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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: Anchored Instruction Educational Model, 1990

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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: Anchored Instruction Educational Model, 1990

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The anchored instruction educational model stresses the importance of placing learning within larger situational contexts that emphasize meaningful application of learning towards problem solving, with the problem at hand being the “anchor.” This model was (and continues to be) used extensively in elementary education across all content areas.

Source: https://web.cortland.edu/frieda/id/idtheories/41.html

Alt. Text: Diagram of the Anchored Instruction learning model in the form of an anchor with two blue arrows pointing upward and two blue arrows pointing toward bottom center.

Contributor: LGS

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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: Constructivist Theory, 1990

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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: Constructivist Theory, 1990

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The theories developed by Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner in previous decades began to be applied with regularity to education, which helped students to build and establish meaning out of new information by relating it to their own experiences. This application of constructivism continued throughout the 90s as it was embraced by growing numbers of educators. This made education more relevant and engaging to students across grade levels and content areas.

Sources: https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/constructivism

Alt. Text: PPT Slide that lists the description for the learning theory of constructivism and important contributors. There is clipart of a child playing with blocks.

Contributor: LGS

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products: The Digital Answering Machine, 1991

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products: The Digital Answering Machine, 1991

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Digital answering machines offered callers the chance to hear a prerecorded message from the user of the phone number they had dialed. The caller had the opportunity to leave a voice message recording that could be retrieved and heard by the owner of the digital answering machine at their leisure. This changed the nature of phone call communication.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/telephone-answering-machine

Alt. Text: A bulky answering machine with a dual compact cassette tape drive to record and replay phone messages

Contributor: LGS

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products: The World Wide Web, 1991

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products: The World Wide Web, 1991

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While Tim Berners-Lee developed his early vision of the World Wide Web in 1989, it wasn't until 1991 that he created the first web page on it and allowed users to join the online community. The impact of the creation of the World Wide Web has allowed users to create and access content online such as websites, research databases, news, games, music, shopping, and more.

Source: History of the Web - World Wide Web Foundation

Alt. Text: Tim Berners-Lee wearing a white shirt sitting in front of his computer that shows his webpage on the World Wide Web.

Contributor: JL

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Sir Tim Berners-Lee is a British computer scientist. He was born in London, and his parents were early computer scientists, working on one of the earliest computers.

Growing up, Sir Tim was interested in trains and had a model railway in his bedroom. He recalls:

"I made some electronic gadgets to control the trains. Then I ended up getting more interested in electronics than trains. Later on, when I was in college I made a computer out of an old television set."

After graduating from Oxford University, Berners-Lee became a software engineer at CERN, the large particle physics laboratory near Geneva, Switzerland. Scientists come from all over the world to use its accelerators, but Sir Tim noticed that they were having difficulty sharing information.

"In those days, there was different information on different computers, but you had to log on to different computers to get at it. Also, sometimes you had to learn a different program on each computer. Often it was just easier to go and ask people when they were having coffee...", Tim says.

Tim thought he saw a way to solve this problem - one that he could see could also have much broader applications. Already, millions of computers were being connected together through the fast-developing internet and Berners-Lee realised they could share information by exploiting an emerging technology called hypertext.

In March 1989, Tim laid out his vision for what would become the web in a document called " Information Management: A Proposal". Believe it or not, Tim's initial proposal was not immediately accepted. In fact, his boss at the time, Mike Sendall, noted the words "Vague but exciting" on the cover. The web was never an official CERN project, but Mike managed to give Tim time to work on it in September 1990. He began work using a NeXT computer, one of Steve Jobs' early products.

By October of 1990, Tim had written the three fundamental technologies that remain the foundation of today's web (and which you may have seen appear on parts of your web browser):

HTML: HyperText Markup Language. The markup (formatting) language for the web.

URI: Uniform Resource Identifier. A kind of "address" that is unique and used to identify to each resource on the web. It is also commonly called a URL.

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Allows for the retrieval of linked resources from across the web.

