning acquisition is not a universal process. On the contrary, it views learners as active participants by interacting with others and also the culture of the environment.

Second language acquisition has been usually investigated by applying traditional cross-sectional studies. In these designs usually a pre-test post-test method is used. However, in the 2000s a novel angle emerged in the field of second language research. These studies mainly adopt Dynamic systems theory perspective to analyse longitudinal time-series data. Scientists such as Larsen-Freeman, Verspoor, de Bot, Lowie, van Geert claim that second language acquisition can be best captured by applying longitudinal case study research design rather than cross-sectional designs. In these studies variability is seen a key indicator of development, self-organization from a Dynamic systems parlance. The interconnectedness of the systems is usually analysed by moving correlations.

Anderson, J. R. (1992). "Automaticity and the ACT* theory". American Journal of Psychology. 105 (2): 165-180. doi:10.2307/1423026. JSTOR 1423026. PMID 1621879.

Bialystok, E.; Sharwood Smith, M. (1985). "Interlanguage is not a state of mind: An evaluation of the construct for second-language acquisition". Applied Linguistics. 6 (2): 101-117. doi:10.1093/applin/6.2.101.

Christiansen, M. H.; Chater, N. (2001). "Connectionist psycholinguistics: Capturing the empirical data". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 5 (2): 82-88. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.22.3502. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01600-4. PMID 11166638. S2CID 7279603.

Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-437212-1.

Ellis, N. (2002). "Frequency effects in language processing". Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 24 (2): 143-188. doi:10.1017/s0272263102002024.

Ellis, R. (2005). "Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A psychometric study". Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 27 (2): 141-172. doi:10.1017/s0272263105050096.

Gass, S.; Selinker, L. (2008). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8058-5497-8.

Hulstijn, J. H. (2005). "Theoretical and empirical issues in the study of implicit and explicit second-language learning". Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 27 (2): 129-140. doi:10.1017/s0272263105050084.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-028628-0. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16.

Lantolf, J. P.; Beckett, T. G. (2009). "Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition" (PDF). Language Teaching. 42 (4): 459-475. doi:10.1017/S0261444809990048. S2CID 145202925.

MacWhinney, B.; Bates, E.; Kliegl, R. (1984). "Cue validity and sentence interpretation in English, German, and Italian" (PDF). Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 23 (2): 127-150. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(84)90093-8.

Ullman, M. T. (2001). "The declarative/procedural model of lexicon and grammar". Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 30 (1): 37-69. doi:10.1023/A:1005204207369. PMID 11291183. S2CID 17654813.

Schmidt, R. (1990). "The role of consciousness in second language learning". Applied Linguistics. 11 (2): 129-158. doi:10.1093/applin/11.2.129.

Schachter, J. (1988). "Second language acquisition and its relationship to universal grammar". Applied Linguistics. 9 (3): 219-235. doi:10.1093/applin/9.3.219.

Norton, B. (2002). "Identity". In Simpson, J. (ed.). Routledge handbooks in applied linguistics: the Routledge handbook of applied linguistics. London, UK: Routledge.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Theories of second-language acquisition - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The main purpose of theories of second-language acquisition (SLA) is to shed light on how people who already know one language learn a second language. The field of second-language acquisition involves various contributions, such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and education.

# data[].attributes.body
Here are some simple worksheets for English learners. It could be used to remind oneself of an idea of which order to teach them in or how to notice the patterns of English grammar.

# data[].attributes.body
In the sidebar, there is every English language structure you could think of. There are examples, flashcards, and how to use them.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
English Language Study: Examples & Skills | Vaia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
English Language Study: ✓ Study phrases ✓ Skills ✓ Example ✓ Topics ✓ Vaia Original

# data[].attributes.body
This could be used to demonstrate that there are a lot of dialects of English. It could also be used to understand some of them that are new to a learner.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
IDEA: International Dialects of English Archive | free dialect and accent recordings for the performing arts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Welcome to IDEA. The International Dialects of English Archive was created in 1998 as the internet's first archive of primary-source recordings of English-language dialects and accents as heard around the world. With roughly 1,700 samples from 135 countries and territories, and more than 170 hours of recordings, IDEA is now the largest archive of its kind.

IDEA's recordings are principally in English, are of native speakers, and include both English-language dialects and English spoken in the accents of other languages. (Many include brief demonstrations of the speaker's native language, too.) The archive also includes extensive Special Collections.

Paul Meier is IDEA's founder, director, and principal contributor, personally collecting nearly 20 percent of the archive. He established IDEA to provide actors the real-life models they need for their characters' accents and dialects; many actors use his Accents & Dialects for Stage and Screen in conjunction with IDEA. But IDEA has proved invaluable in many other fields too; for example, it's a favorite tool of international business, helping personnel become familiar with their customers' accents and dialects.

HOW IDEA WORKS

To find an example of an accent or dialect, use the Global Map, or the Dialects and Accents tab on the menu bar. The site is also fully searchable, not just by country, state, and province, but also by characteristics of each speaker, such as ethnicity, age, and occupation; even single phrases from transcriptions and phonetics can be searched online. You may conveniently listen to the streaming audio while reading the accompanying transcription and commentary. All samples have one-line descriptions (gender, age, year of birth, ethnicity, location). Submission of new samples by the editors and other contributors is done entirely online.

