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A flexible rod that supports a chordate’s back; present in all chordates at some stage of development.

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Animals with a backbone or spinal column; a subphylum of chordates.

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Pharyngeal (Gill) Slits are openings in the throat that can grow into gills or other structures depending on the species.

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Organs responsible for buoyancy (swim bladder in fish) or gas exchange (lungs in land animals).

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Vertebrates with four limbs (includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals).

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Eggs with a protective shell and membranes, allowing them to develop on land without drying out (seen in reptiles, birds, and mammals).

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A circular mouth structure, typically with teeth or suction, seen in jawless fish like lampreys.

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Exposed gills are visible (like in some amphibians)

While covered gills are protected by an operculum (common in bony fish).

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Bony or cartilaginous structures used for grasping and processing food; evolved from gill arches.

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Types of bony fish; ray-finned have thin, flexible fins supported by rays.

lobe-finned have fleshy, lobed fins that may be precursors to limbs.

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Cold-blooded, body temperature is regulated by the environment (e.g., reptiles, amphibians, fish).

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Warm-blooded, body temperature is regulated internally (e.g., birds, mammals).

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A community is all the different living things (plants, animals, etc.) living together in the same area.

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Community interactions using +/+, +/-, -/-, and +/0 notation

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Community interactions using +/+, +/-, -/-, and +/0 notation

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• +/+: Both species benefit (mutualism)

• +/-: One benefits, one is harmed (predation or parasitism)

• -/-: Both are harmed (competition)

• +/0: One benefits, the other is unaffected (commensalism)

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Community interactions using +/+, +/-, -/-, and +/0 notation

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What is competition? What types of competition exist?

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What is competition? What types of competition exist?

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Competition is when two or more species fight over the same resources like food or space.

• Intraspecific: Between the same species

• Interspecific: Between different species

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What is competition? What types of competition exist?

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Two species that need the same resources can’t live together forever—one will win, and the other will either move, adapt, or die out.

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A niche is a species’ role in the environment what it eats, where it lives, and how it interacts with others.

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Predation using predator and prey adaptations

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Predation using predator and prey adaptations

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Predation is when one animal (predator) hunts and eats another (prey).

• Predator adaptation: Sharp teeth, good eyesight

• Prey adaptation: Camouflage, speed, warning colors

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Predation using predator and prey adaptations

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Aposematic coloration, Batesian mimicry, Mullerian mimicry:

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Aposematic coloration, Batesian mimicry, Mullerian mimicry:

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• Aposematic coloration: Bright colors that warn predators the animal is poisonous

• Batesian mimicry: A harmless animal looks like a harmful one

• Mullerian mimicry: Two harmful animals look alike to warn predators

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Aposematic coloration, Batesian mimicry, Mullerian mimicry:

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Herbivory, Describe some herbivore and plant adaptations:

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Herbivory, Describe some herbivore and plant adaptations:

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Herbivory is when animals eat plants.

*Herbivore adaptations: Strong teeth, long digestive systems

*Plant adaptations: Thorns, toxins, bad taste

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Herbivory, Describe some herbivore and plant adaptations:

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What is symbiosis? What are the 4 types?

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What is symbiosis? What are the 4 types?

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Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species.

Types:

• Mutualism (+/+)

• Parasitism (+/-)

• Commensalism (+/0)

• Competition (-/-)

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What is symbiosis? What are the 4 types?

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One species benefits (the parasite), and the other is harmed (the host).

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Define facultative and obligate mutualism. Example of each

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Define facultative and obligate mutualism. Example of each

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• Facultative: Species help each other but can live alone (e.g., bees and flowers)

• Obligate: Species need each other to survive (e.g., some ants and acacia trees)

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Define facultative and obligate mutualism. Example of each

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One species benefits, and the other is not affected.

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A population is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area at the same time and interbreed, producing fertile offspring.

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The 4 factors/variables that determine population size

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The 4 factors/variables that determine population size

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Population size is affected by:

• Birth rate (natality): Number of births in a population over a period.

• Death rate (mortality): Number of deaths over a period.

• Immigration: Movement of individuals into a population.

• Emigration: Movement of individuals out of a population.

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• Dispersion: The way individuals are spaced within a population’s area.

• Population density: The number of individuals per unit area or volume.

• Demographics: Statistical data related to population characteristics like age, sex, birth and death rates, etc.

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The three types of dispersion and causes with examples

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The three types of dispersion and causes with examples

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• Clumped Dispersion: Individuals are grouped in patches.