Tim also wrote the first web page editor/browser ("WorldWideWeb.app") and the first web server ("httpd"). By the end of 1990, the first web page was served on the open internet, and in 1991, people outside of CERN were invited to join this new web community.

As the web began to grow, Tim realised that its true potential would only be unleashed if anyone, anywhere could use it without paying a fee or having to ask for permission.

He explains: "Had the technology been proprietary, and in my total control, it would probably not have taken off. You can't propose that something be a universal space and at the same time keep control of it."

So, Tim and others advocated to ensure that CERN would agree to make the underlying code available on a royalty-free basis, forever. This decision was announced in April 1993, and sparked a global wave of creativity, collaboration and innovation never seen before. In 2003, the companies developing new web standards committed to a Royalty Free Policy for their work. In 2014, the year we celebrated the web's 25th birthday, almost two in five people around the world were using it.

Tim moved from CERN to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1994 to found the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), an international community devoted to developing open web standards. He remains the Director of W3C to this day.

The early web community produced some revolutionary ideas that are now spreading far beyond the technology sector:

Decentralisation: No permission is needed from a central authority to post anything on the web, there is no central controlling node, and so no single point of failure ... and no "kill switch"! This also implies freedom from indiscriminate censorship and surveillance.

Non-discrimination: If I pay to connect to the internet with a certain quality of service, and you pay to connect with that or a greater quality of service, then we can both communicate at the same level. This principle of equity is also known as Net Neutrality.

Bottom-up design: Instead of code being written and controlled by a small group of experts, it was developed in full view of everyone, encouraging maximum participation and experimentation.

Universality: For anyone to be able to publish anything on the web, all the computers involved have to speak the same languages to each other, no matter what different hardware people are using; where they live; or what cultural and political beliefs they have. In this way, the web breaks down silos while still allowing diversity to flourish.

Consensus: For universal standards to work, everyone had to agree to use them. Tim and others achieved this consensus by giving everyone a say in creating the standards, through a transparent, participatory process at W3C.

New permutations of these ideas are giving rise to exciting new approaches in fields as diverse as information (Open Data), politics (Open Government), scientific research (Open Access), education, and culture (Free Culture). But to date we have only scratched the surface of how these principles could change society and politics for the better.
Important Note: This text is intended as a brief introduction to the history of the web. For a more detailed account, you might want to consider reading:
In 2009, Sir Tim co-founded the World Wide Web Foundation with Rosemary Leith. The Web Foundation is fighting for the web we want: a web that is safe, empowering and for everyone.

Please do explore our site and our work. We hope you'll be inspired by our vision and decide to take action. Remember, as Tim tweeted during the Olympics Opening Ceremony in 2012, "This is for Everyone".

This is for everyone #london2012#oneweb#openingceremony@webfoundation@w3c

- Tim Berners-Lee (@timberners_lee) July 27, 2012

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Sir Tim Berners-Lee is a British computer scientist. He was born in London, and his parents were early computer scientists, working on one of the earliest computers. Growing up, Sir Tim was interested in trains and had a model railway in his bedroom.

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The 1990s witnessed efforts to digitize educational resources and create digital libraries by exploring ways to organize, store, and disseminate educational content digitally. This laid the foundation for the digital repositories and online databases of educational resources that are now commonplace in modern education

Sources: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780124171121000016

Alt. Text: Image of a laptop and book reader opened with images of library shelves on their screens. Headphones plugged into an audio device.

Contributor: JL

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Educational Use of Technology: SMART Board, 1991

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Educational Use of Technology: SMART Board, 1991

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Towards the end of the 1990s, interactive whiteboards started to make an appearance in classrooms. These devices allowed teachers to project images from a computer onto a whiteboard surface and interact with the content using a stylus. The impact of the interactive whiteboard allowed for more engagement in the classroom and exposure to new technology for educators and students.

Sources: https://scotscoop.com/how-interactive-whiteboards-took-over/#:~:text=Interactive%20whiteboards%20began%20gaining%20popularity,interactive%20whiteboards%20in%20the%201990s.

Alt. Text: Student with blonde hair is pointing to a blue square on a SMART whiteboard.