At the heart of IDEA are its Senior Editors and the Associate Editors, forming a global network of contributors. They record the subjects, transcribe the recordings, and, in many cases, write scholarly commentaries that often include phonetic and cultural analyses. Many editors are professors at major universities, or are members of The Voice and Speech Trainers Association ( VASTA).

Cameron Meier is IDEA's executive editor and chief sound and copy editor, and also vice president of Paul Meier Dialect Services.

New recordings, their accompanying transcriptions and scholarly commentaries are added frequently (see What's New). Each recording includes both a reading (Comma Gets a Cure, or, on our earliest recordings, The Rainbow Passage) and some unscripted speech - about four minutes in all.

The Global Map quickly reveals which countries/states/provinces have a representative sample, and those that still lack one. As you see, IDEA continues to grow, aspiring to provide a recording from every corner of the world. Please join us in this ambitious project by becoming an associate editor, or contributing your own voice to the archive.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
IDEA: International Dialects of English Archive

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Welcome to IDEA, the internet's best source for primary-source recordings of English-language dialects and accents as heard around the world.

# data[].attributes.body
This article reminds us that SE does not necessarily mean correct English, and it in fact talks about how SE is a minority in the English varieties overall.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
English is the mother tongue of almost 380 million people around the world. In addition, it is used as a second language by close to 740 million people worldwide. There are several regional varieties of English: General Australian, Standard British English, General American, Standard Scottish English, etc. What is SE in Britain is different from the accepted SE of the United States, India, or Canada. Spelling and grammar may differ slightly, and there will be local words and idiomatic expressions. However, the variants are still mutually intelligible.

In their written forms, different standards of English do not vary to any significant degree. Essentially, there are two main variants of standard written English used in the world today, British English and American English, with variants subordinate to one or both of them. For example, countries in Central and South America, as well as Asian-Pacific countries (Japan, South Korea, and the Philippines), have a preference for American English. Other countries, such as Australia and South Africa, have written standards that maintain close links to British English. Written standard Canadian English, however, uses spelling from both British and American English, reflecting the historical relationship to Britain and contemporary influence from the United States.

What do we mean by 'Standard English'?

According to British linguist David Crystal, the Standard English of an English-speaking country may be defined as

a minority variety (identified chiefly by its vocabulary, grammar, and orthography) which carries most prestige and is most widely understood.

What does this definition tell you?

David Crystal points out that SE is merely one of many variants of English in an English-speaking country. It is widely understood by most people in the country, but only a minority of the people use it in their everyday speech. The linguistic features of SE are primarily features of grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. Pronunciation is less relevant, since SE can be spoken with a wide variety of accents. In writing, which is where SE is used the most, the consistent use of SE is only required in certain tasks such as formal letters, reports, newspaper articles, school essays, etc.

In spite of SE being a minority variety, it carries more prestige than other varieties of English, and is often adopted by people who in some way have a greater influential force on society than others (e.g. people with political or economic power, people from higher social classes or with a certain educational background, etc). According to the American linguist James Sledd, SE is 'the English used by the powerful'. The prestige that is attached to SE makes it the preferred variety of communication in the leading institutions of a country, such as its government, courts, public services, the media, and its educational institutions. Also, it is the variety of English that is taught to foreign learners of English - like you.

Standard English vs non-Standard English

Is it fair to say that Standard English is more correct than non-standard English, such as dialects, regional accents, and sociolects? SE has often been defined as the only proper, correct English. Non-standard varieties of English, on the other hand, have often been associated with low status and poor education, and have at times contemptuously been labelled as 'broken English', 'gutter English' or 'substandard English'.

However, we often forget that Standard English (irrespective of which national Standard English we are talking about) is a minority variety. Most people master and understand SE because that is the language of education and public life. However, only about 10% of native English speakers choose to use SE as their everyday dialect. Non-standard English variants, with their unique grammar, slang, and pronunciation, are far more common, and we can hear people from all walks of life using non-standard words and phrases in their spoken English. For example, double negations are not uncommon (i.e. 'That won't do you no good'). The same can be said about words like 'ain't' and 'innit'; words that are not accepted in SE. The fact is that the great majority of native English speakers use a non-standard form of English, which can be very different from SE.

There are many misconceptions about what is 'correct' and 'incorrect' English. The fact is that no varieties of English are 'right' or 'wrong', 'better' or 'worse'. However, some ways of speaking and writing are just better suited to different situations and audiences. What type of English you use is more a matter of appropriateness than of correctness. In a formal setting, it is natural to opt for SE, as it is the variant that will ensure that you are easily understood. Opting for a non-standard variant may cause confusion and misunderstandings. People may also have various prejudices against non-standard variants of English, so using SE leaves less room for people to pre-judge you and what you have to say.

Dialects and accents only enrich the linguistic landscape that we find in the English-speaking world. However, it is essential to know when it is most appropriate to use Standard English and when you should use non-Standard English, and to be able to code switch between the two.

Sources

Crystal, D (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hickey, R. Standard English and standards of English. Retrieved from: https://www.uni-due.de/~lan300/Standards_of_English_(Hickey).pdf

Trask, R.L. Why Do Languages Change? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Relatert innhold

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Standard English - One of Many Varieties of English - Engelsk 1 - NDLA

# data[].attributes.body
This article gives ideas of how to assess students in a multilingual/cultural classroom. It gives the 5 biggest reminders teachers must always keep in mind.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Linden Global Learning

By Dr Erin Furtak

In recent years, schools have increasingly moved to student-centered classroom environments. In these settings, students and their ideas and questions drive learning and teaching. Students have the chance to create ways of showing what they know that align with these ways of teaching; portfolios, performances, and other ways of doing things that are aligned with/more authentic to students' experiences in their lives/future work.

