# data[].attributes.body
Plato is a very well-known ancient Greek philosopher born in 427 B.C.E. Plato built upon many ideas about ethical matters in understanding necessary for a good human life. Plato also introduced the idea that their mistakes were due to their not engaging properly with a class of entities he called forms, chief examples of which were Justice, Beauty, and Equality. When Plato was a young man he was a member of the circle around Socrates. And later the works of Plato commonly referred to as “Socratic” represent the sort of thing the historical Socrates was doing.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
One of history's greatest thinkers and the first real scientist, Aristotle is revered today. He founded the field of formal logic, made groundbreaking contributions to all areas of philosophy and science, and recognized and examined the connections between the numerous scientific disciplines. He mentions in his metaphysics that the origin of all other creatures must be a distinct, unchanging being. According to his ethics, the only way to acquire eudaimonia—a state of bliss or contentment that is the highest form of human life—is by being wonderful. Aristotle’s main school of thought was humanistic.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
John Locke was born in England and was educated at Oxford. He served as a private physician and tutor before becoming a writer in his later years.

Locke is mostly know for his economic and political views. In psychology, he promoted the idea of a tabula rasa. In this idea, humans are born with a "blank slate" and develop their intelligence and personality based on their interactions with others, education, and environment.

Many of his ideas form the basis of both behaviorism and social psychology.

# data[].attributes.body
Franz Mesmer, A German psychologist born in 1734, was educated and graduated from the University of Vienna. Mesmer is considered the main forerunner of the modern practice of hypnosis. He worked heavily with the gravitational pull of humans and animals once out of college. He was later accused of fraud and had to leave Austria and move to Paris where he eventually moved over to psychology where he theorized the existence of a natural energy transference occurring between all animated and inanimate objects. Mesmer was put under investigation for the trance state by his followers, eventually leading to the development of legitimate applications of hypnotism.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Ernst Weber was born on June 24, 1795, in Wittenberg, Germany and passed away on January 26, 1878. He was a German physician who is known as one of the founders of experimental psychology. He was a very influential and important person in the fields of physiology and psychology during his lifetime and beyond it. Weber made important discoveries about the sense of touch and invented the idea of the just-noticeable difference between two similar physical stimuli. He also founded psychophysics, the branch of psychology that studies the relations between physical stimuli and mental states.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Gustav Theodor Fechner was a German physicist, philosopher, and experimental psychologist. As a pioneer of experimental psychology and the founder of psychophysics, he influenced many scientists and philosophers of the 20th century. He is known to psychologists as the founder of psychophysics, a set of methods for empirically relating measured sensory stimuli to reported sensations. Fechner’s school of thought was the Biopsychosocial model.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Hermann is associated with the school of thought known as psychoanalysis and he made fundamental contributions to physiology, optics, electrodynamics, mathematics, and meteorology. In the fields of physiology and psychology, Helmholtz is known for his mathematics concerning the eye, theories of vision, ideas on the visual perception of space, color vision research, the sensation of tone, perceptions of sound, and empiricism in the physiology of perception. In physics, he is known for his theories on the conservation of energy, work in electrodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, and on a mechanical foundation of thermodynamics.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Paul Broca was a French physician, anatomist, and anthropologist. He is famous for his work on brain lateralization, and the discovery of the center for speech, named the “Broca area.” His work revealed that the brains of patients suffering from aphasia contained lesions in a particular part of the cortex, in the left frontal region. This was the first anatomical proof of the localization of brain function.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Jean-Martin Charcot was a French neurologist and professor of anatomic pathology. He worked with hypnosis and hysteria, especially working with hysteria patient Louise Augustine Gleizes. He was the first to describe the degeneration of ligaments and joint surfaces due to lack of use or control, now known as Charcot joints. He also discovered the importance of small arteries in cerebral hemorrhage. His school of psychology was Neuroscience.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Wilhelm Wundt opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was the first laboratory dedicated to psychology, and its opening is usually thought of as the beginning of modern psychology. Indeed, Wundt is often regarded as the father of psychology. He founded the school of thought called structuralism which he built through his work. Wundt separated psychology from philosophy by analyzing the workings of the mind in a more structured way, with the emphasis being on objective measurement and control.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Born in New York, but soon moved to Europe, James attended many schools and quickly gained an interest in painting and writing. Attending Harvard training in painting, he quickly abandoned the arts and instead enrolled in chemistry and anatomy. He started to study psychology in Germany before returning to America. Originally starting in the experimental psychology field and writing a twelve hundred page, two-volume synthesis and summary of psychology, Principles of Psychology. Later he moved away from experimental psychology to write more philosophical works. James is famous for helping to found psychology as a formal discipline, for establishing the school of functionalism in psychology, and for greatly advancing the movement of pragmatism in philosophy.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Born in Massachusetts and later attended and graduated from Williams College. He initially worked heavily in the theological field before turning to Psychology and leaving the Union Theological Seminary in New York, Later went to Harvard and got the first Ph.D. in psychology granted in America. Stanley was a great professor that reached into every field of psychology and is often credited for the founding of child psychology and educational psychology, he also led to the creation of Psychoanalysis. Some of his works include Adolescence (1904) and Senescence, the Last Half of Life (1922).