Contributor: JL

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products:        The Digital Camera, 1992

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products:        The Digital Camera, 1992

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The first CCD camera with digital storage and PC (IBM) connectivity available for sale in the US was Logitech’s FotoMan in 1992. In 1994, Kodak produced the first color digital camera for consumers, the Quicktake 100 ($749), for Apple. It was available in a Windows version and an Apple version, with room for eight photos at a resolution of 640 x 480. The upright nature of the FotoMan is strikingly similar to how we use our iPhones today for social media photography with the vertical layout.

Sources:
1. https://museum.photocafe.bg/project/logitech-fotoman-fm-1-created-1991/
2. https://petapixel.com/2023/03/03/apples-29-year-old-landmark-quicktake-100-camera-falters-in-2023/
3. http://www.epi-centre.com/reports/9301cs.html
4. https://www.cnet.com/tech/computing/history-of-digital-cameras-from-70s-prototypes-to-iphone-and-galaxys-everyday-wonders/

Alt. Text: White Logitech Fotoman Digital Camera

Contributor: RS

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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: Design Based Research (DBR), 1992 

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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: Design Based Research (DBR), 1992 

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Design Based Research gained popularity based on the work of researchers (Collins, 1990, Brown, 1992). This model emphasized practical application of research done in classrooms to facilitate improved learning outcomes for the subjects of the research. This hands-on, practical research remains the type of research that we as educators are most likely to participate in throughout our careers.

Sources: Sources: Armstrong, M., Dopp, C., & Welsh, J. (2018). Design-Based Research. In R. Kimmons, The Students' Guide to Learning Design and Research. EdTech Books. Retrieved from https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/design-based_research, https://www.lifescied.org/doi/10.1187/cbe.19-11-0245

Alt. Text: A graphic shows the steps of design based research (design, test, evaluate and reflect)  as a continuous loop that informs further research.

Contributor: LGS

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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: The Smith and Ragan Model, 1993 & 1999

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Instructional Design and Learning Theories/Models: The Smith and Ragan Model, 1993 & 1999

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Using three phases (analyzing the learning context, generating instructional strategies, and formative/summative evaluation), the Smith and Ragan Model emphasizes eight steps to create a systematic, problem-solving process that allows for effective, learner-centered instruction. This model has impacted instructional design to develop various ways that learning is delivered to students (technology and multimedia).

Sources: https://pressbooks.pub/itec51602/chapter/instructional-design-models-v2/#:~:text=The%20Smith%20and%20Ragan%20Model&text=Smith%20and%20Ragan's%20model%20has,that%20comprise%20their%20ID%20process.

Alt. Text: Diagram of the Smith and Ragan Model that is comprised of three main phases: analysis, strategy, and evaluation.

Contributor: JL

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: CD-ROM (

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: CD-ROM (

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CD-ROMs (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory) were invented in the late 1980s and became widely available in the 1990s. They are compact discs that can store large amounts of digital data, and can be used to update computer software, operating systems, catalogs in libraries, schools, and businesses. I was given my MRI data on a CD-ROM this year, but no computer at my high school or in my network of friends can play it. I need to either go to a doctor with a computer that is old enough or well-maintained enough to play the CD-ROM software, or purchase a dedicated CD-ROM player.

Source: https://techterms.com/definition/cdrom

Alt. Text: Gray, CD-ROM drive

Contributor: RS

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: Encarta Encyclopedia, 1993- Beyond

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: Encarta Encyclopedia, 1993- Beyond

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Encarta was originally a CD-Rom program that allowed users to research information on their computers. Later, Encarta was bundled with other Microsoft programs. Encarta's impact on education was significant since it allowed people the ability to find information at any time using their computers.