We also know that the ways that we assess what students know - both while their learning is still in progress, and at the end of instructional units - doesn't always align with these student-centered ways of knowing. Modern approaches to assessment are based on efforts to sort, rank, and measure students in ways that provided access to further opportunities, or excluded students from these opportunities . These outmoded ways of doing assessment can constrain the curriculum in ways that limit students' access to learning & opportunities. In addition, we know from research that language and culture influence how learners take assessments (Arbuthnot, 2020; Solano-Flores, 2016). We also know that the traditional 'canon' of knowledge taught in schools comes from White, Western ways of knowing. This makes it more important than ever that we take the time to rethink how we design and use subject assessments in schools with kids - particularly in multilingual and multicultural settings.

As a visiting scholar with Linden Global Learning and Support during March 2022, I visited many teachers, school leaders, parents and students working and learning at International Schools. They shared their experiences, which align with many research-based findings, to identify several ways to better support learners across linguistic and cultural differences through the ways we design and enact classroom assessments.

Five ways to support learners in classroom assessment

1. Make it safe

Perhaps the most important place to start is to help students know they are safe to share their ideas. A complication of classroom assessment is that teachers have the dual role of both supporting and evaluating students' learning. In order to help students learn, teachers need to let students know that it is safe to talk with them and let them know where they need support. Students might need more encouragement to ask for help or will need support to bridge different cultural or linguistic differences. In turn, teachers can also let students know that their ideas, their experiences, and their questions all have a place in the classroom. Building on a foundation of trust - which means opening up classroom space for student ideas, rather than shutting students down - can help students feel comfortable to take risks and ask questions.

2. Make it relevant

We all know that when we are planning lessons for students, it's important to make connections with students' ideas and experiences. The same is also true for assessment - rather than switching into unfamiliar contexts, we want to build on what students know and invite them to apply their learning to questions, scenarios, and problems that are relevant to their lives. Mandy Watson, science teacher and Vice Principal of Teaching and Learning at Berlin Metropolitan School, invites students to study human demographics in a community they connect with, and then places students in pairs to share their presentations. This creates a low-stakes learning environment where a student from Costa Rica can connect with a student from Sweden, and Ms. Watson drops in to find out what students learned. This can help to motivate the students to share what they know, and to make connections with other learners in class.

3. Make it accessible

International schools serve a wide spectrum of students from various linguistic backgrounds, but are not designed/intended to assess students in all these languages. As students develop competency in English, we need to be aware that assessing them in this language will require design features of those assessments so that all students can show what they know. Fortunately, we know a lot about how assessments can be designed to be more accessible by bi/multilingual learners (Fine & Furtak, 2020). You can find a sample of a modified middle school science assessment with annotations here .

Allow students to use all their linguistic resources, not just English. This means that they might occasionally mix a word from their home or other language into a sentence with English words; this is a natural way of communicating at the hybrid space between languages, and doesn't limit students as much. You can also invite students to share relevant vocabulary words in their own languages, so that they can draw on (and celebrate) their expertise in their own language to inform what they're learning about at home.

Avoid complicated sentence structure/words in assessment questions and instructions. Over complicated sentences and vocabulary can hold students back from sharing everything they know. If there's a simpler way to ask a question, use it!

Using graphics to support the text. When possible, use graphical representations, pictures, and other visuals to support the text. Students can use these together with the words they know to interpret what's being asked.

Provide support not just around vocabulary, but also the 'action' words in assessment questions. While students might be able to figure out the meaning of science vocabulary, the other words in the instructions - like compare, describe, deduce - might be less familiar. You can pre-teach these words or, like Ms. Watson does, use brackets after the word to describe what the word means in simpler terms. Students who already know the word will skip over the bracketed text, but it will provide crucial support to others who need it.

4. Use multiple modalities

While our default method of assessment is often to ask students to write down their responses, there are many ways to capture all they know and are able to do. As the ways we think about learning shift to be more inclusive of students' varying knowledge and experiences, the kinds of assessments we use in schools should also reflect ways of learning and doing that mirror the most important ideas and competencies we hope students will learn. We can create multiple kinds of spaces where students can show what they know; this means they should be able not just to write their responses but to draw, diagram, and otherwise represent their thinking. Teachers I spoke with use whiteboards, tables, posters - all sorts of ways for students to capture these ideas. These representations can serve as a way for students to show teachers their ideas, and then talk about them.

5. Build bridges, not gates

Christine Orkisz Lang, A former elementary international school teacher and principal, encourages us to think about where we "meet in the middle" between the summative assessment that students experience in schools, and what we do in our own classrooms at the start of and throughout the learning process to support improved understanding.

At the end of the day, we want to provide all learners with opportunities to build on their current ideas and to grow in new directions in school. In order to do this, we need to help students make many connections between those ideas and the goals for their learning. This means we seek to use assessment in classrooms in ways that build bridges, not gates that can close out learning opportunities for some students.

What can school leaders do?