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Karl Wernicke was born on May 15, 1848, in Tarnowskie Góry, Poland and passed away on June 15, 1905. He was a German physician, anatomist, psychiatrist and neuropathologist. He is best known for his important research on the pathological effects of specific forms of encephalopathy and also the study of receptive aphasia. Wernicke discovered the area in the cerebrum responsible for receptive language/speech phenomena in the superior gyrus of the temporal lobe.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Ivan Pavlov, born in Russia, in 1849 grew up learning about theology but abandoned theology once he went to the University of St. Petersburg where he studied chemistry and psychology. He studied for a while after college under the physiologist Carl Ludwig. Ivan Pavlov is one of the most famous and well-known psychologists in the world. Pavlov is most known for his experiment working with classical conditioning called Pavlov’s Dog. The experiment conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell. Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for his work on digestive secretions.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who pioneered in the development of experimental methods for the measurement of rote learning and memory. He is famous for his discovery of the "forgetting curve." Ebbinghaus also introduced fundamental scientific techniques to the field of psychology. Establishing multiple laboratories throughout Central Europe for purposes of psychological research and study, Ebbinghaus is often credited with the advancement and promotion of the psychological field in its earliest years.

# data[].attributes.body
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies seen as originating from conflicts in the psyche, through dialogue between patient and psychoanalyst, and the distinctive theory of mind and human agency derived from it. He was the founder of psychoanalysis, a theory of how the mind works and a method of helping people in mental distress. His school of thought was psychoanalysis.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Alfred Binet was a French psychologist best remembered for developing the first widely used intelligence test. The test originated after the French government commissioned Binet to develop an instrument that could identify school kids that needed remedial studies. With his collaborator Theodore Simon, they created the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
American philosopher and psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins' theories and studies on memory, dreams, and the self have all been influenced by her work. In a list of fifty psychologists picked by her colleagues in 1903, Calkins came in at number twelve. In her lifetime she published 4 books and over 100 papers related to psychology or philosophy. In 1903, she was ranked 12th place in a list of 50 most eminent psychologists in the United States. She also established one of the first psychological laboratories in the country at Wellesley College. Calkins was part of the biological school of psychology.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Charles Spearman was a psychologist who was known for his work in cognitive research and developed commonly used statistical measures and the statistical method known as factor analysis. His studies on the nature of human abilities led to his "two-factor" theory of intelligence. Whereas most psychologists believed that mental abilities were determined by various independent factors, Spearman concluded that general intelligence, "g," was a single factor that was correlated with specific abilities, "s," to varying degrees. Spearman's work became the theoretical justification for intelligence testing. He also formulated eight basic laws of psychology.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Alfred Adler was an Austrian physician and psychiatrist who formed the school of thought known as individual psychology. He is also remembered for his concepts of the inferiority feeling and inferiority complex, which played a big role in Adler's theory of personality formation. Alder was initially a colleague of Sigmund Freud and helped establish psychoanalysis.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Walter Bradford Cannon was an American physiologist, professor and chairman of the Department of Physiology at Harvard Medical School. He coined the term "fight or flight response", and developed the theory of homeostasis. He popularized his theories in his book The Wisdom of the Body, first published in 1932.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Edward Thorndike was a psychologist who is often referred to as the founder of modern educational psychology. He became strongly associated with the school of thought known as functionalism. He was perhaps best known for his famous puzzle box experiments with cats which led to the development of his law of effect. Thorndike's principle suggests that responses immediately followed by satisfaction will be more likely to recur. The law of effect also suggests that behaviors followed by dissatisfaction or discomfort will become less likely to occur. His work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Carl Jung was born in Switzerland and originally studied at Basel then transferred to Zürich where he later graduated from. He discovered psychology as a teen but ended up studying medicine in college. After college, he started working at Burghölzli Asylum under the direction of Eugen Bleuler, which led to his interest in psychology. He worked heavily with Sigmund Freud, soon becoming his collaborator for 5 years. He created analytic psychology using many of Freud’s ideas of psychoanalysis. Jung worked heavily with the unconscious mind, his first achievement was to differentiate two classes of people according to attitude types, introverted and extroverted.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Robert Yerkes was born May 26, 1876, in Northampton Township, PA and passed away on  February 3, 1956. He was an American psychologist, ethologist, eugenicist and primatologist. He was best known for his work in intelligence testing and in the field of comparative psychology. Yerkes was a pioneer in the study of both human and primate intelligence and of the social behavior of gorillas and chimpanzees. Along with partner John D. Dodson, Yerkes also developed the Yerkes–Dodson law, which related arousal to performance.

-Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Lewis Terman was an American psychologist and author. He was known as a pioneer in educational psychology in the early 20th century at the Stanford Graduate School of Education. He was born on January 15, 1877, in Johnson County, IN and passed away on December 21, 1956. Terman played an important role in the early development of educational psychology and his intelligence test became one of the most widely used psychological assessments in the world. He advocated for support and guidance for kids identified as gifted in order to nurture their talents and abilities.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
John Watson was a pioneering psychologist who played an important role in developing behaviorism. Watson believed that psychology should primarily be scientific observable behavior. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process. Watson is also known for the Little Albert experiment, in which he demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus. His research also revealed that this fear could be generalized to other similar objects.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Max Wertheimer was a Czech-born psychologist who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology. He is greatly known for his book, Productive Thinking, and for conceiving the phi phenomenon as part of his work in Gestalt psychology. Wertheimer was born April 15, 1880, in Prague, Czechia and passed away on October 12, 1943.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Hermann Rorschach  was born on November 8, 1884, in Zürich, Switzerland, and he passed away on April 2, 1922. He was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. His previous education in art helped to start the development of a set of inkblots that were typically used experimentally to measure different unconscious parts of the subject's personality. The test he created is a projective psychological test that uses a subject's interpretation of 10 standard black or colored inkblot designs to assess personality traits and emotional tendencies.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
An American Psychologist born in New York in the mid 1950s, he was a student at the University of Michigan, but received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. Hull was most famous for his experimental studies on learning. After getting interested in psychology during college he went to work at Yale in the Institute of Human Relations. He began to form his theory of behavior during is early years at Yale.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Horney, a German-born American psychologist born in the mid 1950s, studied medicine at the universities of Freiburg, Gottengen, and Berlin. After working with medicine for a while, she became interested in psychology, specifically psychoanalysis. Much of Horney’s research was inspired by Sigmund Freud. Unlike Freud, Horney rejected such notions as “🤬 envy” and many other manifestations of male bias in the psychoanalytic field. She introduced such ideas as “womb envy” where men are jealous and envy the nursing that mothers do.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Kurt Koffka was a psychologist born in Germany in 1886 and eventually received his Ph.D. in 1909 from the University of Berlin. In 1911 he was associated with the University of Giessen and even served as a subject. He is best known for his systematic application of Gestalt principles to a wide range of questions. One of his most famous works, Die Grundlagen der psychischen Entwicklung, worked by applying the Gestalt viewpoint to child psychology. He worked heavily with the Gestalt principles and the schools of thought associated with said principles.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Edward Tolman was an American psychologist and a professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Through Tolman's theories and works, he founded what is now a branch of psychology known as purposive behaviorism. He was born on April 14, 1886, in West Newton, MA and he passed away on November 19, 1959. He also developed a system of psychology known as purposive, or molar, which attempts to explore the entire action of the total organism.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Louis Thurstone was born on May 29, 1887, in Chicago, IL and passed away on September 29, 1955. He was an American pioneer in the fields of psychometrics and psychophysics. He achieved a new measurement known as the law of comparative judgment, and is well known for his contributions to factor analysis. Overall he was a quantitative psychologist and past president of the American Psychological Association who is best known for advancing the methods of factor analysis, statistical methods used to explore latent factors underlying sets of observed variables.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Köhler was a german psychologist born in the late 1880s. He was a key figure in the development of Gestalt psychology. Köhler’s doctoral thesis with Carl Stumpf at the University of Berlin (1909) was an investigation of hearing. As director of the anthropoid research station of the Prussian Academy of Sciences at Tenerife, Canary Islands, Köhler conducted experiments on problem-solving by chimpanzees, revealing their ability to devise and use simple tools and build simple structures. In 1921 Köhler became head of the psychological institute and professor of philosophy at the University of Berlin, directing a series of investigations that explored many aspects of Gestalt theory and publishing Gestalt Psychology (1929).