Cause: Resources are unevenly distributed, or social behavior.

Example: Elephants gathering around water holes.

• Uniform Dispersion: Individuals are evenly spaced.

Cause: Territorial behavior or competition for resources.

Example: Penguins nesting at regular intervals to avoid conflict.

• Random Dispersion: Individuals are spread randomly.

Cause: Occurs in habitats where resources are consistently available and interactions are minimal.

Example: Dandelions spreading seeds by wind, landing wherever.

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The three types of dispersion and causes with examples

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• Life Table: A chart showing the survival and reproductive rates of individuals at each age in a population. It helps understand population dynamics and life expectancy.

• Cohort: A group of individuals of the same age that are studied over time, especially to track survival and reproduction.

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A survivorship curve is a graph that represents the number or proportion of individuals surviving at each age for a given species or group. It helps visualize how mortality is distributed across different stages of life in a population. These curves are typically plotted with age on the x-axis and the number of survivors (on a logarithmic scale) on the y-axis.

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Three idealized types of survivorship curves, each reflecting different strategies of survival and reproduction

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Three idealized types of survivorship curves, each reflecting different strategies of survival and reproduction

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⸻

Type I: High Survivorship Early in Life

• Shape: Flat at the beginning (low death rates in early/mid-life), then drops steeply at older ages.

• Organisms: Humans, large mammals (like elephants, whales).

• Biological Factors:

• Parental care: Offspring are well-protected and nurtured.

• Fewer offspring: Energy is invested in ensuring survival of each.

• Low infant mortality.

• Long life spans.

Type II: Constant Death Rate

• Shape: Linear decline — equal chance of dying at any age.

• Organisms: Birds, some reptiles, rodents.

• Biological Factors:

• Moderate parental care.

• Moderate number of offspring.

• Consistent risk of predation or disease throughout life.

• Survival is not age-dependent

Type III: Low Survivorship Early in Life

• Shape: Steep drop early (many young die), then levels off for survivors.

• Organisms: Fish, insects, plants, many marine invertebrates.

• Biological Factors:

• Little to no parental care.

• High number of offspring (r-strategists).

• High infant mortality due to predation or environmental hazards.

• Those that survive early life tend to live longer.

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Three idealized types of survivorship curves, each reflecting different strategies of survival and reproduction

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r- and K-selection strategies are two different reproductive strategies that species use to survive and reproduce in different types of environments. They come from ecological theory and help explain how organisms allocate resources toward growth, reproduction, and survival.

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A biome is a large geographic region characterized by a specific climate, plant life, and animal life. Biomes are shaped primarily by climate and are classified by the dominant vegetation.

Two most important climate variables that determine biome type:

1. Temperature

2. Precipitation

For example:

• High temp + high precipitation = Tropical rainforest

• Low temp + low precipitation = Tundra

⸻

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Microclimate:

• The climate in a small, specific area, which can be different from the surrounding region.

• Example: The shady, cool underside of a log or a city park.

Macroclimate:

• The climate of a large area or region, like a forest, desert, or mountain range.

• Example: The general dry and hot climate of the Sahara Desert.

⸻

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Key mammal characteristics:

• Hair or fur

• Mammary glands for lactation (feeding milk to young)

• Live birth (in most mammals)

• Warm-blooded (regulate body temperature internally)

• Three middle ear bones

• Placenta (in placental mammals)

Three Mammal Lineages:

1. Monotremes

• Lay eggs

• No nipples; milk is secreted from skin

• Examples: Platypus, echidna

• State of offspring: Very undeveloped at birth

• Unique: Only mammals that lay eggs

2. Marsupials

• Give birth to underdeveloped young

• Young develop further in a pouch

• Examples: Kangaroo, koala, opossum

• Benefit: Quick birth allows mother to escape threats; lower energy investment early on

• State of offspring: Tiny and immature; crawl to pouch after birth

3. Placental Mammals (Eutherians)

• Develop offspring internally using a placenta

• Longer gestation; young are more developed at birth

• Examples: Humans, dogs, whales, elephants

• Benefit: Offspring are more mature and independent at birth

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Shared Traits of All Mammals:

• Hair/fur

• Mammary glands (lactation)

• Warm-blooded

• Vertebrates

Unique Traits in Primates and Humans:

• Opposable thumbs (for grasping)

• Bipedalism (walking upright on two legs in humans)

• Large brains

• Social behaviors

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FROM GOOGLE AND CONVERT IN MY LANGUAGE SOME OF THEM