While these shifts may seem small, they can make huge differences in students' ability to learn through classroom assessment. School leaders can create spaces for teachers to come together and talk about how to make these changes in small, grade-level or content-specific groups. In this way, ongoing conversations about diversity and inclusion at international schools can extend to assessment as well.

We might think about assessments as something that is curriculum-based or administered by an external authority, but teachers actually have a lot to do with how students access learning - and particularly how they experience assessment - in their classrooms. Our own histories and identities influence the way we see and hear students. We need to be aware of how our own instructional decisions and responses to students in assessments can open up their opportunities to learn. As teachers, we ask students questions and respond to them in ways intended to support their learning; we must be aware of the filters of our own ideas and experiences, and how those intersect with the ideas and identities of the learners in our classes.

In regular meetings - think weekly or monthly - teachers can talk about learning goals, their own identities as teachers conducting assessment, and their students' interests and what assets they bring to the classroom. Then teachers can select and adapt assessments together that better encapsulate these changes, and come together to look at student responses to determine next steps for instruction.

About the author:

Erin Marie Furtak is Professor of STEM Education at the University of Colorado Boulder . A former high school science teacher, she studies the design and practice of classroom assessments; her recent research has sought to determine ways to design assessments that better support multilingual students in sharing what they know, as well as in supporting teachers in listening to and supporting students through formative assessment. Her partnership with Linden Global Learning and Support is supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation .

References

Arbuthnot, K. (2020). Reimagining Assessments in the Postpandemic Era: Creating a Blueprint for the Future. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 39(3), 97-99. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12376

Fine, C. G. M. C., & Furtak, E. M. (2020). A framework for science classroom assessment task design for emergent bilingual learners. Science Education, 104(3), 393-420. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21565

Solano-Flores, G. (2016). Assessing English language learners: Theory and practice. Routledge.

By Dr Erin Furtak

In recent years, schools have increasingly moved to student-centered classroom environments. In these settings, students and their ideas and questions drive learning and teaching. Students have the chance to create ways of showing what they know that align with these ways of teaching; portfolios, performances, and other ways of doing things that are aligned with/more authentic to students' experiences in their lives/future work.

We also know that the ways that we assess what students know - both while their learning is still in progress, and at the end of instructional units - doesn't always align with these student-centered ways of knowing. Modern approaches to assessment are based on efforts to sort, rank, and measure students in ways that provided access to further opportunities, or excluded students from these opportunities . These outmoded ways of doing assessment can constrain the curriculum in ways that limit students' access to learning & opportunities. In addition, we know from research that language and culture influence how learners take assessments (Arbuthnot, 2020; Solano-Flores, 2016). We also know that the traditional 'canon' of knowledge taught in schools comes from White, Western ways of knowing. This makes it more important than ever that we take the time to rethink how we design and use subject assessments in schools with kids - particularly in multilingual and multicultural settings.

As a visiting scholar with Linden Global Learning and Support during March 2022, I visited many teachers, school leaders, parents and students working and learning at International Schools. They shared their experiences, which align with many research-based findings, to identify several ways to better support learners across linguistic and cultural differences through the ways we design and enact classroom assessments.

Five ways to support learners in classroom assessment

1. Make it safe

Perhaps the most important place to start is to help students know they are safe to share their ideas. A complication of classroom assessment is that teachers have the dual role of both supporting and evaluating students' learning. In order to help students learn, teachers need to let students know that it is safe to talk with them and let them know where they need support. Students might need more encouragement to ask for help or will need support to bridge different cultural or linguistic differences. In turn, teachers can also let students know that their ideas, their experiences, and their questions all have a place in the classroom. Building on a foundation of trust - which means opening up classroom space for student ideas, rather than shutting students down - can help students feel comfortable to take risks and ask questions.

2. Make it relevant

We all know that when we are planning lessons for students, it's important to make connections with students' ideas and experiences. The same is also true for assessment - rather than switching into unfamiliar contexts, we want to build on what students know and invite them to apply their learning to questions, scenarios, and problems that are relevant to their lives. Mandy Watson, science teacher and Vice Principal of Teaching and Learning at Berlin Metropolitan School, invites students to study human demographics in a community they connect with, and then places students in pairs to share their presentations. This creates a low-stakes learning environment where a student from Costa Rica can connect with a student from Sweden, and Ms. Watson drops in to find out what students learned. This can help to motivate the students to share what they know, and to make connections with other learners in class.

3. Make it accessible

International schools serve a wide spectrum of students from various linguistic backgrounds, but are not designed/intended to assess students in all these languages. As students develop competency in English, we need to be aware that assessing them in this language will require design features of those assessments so that all students can show what they know. Fortunately, we know a lot about how assessments can be designed to be more accessible by bi/multilingual learners (Fine & Furtak, 2020). You can find a sample of a modified middle school science assessment with annotations here .

Allow students to use all their linguistic resources, not just English. This means that they might occasionally mix a word from their home or other language into a sentence with English words; this is a natural way of communicating at the hybrid space between languages, and doesn't limit students as much. You can also invite students to share relevant vocabulary words in their own languages, so that they can draw on (and celebrate) their expertise in their own language to inform what they're learning about at home.

Avoid complicated sentence structure/words in assessment questions and instructions. Over complicated sentences and vocabulary can hold students back from sharing everything they know. If there's a simpler way to ask a question, use it!

Using graphics to support the text. When possible, use graphical representations, pictures, and other visuals to support the text. Students can use these together with the words they know to interpret what's being asked.