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Nathaniel Kleitman was a psychologist born in Russia who then went to work as a professor at the University of Chicago. Kleitman was said to be one of the first psychologists to completely focus on sleep. Many say he put sleep on the map. One of his students discovered and reported the discovery of REM sleep and most of his studies were found in the psychoanalytic school of psychology.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Anna Freud CBE was a British psychoanalyst of Austrian-Jewish descent. She was born in Vienna, the sixth and youngest child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Freud was the founder of child psychoanalysis and one of its foremost practitioners. She also made fundamental contributions to understanding how the ego, or consciousness, functions in averting painful ideas, impulses, and feelings. She took part in the school of thought of psychoanalysis.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Swiss psychologist who was the first to make a systematic study of the acquisition of understanding in children. He is thought by many to have been the major figure in 20th-century developmental psychology. Piaget devised and administered reading tests to schoolchildren and became interested in the types of errors they made, leading him to explore the reasoning process in these young children. His interests included scientific thought, sociology, and experimental psychology. In more than 50 books and monographs over his long career, Piaget continued to develop the theme he had first discovered in Paris, that the mind of the child evolves through a series of set stages to adulthood. Piaget saw the child as constantly creating and re-creating his own model of reality, achieving mental growth by integrating simpler concepts into higher-level concepts at each stage. He argued for a “genetic epistemology,” a timetable established by nature for the development of the child’s ability to think, and he traced four stages in that development. Piaget’s concept of these developmental stages caused a reevaluation of older ideas of the child, of learning, and of education. If the development of certain thought processes was on a genetically determined timetable, simple reinforcement was not sufficient to teach concepts.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
David Wechsler was a Romanian-American psychologist. He developed well-known intelligence scales, known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. He was born January 12, 1896, in Lespezi, Romania and passed away May 2, 1981. His scale quickly became the most widely used adult intelligence test in the United States.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Whorf was an American linguist and fire prevention engineer. He is best known for his Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, the idea that differences between the structures of different languages shape how their speakers perceive and conceptualize the world. Worf was born on April 24, 1897,in Winthrop, MA and he passed away July 26, 1941.

-Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Gordon Allport was a pioneering psychologist often referred to as one of the founders of personality psychology. He rejected two of the dominant schools of thought in psychology at the time, psychoanalysis and behaviorism, in favor of his own approach that stressed the importance of individual differences and situational variables. Today, he is perhaps best remembered for his contributions to the trait theory of personality.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Joy Paul or JP Guilford was an American Psychologist born in Nevada in the late 1890s. He taught at the Universities of Kansas and was a practitioner of psychophysics which is the quantitative measurement of subjective psychological phenomena. His comprehensive, systematic theory of intellectual abilities, known as the structure of intellect, was outlined in The Nature of Human Intelligence (1967).