Sources: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Encarta

Alt. Text: Image of black/dark gray Encarta Encyclopedia 98 CD-Rom

Contributor: JL

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: Web Browsers, 1994

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: Web Browsers, 1994

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Netscape Navigator was created at the University of Illinois by Jim Clark and Marc Andreessen. This was the first search engine with a graphical user interface (GUI) which allowed users to click on a mouse to find and open web pages, rather than typing a text command. In 1995 they had 80% of the share of web browsing traffic. Microsoft’s Internet Explorer web browser was bundled for free and released with Microsoft 95, and began to take over the entire PC universe. In 1996-98, I was using Netscape at UCLA as a student. Microsoft won the battle. In 1999, AOL bought Netscape and created AOL Time Warner in 2000.

Sources: https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/09/browser-wars-netscape-internet-explorer.asp#:~:text=Netscape's%20IPO%20in%201995%20was,Internet%20Explorer%20the%20same%20year

Alt. Text: Image of Aqua Netscape Navigator icon/logo with steering helm.

Contributor: RS

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products: Photoshop, 1995

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products: Photoshop, 1995

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While Photoshop was developed years before, it was not until 1995 that Adobe purchased the program from the Knoll brothers for over $30 million dollars. Photoshop's impact on technology products and media increased with the rise of digital images, advertisements and more.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/Adobe-Photoshop

Alt. Text: Black and white image of Adobe Photoshop program opening image.

Contributor: JL

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Educational Use of Technology: Telecommunications Act, 1996

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Educational Use of Technology: Telecommunications Act, 1996

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The Telecommunications Act of 1996 mandated that schools and libraries receive low-cost telecommunications services through the E-Rate program. The goal was to have all students and libraries connected to the internet by the year 2000. This was a major step in the advancement of technology and education. It allowed students to have access to resources that they would not have otherwise had. It also allowed teachers to use the internet and give students a reason to learn about computers.

Sources: https://www.fcc.gov/general/telecommunications-act-1996
Farmer, L. (2009). Career and technical education technology: Three decades in review and technological trends in the future. In V. Wang (Ed.), Definitive readings in the history, philosophy, practice and theories of career and technical education (pp. 259-278). IGI Global.

Alt. Text: Rectangular digital image of telecommunication towers projecting signals against a blue background.

Contributor: RS

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Educational Use of Technology: Learning Organizations, 1998

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Educational Use of Technology: Learning Organizations, 1998

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Throughout the 1990s the concept of learning organization was spreading, as organizations realized the necessity of systematic ways of developing together as a whole group, not just as individuals. Calder & McCollum (1998) described how technology could be applied to this learning organization based on the learning objectives of the organization. This changed the expectations for employee development relative to career and technical education (CTE).

Sources: Farmer, L. (2009). Career and technical education technology: Three decades in review and technological trends in the future.  In V. Wang (Ed.), Definitive readings in the history, philosophy, practice and theories of career and technical education (pp. 259-278). IGI Global.

Alt. Text: Career and Technical Education graphic that lists eight values of the learning organization in rainbow color scheme.

Contributor: LGS

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: iMac G3, 1998

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Educational Technology/Media Research Inventions: iMac G3, 1998

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The iMac G3 was designed with a highly functional core of hardware that maximized efficiency enclosed in a brightly colored candy-like exterior. The iconic and (for the time) stylish design of the iMac sold very successfully, finally giving Apple a profitable year after several years of losses, and became a status symbol in personal computers.

Sources: https://www.edsurge.com/news/2017-07-20-long-live-the-90s-edtech-crazes-every-teacher-and-student-secretly-wishes-were-still-around*

Alt. Text: Image of five colorful iMac G3 monitors in a fan formation that reads "The most colorful way to internet." with Apple logo and slogan "Think different."

Contributor: LGS

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products:        Portable MP3 Player, 1998

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Technology/Media Inventions & Products:        Portable MP3 Player, 1998

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In 1998, the first MP3 player was introduced, following the creation of the MP3 format. This device allowed users to listen to music and media on the go instead of only on their computers. This impacted technology and users in the future with the rise of podcasts and audio books that provided more forms of educational learning.

Sources: https://www.pcworld.com/article/520590/evolution_of_the_mp3_player.html

Alt. Text: Black/Gray bulky MP3 player with two buttons: MODE and INFO

Contributor: JL