Provide support not just around vocabulary, but also the 'action' words in assessment questions. While students might be able to figure out the meaning of science vocabulary, the other words in the instructions - like compare, describe, deduce - might be less familiar. You can pre-teach these words or, like Ms. Watson does, use brackets after the word to describe what the word means in simpler terms. Students who already know the word will skip over the bracketed text, but it will provide crucial support to others who need it.

4. Use multiple modalities

While our default method of assessment is often to ask students to write down their responses, there are many ways to capture all they know and are able to do. As the ways we think about learning shift to be more inclusive of students' varying knowledge and experiences, the kinds of assessments we use in schools should also reflect ways of learning and doing that mirror the most important ideas and competencies we hope students will learn. We can create multiple kinds of spaces where students can show what they know; this means they should be able not just to write their responses but to draw, diagram, and otherwise represent their thinking. Teachers I spoke with use whiteboards, tables, posters - all sorts of ways for students to capture these ideas. These representations can serve as a way for students to show teachers their ideas, and then talk about them.

5. Build bridges, not gates

Christine Orkisz Lang, A former elementary international school teacher and principal, encourages us to think about where we "meet in the middle" between the summative assessment that students experience in schools, and what we do in our own classrooms at the start of and throughout the learning process to support improved understanding.

At the end of the day, we want to provide all learners with opportunities to build on their current ideas and to grow in new directions in school. In order to do this, we need to help students make many connections between those ideas and the goals for their learning. This means we seek to use assessment in classrooms in ways that build bridges, not gates that can close out learning opportunities for some students.

What can school leaders do?

While these shifts may seem small, they can make huge differences in students' ability to learn through classroom assessment. School leaders can create spaces for teachers to come together and talk about how to make these changes in small, grade-level or content-specific groups. In this way, ongoing conversations about diversity and inclusion at international schools can extend to assessment as well.

We might think about assessments as something that is curriculum-based or administered by an external authority, but teachers actually have a lot to do with how students access learning - and particularly how they experience assessment - in their classrooms. Our own histories and identities influence the way we see and hear students. We need to be aware of how our own instructional decisions and responses to students in assessments can open up their opportunities to learn. As teachers, we ask students questions and respond to them in ways intended to support their learning; we must be aware of the filters of our own ideas and experiences, and how those intersect with the ideas and identities of the learners in our classes.

In regular meetings - think weekly or monthly - teachers can talk about learning goals, their own identities as teachers conducting assessment, and their students' interests and what assets they bring to the classroom. Then teachers can select and adapt assessments together that better encapsulate these changes, and come together to look at student responses to determine next steps for instruction.

About the author:

Erin Marie Furtak is Professor of STEM Education at the University of Colorado Boulder . A former high school science teacher, she studies the design and practice of classroom assessments; her recent research has sought to determine ways to design assessments that better support multilingual students in sharing what they know, as well as in supporting teachers in listening to and supporting students through formative assessment. Her partnership with Linden Global Learning and Support is supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation .

References

Arbuthnot, K. (2020). Reimagining Assessments in the Postpandemic Era: Creating a Blueprint for the Future. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 39(3), 97-99. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12376

Fine, C. G. M. C., & Furtak, E. M. (2020). A framework for science classroom assessment task design for emergent bilingual learners. Science Education, 104(3), 393-420. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21565

Solano-Flores, G. (2016). Assessing English language learners: Theory and practice. Routledge.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Five ways teachers can engage multilingual & multicultural learners in classroom assessment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As a visiting scholar with Linden Global Learning and Support during March 2022, Dr Erin Furtak visited many teachers, school leaders, parents and students working and learning at International Schools. They shared their experiences, which align with many research-based findings, to identify several ways to better support learners across linguistic and cultural differences through the ways we design and enact classroom assessments.

# data[].attributes.body
This essay talks about the benefits of multilingual/cultural education for all students. It concludes with some concrete suggestions for incorporating it into the classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
This guide gives steps to increase engagement with ELL's families. It talks about the differences you might see in families of different cultures and how to learn about those.

# data[].attributes.body
This article gives specific activities for family involvement. There are a lot of ideas about concrete things to do to involve families.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A school activity is any activity that takes place within a school setting, whether it is related to academics or not. School activities can be organized by the school itself, by teachers, parents or by students. They can take place during the school day, after school, or on weekends. The purpose of school activities is to provide students with a well-rounded education and to help them develop skills and interests beyond the classroom.There are several reasons why a variety of impact family engagement activities are important for schools:

ademic outcomes: Research has shown that students tend to perform better academically when their families are actively involved in their education. This is especially true for students from disadvantaged backgrounds , who may not have the same resources and support at home as their more affluent peers.

Stronger relationships: Family engagement activities help to build strong relationships between schools, families, and communities. When families feel connected to their child's school, they are more likely to be involved in their education and to advocate for their child's needs. ​

Increased involvement: Family engagement activities can help to increase the overall level of involvement among families. This can include participation in school events, volunteering, and decision-making processes

Greater sense of community: Family engagement activities can help to create a sense of community within a school, which can lead to a more positive and supportive learning environment for students.

: Family engagement activities can help to improve communication between schools and families, which is crucial for ensuring that students have the support they need to succeed.