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
source: The University of Chicago Photographic Archives

# data[].attributes.body
Ralph Gerard was an American neurophysiologist and behavioral scientist known for his wide-ranging work on the nervous system, nerve metabolism, psychopharmacology, and biological basis of schizophrenia. Gerard studied chemistry and physiology. In chemistry, he was influenced by Julius Stieglitz and in physiology and neurophysiology he was influenced by Anton Carlson and Ralph Lillie. He received his B.S. degree in 1919, and a doctorate in physiology in 1921 at the University of Chicago.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Carl Rogers was an American psychologist. He was born on January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, IL. His date of passing away is February 4, 1987. He has been given credit to being one of the founders of humanistic psychology. He also had developed the person-centered, which was also known as client-centered, approach to psychotherapy and developed the concept of unconditional positive regard while pioneering the field of clinical psychological research.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst best known for his famous theory of psychosocial development and the concept of the identity crisis. His theories marked an important shift in thinking on personality; instead of focusing simply on early childhood events, his psychosocial theory looks at how social influences contribute to our personalities throughout our entire lifespans.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
B. F. Skinner was an American psychologist known for his impact on behaviorism. In a 2002 survey of psychologists, he was identified as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century. B. F. Skinner himself referred to his philosophy as "radical behaviorism." He suggested that the concept of free will was simply an illusion and, instead, believed that all human action was the direct result of conditioning. Skinner has many contributions to psychology—one of the most well-known being operant conditioning.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Raymond Cattell was an influential psychologist who developed new analytic techniques that allowed for more nuanced empirical measurements of the components of personality and intelligence. He is best known for his 16-factor personality model, developing the concept of fluid versus crystallized intelligence, and working with factor and multivariate analysis.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Harlow, born in Iowa in the early 1900s, studied at Reed College before transferring and graduating from Stanford in 1930. Harlow is incredibly well known for his cruel and controversial experiments on rhesus monkeys. Harlow was trying to learn about the effects of maternal separation and social isolation, but he was using baby monkeys. Harry Harlow is seen as one of the most influential and important psychologists in history, despite his morals and ethics as his research plays an extremely important role in the understanding of child development today. Harlow fell under the experimental school of psychology.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Maslow was an American psychologist and philosopher best known for his self-actualization theory of psychology, which argued that the primary goal of psychotherapy should be the integration of the self. Maslow studied psychology at the University of Wisconsin and Gestalt psychology at the New School for Social Research in New York City before joining the faculty of Brooklyn College in 1937. Maslow argued that each person has a hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied, ranging from basic physiological requirements to love, esteem, and, finally, self-actualization. As each need is satisfied, the next higher level in the emotional hierarchy dominates conscious functioning.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Roger Sperry studied the function of the nervous system and discovered that human beings are of two minds. He found that the human brain has specialized functions on the right and left, and that the two sides can operate practically independently. He performed experiments on cats, monkeys, and humans to study functional differences between the two hemispheres of the brain. To do so he studied the corpus callosum, which is a large bundle of neurons that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Mary Ainsworth was a Canadian developmental psychologist perhaps best known for her Strange Situation assessment and contributions to the area of attachment theory. Ainsworth elaborated on Bowlby's research on attachment and developed an approach to observing a child's attachment to a caregiver. Based on her research, she identified three major styles of attachment that children have to their parents or caregivers.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Hans Eysenck was a German-born British psychologist who studied a wide variety of psychological phenomena. He is best known for his work in the fields of intelligence and personality. His theory of personality focused on temperaments, which he believed were largely controlled by genetic influences. He utilized a statistical technique known as factor analysis to identify what he believed were the two primary dimensions of personality: extraversion and neuroticism. He later added a third dimension known as psychoticism.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Julian Rotter was an American psychologist known for developing social learning theory and research into locus of control. He was a faculty member at Ohio State University and then the University of Connecticut. He was born on October 22, 1916 in Brooklyn, NY and passed away on January 6, 2014. Rotter contributed to the world of psychology by forming a theory called social learning theory, which he used to try to explain motive and behavior.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
American psychologist who was one of the founders of cognitive psychology and of cognitive neuroscience. He also made significant contributions to psycholinguistics and the study of human communication. After initially adopting the behavioristic framework that dominated experimental psychology in the United States from the 1920s through the 1950s, Miller came to find it too limiting. Miller proposed as a law of human cognition and information processing that humans can effectively process no more than seven units, or chunks, of information, plus or minus two pieces of information, at any given time.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
When REM sleep was discovered in 1953, sleep pioneer Eugene Aserinsky was a graduate student at the University of Chicago. His father was a dentist of Russian and Jewish ancestry. After spending hours observing sleeping participants' eyelids, he discovered the finding. Aserinsky was part of the Biopsychology school of thought.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Stanley Schachter was born on April 15, 1922 in Flushing, NY, and passed away on June 7, 1997. He was an American social psychologist. He was best known for his development of the two factor theory of emotion in 1962 with his partner Jerome E. Singer. In his theory he claimed that emotions have two ingredients: physiological arousal and a cognitive label. One of his most important contributions to psychology was his training of graduate students.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
James Olds was born in Illinois in 1922, but he grew up in New York. He did three years of military service before going to finish his B.A. at Amherst College. Olds worked with many psychologists throughout his life such as Richard Soloman and Talcott Parsons but Olds himself has been seen by one of the most important psychologists of the twentieth century. Once he got his Ph.D. Olds started working heavily in neuroscience and he eventually made reward a real researchable thing.

- Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
American Psychologist born in the early 1920s in New York. Lazarus graduated from the City College of New York in 1942. He completed his doctorate in 1948 at the University of Pittsburgh, following which he served on the faculties of Johns Hopkins University (from 1948 to 1953) and Clark University (from 1953 to 1957), joining the faculty at Berkeley in 1957. In his theoretical approach to stress and emotion, Professor Lazarus proposed that emotions, far from being intrapsychic feelings, reflected the fate of one’s goals. Professor Lazarus began a rich and impactful series of investigations typically using motion picture films to arouse stress and emotion, and instructional sets designed to bring into play ego defense mechanisms to change the manner by which the film affected the viewer, both subjectively and psychophysiologically. By documenting how ego defenses such as denial and intellectualization changed the way that participants evaluated the meaning of film events, lowering or raising levels of stress, this celebrated line of work effectively demonstrated the power of appraisal to influence a person’s emotions, as well as their means of coping with emotional stress. After his retirement in 1990, Professor Lazarus published five additional innovative books, as well as numerous chapters and articles.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Rosalind Cartwright was a neuroscientist and a Professor Emerita in the Department of Psychology and in the Neuroscience Division of the Graduate College, Rush University. She was known to her peers as "Queen of Dreams". In 2004 she was named Distinguished Scientist of the Year by the Sleep Research Society.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Izard was an American born psychologist and was famous for his work on emotional competence. He worked with other researchers to emphasize the role of emotions in adaptation and his theorizing and research provided a foundation for increasing interest in emotion functioning. Many things caught his eye, but the two that he liked the most were “emotion knowledge” and “emotion utilization.” Izard defines emotion knowledge as the “accurate understanding of the expressions, feelings, and functions of discrete emotions.”

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Albert Bandura OC was a Canadian-American psychologist who was the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. Social learning theory and the idea of self-efficacy were created by Bandura, and they have had a significant impact on social, cognitive, developmental, educational, and clinical psychology. Jan 1, 2016. He was part of the cognitive school of thought.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Donald Broadbent, often considered one of the founders of cognitive psychology, was best known for his experimental and theoretical work on attention and short-term memory. His “filter theory” of attention accounted for a wide range of phenomena, particularly in the auditory domain, and served to reawaken interest in the relation between attention and perception. His most influential work, Perception and Communication (1958), also served as a model of the scientific method for the new orientation in psychology.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, a swiss-american psychologist born in Switzerland in the mid 1920s. In 1962, after the birth of their first child, Kübler-Ross and her husband left New York for new jobs at Denver's University of Colorado School of Medicine. In her first book, On Death and Dying (1969), she described five stages she believed were experienced by those nearing death—denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. She found that many health professionals preferred to avoid discussing death with them, leaving patients facing death alone. Medical schools preferred to focus on patients' recovery rather than their death. Kübler-Ross was forced to end her seminars but continued her work with dying patients. The success of her first book prompted her to devote her clinical practice to dying patients.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Kohlberg was an American psychologist born during the mid 1920s in New York. The youngest of 4 children that went to live with their mother when their parents divorced. Kohlberg graduated from Phillips Academy in 1945.  Later he gained a Ph.D. from the university of Chicago. Later he became interested in Jean Piaget’s work on the moral development of children. Similarly to Piaget, Kohlberg made a system with 6 stages to explain an aspect of child development, those stages are: In stages 1 and 2, which he called preconventional, the child conceives of right acts as those that enable him to avoid punishment (stage 1) or to make a good or fair deal (stage 2). In the conventional stages, 3 and 4, right acts are those that gain the approval of others (stage 3) or that consist of doing one’s duty or following society’s rules (stage 4). Finally, in the postconventional stages, 5 and 6, the child is guided by respect for laws and moral rules (stage 5)—though he recognizes them as somewhat arbitrary and not always valid—or by abstract ethical principles such as justice and equality (stage 6). According to Kohlberg, stage 6 is only rarely achieved.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Torsten Wiesel studied visual information processing and development in the US during the twentieth century and was associated with the school of thought called psychoanalysis. He received a total of twenty scientific awards throughout his career, including his Nobel Prize in 1981 for his discovery of the critical period in visual system development as well as research on visual information processing by the visual cortex of the brain.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
William Charles Dement is an American sleep researcher and founder of the Center for Sleep Research at Stanford University. He was a leading authority on the diagnosis and treatment of sleep, sleep deprivation, and sleep disorders such as sleep apnea and narcolepsy. He discovered that abnormal REM sleep was a symptom of narcolepsy. This discovery later led to the development of the Multiplex Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) as the standard diagnostic tool for narcolepsy. Dement was part of the Biological school of thought.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Noam Chomsky is an American theoretical linguist whose work from the 1950s revolutionized the field of linguistics by treating language as a uniquely human, biologically based cognitive capacity. Through his contributions to linguistics and related fields, including cognitive psychology and the philosophies of mind and language, Chomsky helped to initiate and sustain what came to be known as the “cognitive revolution.”