Plant the seeds of school improvement in your local schools with activities for your families every week of the school year! Research has shown that high-impact family engagement is critical for student success, and the provide a framework for effective parent engagement in schools. To facilitate family engagement in your schools, here are dozens of family engagement activities, events, and strategies aligned with each of the Six Slices of Family Engagement that can be implemented during the 150 days between Six Slices of Family Engagement and Public School Volunteer Week National Parental Involvement Day - or anytime of the year!

Parental Involvement Toolbox

Slice 1. Welcome All Families

Unlock the potential of parent engagement in your school community with the Events and Activities: ​. The Family Engagement Toolbox. Our comprehensive program is designed to help schools mobilize National Parental Involvement Day & Red Carpet Treatment - Welcome Atmosphere Walk-Through, to create a welcoming environment for parents and students​. Public School Volunteer Week, to increase the involvement of the parents in the school community high-impact family engagement to improve student outcomes. Each toolbox includes a branded Parent Engagement Pledge and Parent Engagement Report Card, tailored to your school's logo. Our research-based and effective model meets district, state and Title I ESSA mandates and helps schools organize parent responsibility effectively.

This activity is most closely associated with

32. Metrics Schools ThatCount

Schools can count the number of parent and family volunteers by using a standard hourly rate to calculate the value of the time contributed by parents and families. The average value of volunteer time is $29.95 an hour. This is based on the Independent Sector's value of volunteer time, which is an annually updated estimate of the average hourly value of volunteer time in the United States.

By tracking the number of volunteer hours contributed by parents and family members and multiplying that number by the hourly rate, schools can estimate the monetary value of the time these volunteers have donated to the school. For example, if a parent volunteers for 10 hours in a month, that would be equivalent to a donation of nearly $300 based on the hourly rate of $29.95.

This activity is most closely associated with

3. Give Families the Red Carpet Treatment!

Welcome families to your school with the Red Carpet Treatment, an innovative tool designed to create a more welcoming environment for all families. As part of the Family Engagement Toolbox, the Red Carpet Treatment is a family-friendly walk-through process that brings educators, parents, community members, school board members, and administrators together to identify ways to improve the school for families.

By taking the time to walk through the school and consider how it looks and feels through the lenses of all families, including parents of children with disabilities, you can create an environment that truly welcomes and supports every family. This toolkit provides a step-by-step guide to conduct the walk-through, and the checklists and questions to use during the process.

This activity is most closely associated with

6. Breakfast or Coffee & Pastries

Set up tables to welcome families and community members to your school. Make available membership forms to enroll new PTA members.

Make special name tags for members that say, "Ask me about the PTA'" or "Join the PTA Today."

Provide "Welcome Bags" with school information, PTA brochures, and goodies gathered from local businesses or organizations. Include a bookmark with the dates of PTA meetings and special PTA sponsored school events.

Have a chart with a list of volunteer opportunities so parents can take the Pledge and sign up to help. Man the table with a volunteer to encourage sign-ups!

This activity is most closely associated with

26. Celebrate Dads' Involvement

This activity is most closely associated with

30. Family Engagement Game

The Family Engagement Game is an effort, whether online or in-person, to invite meaningful discussion and create a rich learning experience that evokes participation and problem-solving from all learners. The purpose of is to allow practitioners opportunities to collaborate, reflect, try out new ideas, and take risks in a space that is both fun and safe. When designed within the lens of professional development, games provide an opportunity for co-creating learning experiences that capitalize on practitioners' diverse expertise. From the Global Family Research Project.

You can also ask families to bring their favorite board games to play together. You might also call local stores to donate games for this event. Provide a light dinner or dessert night. Some easy and fun ideas are any type of card games (Uno, Go Fish, War, etc.), Pictionary, Charades, Dominoes, Connect 4, etc.

This activity is most closely associated with

When educators and schools use culturally and linguistically responsive family engagement practices, they demonstrate an understanding and appreciation of families' cultural backgrounds and linguistic needs. This, in turn, can help to build trust and create stronger relationships between families and schools, which can lead to increased parental involvement.

In addition, when schools engage in two-way communication with families, actively seeking input and feedback, parents feel valued and are more likely to become partners in their child's education. This can lead to increased parent-teacher communication and collaboration, which has been linked to improved academic achievement and higher rates of school attendance.

This activity is most closely associated with

Hosting a successful school open house or parent night is a great way to connect with the parents of your students, familiarize them with your teaching style and classroom, and let them know what you expect from their children in the coming year. Additionally, it's an excellent opportunity to get parents involved with the school and volunteering. However, since open houses and parent nights typically have limited time, it's important to plan ahead and make the most of the event.

This activity is most closely associated wit h

21. Home-to-School, School-to-Home Communication

This activity is most closely associated with

This event is designed to promote engagement between parents and children, and the games are suitable for all ages, ensuring that everyone can participate. Whether you are at home or at school, you can enjoy these games and help your child learn in a fun and engaging way.

This activity is most closely associated with

14. Reaching Out w/Brown-Bag Lunches

This activity is most closely associated wit h

23. Evaluate: Parent Perceptions Scale

This activity is most closely associated wit h

28. Communicate Your School's Event

This activity is most closely associated with

Slice 3. Support Student Success

Our comprehensive But the real value comes from the economic impact of the pledge. According to U.S. Department of Education data, Parent Engagement Pledge asks parents to volunteer 10 hours each in their local school and spend 15 minutes each night reading with their children, creating a positive impact in the education of their children. you can achieve a response rate approaching 80%. 43% of K-12 parents volunteer at school. Independent Sector has announced that the estimated value of a volunteer hour in the United States reached $29.95 in 2022. That means, that each parent who takes the Parent Engagement Pledge is generating $300.00 in volunteer impact. Imagine the impact if 43% of the families in your community volunteered in your schools by taking the pledge! That's an impact of over $100,000 for your school.