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
American psychologist best known for his groundbreaking study on delayed gratification known as “the marshmallow test.” Although he initially enrolled in premedical course work, Mischel redirected his focus toward psychology and earned a bachelor’s degree in 1951. Specializing in clinical psychology, he earned a master’s degree from the City College of New York (1953) and a Ph.D. from the Ohio State University (1956). The experimenter seated preschool-age children alone at a table with a desired treat such as a marshmallow and, before exiting the room, presented them with a choice: either (1) to ring a bell to call the researcher back and, upon his return, consume the single marshmallow or (2) to wait until the researcher’s voluntary return and be rewarded with not one but two marshmallows.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Gordon Bower was a cognitive psychologist studying human memory, language comprehension, emotion, and behavior modification. He received his Ph.D. in learning theory from Yale University in 1959. He held the A. R. Lang Emeritus Professorship at Stanford University. He was voted number 42 in the list of most notable psychologists of the 20th century, published by the Review of General Psychology. He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 2005.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Allan Wagner was an American experimental psychologist and learning theorist, whose work focused upon the basic determinants of associative learning and habituation. He co-authored the influential Rescorla–Wagner model of Pavlovian conditioning (1972) as well as the Standard Operating Procedures or "Sometimes Opponent Process" (SOP) theory of associative learning (1981), the Affective Extension of SOP (AESOP, 1989) and the Replaced Elements Model (REM) of configural representation (2001, 2008).