This activity is most closely associated with

18. Parental Involvement Report Card

This activity is most closely associated with

20. Traveling Family Engagement Workshop

Promote Project Appleseed's family engagement for schools. Our expert, Kevin Walker, will lead the training and provide evidence-based strategies for involving parents in their child's education. From teacher home visits, parent-teacher conferences to volunteer opportunities, learn how to effectively communicate and collaborate with families to improve student success. Utilize our resources, such as the Parent Engagement Pledge and Inventory of Volunteer Interests, to tailor activities and involve parents in unique ways. Sign up for our workshops now to strengthen family-school partnerships in your community.

This activity is most closely associated with

Attendance an Mental Health

We are excited to invite you to our upcoming Parent Advisory Council event, where we will delve into two crucial topics: attendance and mental health. Join us on National Parental Involvement Day as we explore strategies to support our children's well-being.

During this engaging session, expert speakers will share insights on how attendance positively impacts academic success and overall development. We will also discuss practical ways to address barriers to regular attendance and strengthen our children's commitment to their education.

Furthermore, we will shed light on the vital topic of mental health, providing guidance on recognizing signs of distress, fostering resilience, and accessing resources available within our community.

Your voice matters, and we value your input! Join us to collaborate, share experiences, and collectively create a supportive environment for our children. Together, let's empower our children to thrive academically and emotionally!

This activity is most closely associated with

Calling all young dreamers and storybook enthusiasts! We are excited to invite you to an unforgettable evening filled with captivating tales and cozy bedtime fun.

Here's what's in store for you:

Bedtime stories: Our talented teachers and special guests will bring beloved stories to life, transporting you to magical worlds and igniting your imagination. Interactive performances: Watch as characters from classic fairytales step right off the pages and into our school, captivating young and old alike.

Craft activities: Unleash your creativity with fun crafts inspired by the stories you hear, allowing your imagination to soar even further.

Milk and cookies: No bedtime routine is complete without a sweet treat! Enjoy milk and cookies as a delightful bedtime snack.

This activity is most closely associated with

10. Shine-A-Light Night ​

This activity is most closely associated with

13. Mentoring and Tutoring

Through this program, students will have the opportunity to gain valuable skills and knowledge from experienced mentors, who can help guide and support them in their academic and personal growth. The program is designed to give all students the resources they need to succeed, and it is a great way for parents, college students and high school students to give back to the community.

This activity is most closely associated wit h

25. Come to School With Your Student Day

This event, commonly known as "Bring Your Parent to School Day" or "Take Your Parent to School Day," provides an opportunity for parents and caregivers to gain a deeper understanding of their child's daily school experience and to see firsthand the teaching and learning taking place in the classrooms. It allows them to observe the teacher's teaching style, the curriculum, and the interactions between the students and the teacher.

This activity is most closely associated wit h

33. TikTok Gratitude Contest

Dallas ISD is celebrating Nov. 17, National Parent Involvement Day all week long with events hosted by the Family and Community Engagement department. It's important that our parents feel valued and below are ways students can highlight the powerful contributions that parents and guardians provide at school and at home to support student success.

TikTok Challenge Rules:

The TikTok challenge is only open to secondary Dallas ISD students. All submissions must follow guidelines and will be judged on originality and creativity. Use the hashtag #DISDPARENTS to enter.

TikTok must be focused on thanking parents/guardians.

TikTok length: 30-to-60-second video.

Appropriate sound: No profanity or inappropriate language.

Appropriate skit/dance/appearance: no inappropriate gestures or clothing.

This activity is most closely associated with

24. Involve Parents in School Health

This activity is most closely associated with

This activity is most closely associated wit h

Join with families to identify health promotion projects in the community that could involve parents. For example, invite family members to participate in physical activities at school or in the community, such as runs or walkathons. Kick off National Parental Involvement Day & Public School Volunteer Week with a special welcome for new students and families in the community. Host discussions about how parents can support healthy behaviors at home. Such discussions might be held at open houses and back-to-school nights, at parent meetings, and during parent-teacher conferences.

Reaching students with the message about the importance of fitness isn't enough. Go for the gold with events designed to bring in students and their families too. Involve the Physical Education teachers to plan physical activities in the gym like karate, kick-boxing, aerobics, dance, yoga, Pilates, hip hop, Zumba, and body sculpting. In the main hallways provide information tables work with a local community clinic to bring their bus and provide free health screenings for families. Especially popular with students are the opportunities to try physical activities.

This activity is most closely associated with

19. Promote Healthy Behaviors

Suggest ways parents can make family outings fun learning experiences and promote healthy behaviors (e.g., picking fruit or hiking). Ask parents to engage their children in health-related learning experiences, such as cooking dinner and packing lunch together, shopping for healthy foods, and reading labels on over-the-counter medicines.