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Paul Ekman is an American psychologist and professor emeritus at the University of California, San Francisco who is a pioneer in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions. He was ranked 59th out of the 100 most cited psychologists of the twentieth century. Ekman conducted seminal research on the specific biological correlations of specific emotions, attempting to demonstrate the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Michael S. Gazzaniga is a professor of psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara in the USA, where he heads the new SAGE Center for the Study of the Mind. He is one of the leading researchers in cognitive neuroscience, studying the neural basis of the mind. Gazzaniga has led pioneering studies in learning and understanding split-brained patients and how their brains work. He has performed numerous studies and done immense amounts of research on split-brain patients to provide a higher quality understanding of the lives of those affected by this rare phenomenon. His school of psychology was cognitive.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Robert Rescorla was born and raised in  Philadelphia, PA. He was an American psychologist that was a specialist  in the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning while focusing on animal learning and behavior. He was born on May 9, 1940 and passed away on March 24, 2020. One of Rescorla's significant contributions to psychology, with Allan Wagner as his partner, was the Rescorla-Wagner Model of conditioning. This model expanded knowledge on learning processes. Rescorla also continued to develop research on Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental training.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
An American psychologist and professor best known for his work on human motivation. David Clarence McClelland was born on May 20,1917, in Mount Vernon, New York. He spent most of his childhood in Jacksonville, Illinois. McClelland initially planned on becoming a language teacher and spent a year studying foreign languages at MacMurray College in Jacksonville. As part of his studies, he wrote a play in Latin and translated poems written by Emily Dickinson into German. In  1956, he joined the faculty at Harvard University as a full-time Professor of Psychology, a post which he held for 30 years. Building on the work of Henry Murray, McClelland proposed that human motivation arises from three distinct needs: the Need for Achievement (N-Ach), the Need for Affiliation (N-Aff), and the Need for Power (N-Pow). McClelland believed that all three needs (or motives) are learned and that all individuals possess a measure of each.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Martin Seligman is an American psychologist, educator, and author of self-help books. Seligman strongly promoted his theories of positive psychology and well being within the scientific community. His theory of learned helplessness is popular among scientific and clinical psychologists. He was born in 1942, in Albany, NY and still lives. He is a leading authority in the fields of Positive Psychology, resilience, learned helplessness, depression, optimism and pessimism. He also gets recognized as an authority on interventions that prevent depression, and build strengths and well-being. He has written more than 350 scholarly publications and 30 books.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Howard Gardner is a developmental psychologist best known for his theory of multiple intelligences, as outlined in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. He believed that the conventional concept of intelligence was too narrow and restrictive and that measures of IQ often miss out on other "intelligences" that an individual may possess.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
American Psychologist and Judge born in the mid 1940s. Loftus studies human memory. Her experiments reveal how memories can be changed by things that we are told. Loftus' work has made a huge contribution to psychology and opened a unique and controversial aspect of psychology and memory. She began her research with investigations of how the mind classifies and remembers information. In the 1970s, she began to reevaluate the direction of her research. In 1974, her research thrust her into the courtroom to testify in over 200 trials as an expert witness on the unreliability of eyewitness testimonies based on false memories, which she believed to be triggered, suggested, implanted, or created in the mind.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Daniel Goleman is an author, psychologist, and science journalist. For twelve years, he wrote for The New York Times, reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. His 1995 book Emotional Intelligence was on The New York Times Best Seller list for a year and a half. Apart from his books on emotional intelligence, Goleman has written books on topics including self-deception, creativity, transparency, meditation, social and emotional learning, ecoliteracy and the ecological crisis, and the Dalai Lama’s vision for the future.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
Robert Sternberg was born in the year 1949 in Newark, NJ and he still lives today. He is an American psychologist and psychometrician. He is currently the Professor of Human Development at Cornell University. Sternberg has a BA from Yale University and a PhD from Stanford University. He has been given credit for developing a testing instrument to identify people who are gifted in ways that other tests don't identify. The Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test measures not only traditional intelligence abilities but analytic, synthetic, automatization and practical abilities as well.

- Vicky F.

# data[].attributes.body
Ramachandran first pursued studies in medicine. He attended medical school in Madras, India, and Bangkok, Thailand, and obtained his doctorate at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was mainly associated with the school of behaviorism. His major areas of research are cognitive neuroscience, behavioral neurology - the study of cognitive and perceptual deficits in human neurological patients, neural plasticity and "phantom limbs", stroke rehabilitation, human visual perception/cognition, and visual psychophysics.

- Kenenna A.

# data[].attributes.body
American research team noted for their studies of human sexuality. Their most-influential findings were summarized in the book Human Sexual Response (1966), which was considered by many to be the first comprehensive study of the physiology and anatomy of human sexual activity under laboratory conditions—much of it the result of actual research observation of individuals engaged in sexually stimulating activity alone or with a partner. On the basis of their observations, they identified four distinct stages of sexual arousal (excitement, plateau, orgasmic, and resolution), described arousal- and 🤬-related changes in vaginal and uterine tissues, and determined that women are capable of having multiple orgasms. Their clients typically were couples dealing with problems of sexual dysfunction or sexual performance. The therapeutic process provided at the clinic was intensive and short-term, with a mix of psychotherapy, cognitive therapy, and sex education.

-Jake E.

# data[].attributes.body
Alan Washburn is an American psychologist and professor emeritus of psychology and neuroscience at Georgia State University. From the years 2001 to 2019, he also served as the Director of the Georgia State University Language Research Center. He was born on December 1, 1957, in Providence, Rhode Island and passed away in October 6, 2020. He is best known for his noninvasive behavioral and cognitive research with monkeys, where he was using game-like computerized tasks. He did computer-based testing of human and nonhuman primates using game-like tasks.

- Vicky F.