This activity is most closely associated with

Slice 4. Speak Up for Every Child

27. Parent Involvement Policy Meeting

Promote the creation of a parent involvement policy within your school or district. Begin by implementing Project Appleseed's Parent Engagement Pledge, a learning compact that clearly communicates the school's commitment to involving families and the community in the education of their children. Establish a parent resource center as a hub for families to access information on relevant topics, connect with one another, and interact with school staff. This center can serve as a valuable resource for promoting and facilitating ongoing parent involvement.

This activity is most closely associated with

District Advisory Council

Join our District Advisory Council and be part of the decision-making process. Together, we can strengthen the family's voice and create policies that benefit our children and community. Let's build strong connections and raise concerns together. #SharedDecisionMaking #FamilyEngagement

Note: This single social media post can be shared across platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram, to reach a wider audience.

This activity is most closely associated with

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Family Engagement Activities | Appleseed

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Each day, each week, represents an opportunity to engage parents. School activities build strong relationships between schools, families.

# data[].attributes.body
Here are the most important facts about ELLs. Some of the information may be surprising: not for those who have taken this class but perhaps for administrators at a future school who know little about them.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Over the past twenty years, the population of English language learners (ELLs) has grown dramatically throughout the United States. ELLs are a diverse group whose needs may vary significantly. Learn more about the current ELL population from these fast facts compiled below! Additional information can be found in the documents cited as well as related resources:

FAQ

How many ELLs are there in the U.S.?

In 2020, there were more than 4.9 million ELLs in U.S. public schools, comprising nearly 10% of students in U.S. public schools. ELLs are the fastest-growing student population in the country, growing 60% in the last decade, as compared with 7% growth of the general student population (Grantmakers for Education, 2013).

Where do ELLs live?

There are ELLs attending schools in all 50 states. ELLs are still heavily concentrated in states such as California, Arizona, Florida, Texas, New York, and Illinois. California has more than 1.5 million ELLs, who comprise nearly 25% of the state's total K-12 population (Ruiz Soto, Hooker, and Batalova, 2015).

However, a number of states around the country, particularly in the Midwest and Southeast, have seen a dramatic increase in the numbers of ELL students enrolled statewide in the past decade. For example, in 11 states, the ELL population growth has increased in recent years by more than 200%, and in some cases 400% (Indiana) or even 800% (South Carolina). Other states with recent dramatic growth include Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, Alabama, and Arkansas (Batalova and McHugh, 2010a).

What languages do ELLs speak?

Most ELLs - more than 70% - speak Spanish. However, as a group, ELLs speak more than 400 languages, and the most common languages spoken by students vary by state. For example, in 2012, there were five states where Spanish was not the primary language: Alaska (Yupik), Hawaii (Ilokano), Montana (German), Maine (Somali), and Vermont (Nepali) (Batalova and McHugh, 2010b).

For detailed information about languages by state, see our State Resources section as well as this fact sheet from the Migration Policy Institute.

Are most ELLs immigrants?

No. While some ELLs are immigrants and newcomers to this country, the majority of ELLs enrolled in U.S. schools are born in the U.S. and as such, they are American citizens: 85 percent of pre-kindergarten to 5 th grade ELL students and 62 percent of 6 th to 12 th grade ELL students are born in the U.S. (Zong and Batalova, 2015).

Are ELLs more likely to attend urban schools?

Yes, ELLs are still more likely to attend urban schools, but ELL populations are growing rapidly in suburban and rural districts across the country in areas that typically have not served ELLs in the past (Rix, n.d.) Growth of immigrant populations can be tied to any number of factors; in the Midwest, for example, industries such as meat-processing plants have served as a catalyst for rapid increases in local communities.

What are some of ELLs' strengths and challenges?

ELLs' needs, strengths, and challenges can vary dramatically, even within the same classroom or among students from the same country. Having an effective way to evaluate students' needs is crucial to helping students succeed. Some of ELLs' strengths may include:

Strong literacy skills in their native language

Academic skills and content area knowledge developed in their native language

Strong family support and commitment to children's future

Strong interest in education

High levels of personal responsibility, resilience, resourcefulness, and commitment to success

Some of their challenges may include:

Little or no formal schooling

High levels of mobility in moving between schools (especially in the case of students from migrant farmworker families)

Lack of access to effective, consistent language instruction, as in the case of students who have experienced bilingual education during one year and then English immersion in another

Limited practice developing and using academic language

Personal responsibilities that occupy hours during or outside of school, such as caring for siblings, working one or more jobs, and translating for families

How long does it take to learn English?

Most experts agree that it takes 5-7 years to acquire academic English, the language needed to succeed academically and professionally. Students may acquire social language (the language used on the playground or in the cafeteria) much more rapidly, but there is frequently a gap between social and academic English. In addition, newcomer ELLs may go through what is known as a "silent period," in which they say very little but listen carefully to everything happening around them. Even though they are not speaking during this period, they are still in an important stage of language development (Roseberry-McKibbin and Brice, n.d.).

Who are long-term ELLs?

Long-term ELLs are students who have been in U.S. schools for more than six years without attaining academic language proficiency. It is estimated that 60% of ELLs in grades 6-12 are long-term ELLs (Grantmakers in Education, 2013).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Over the past twenty years, the population of English language learners (ELLs) has grown dramatically throughout the United States. ELLs are a diverse group whose needs may vary significantly. Learn more about the current ELL population from these fast facts compiled below!

# data[].attributes.body
This gives positive facts about ELLs, showing someone who may not be as knowledgeable about them that it is indeed good to be bilingual.