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A Greek physician, zoologist and microscopist who was a pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detection, and inventor of the "Pap smear".

He first reported that uterine cancer cells could be detected in vaginal smears in 1928, but his work was not widely recognized until the 1940s.

In 1961, he was invited to the University of Miami to lead and develop the Papanicolaou Cancer Research Institute there.

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Pingala - Indian mathematician from 4 BC

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Pingala - Indian mathematician from 4 BC

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My favorite story is about Pingala who discovered binary number systems 400 years BC in India. This is what computing relies on and it has so much relevance to our lives today.

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Chien-Shiung Wu, (born May 29, 1912, Liuhe, Jiangsu province, China-died Feb. 16, 1997, New York, N.Y., U.S.), Chinese-born American physicist who provided the first experimental proof that the principle of parity conservation does not hold in weak subatomic interactions.

Wu graduated from the National Central University in Nanking, China, in 1936 and then traveled to the United States to pursue graduate studies in physics at the University of California at Berkeley, studying under Ernest O. Lawrence. After receiving a Ph.D. in 1940, she taught at Smith College and at Princeton University. In 1944 she undertook work on radiation detection in the Division of War Research at Columbia University. Remaining on the university staff at Columbia after the war, she became Dupin professor of physics there in 1957.

In 1956 Tsung-Dao Lee of Columbia and Chen Ning Yang of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey, proposed that parity is not conserved for weak nuclear interactions. With a group of scientists from the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., Wu that year tested the proposal by observing the beta particles given off by cobalt-60. Wu observed that there is a preferred direction of emission and that, therefore, parity is not conserved for this weak interaction. She announced her results in 1957. The success of this and similar additional experiments brought worldwide acclaim not only to Wu but also to Lee and Yang, who won the 1957 Nobel Prize for Physics for their work. In 1958 Richard P. Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann proposed the conservation of vector current in nuclear beta decay. This theory was experimentally confirmed in 1963 by Wu in collaboration with two other Columbia University research physicists. She later investigated the structure of hemoglobin.

Wu, who received the National Medal of Science in 1975 and served as president of the American Physical Society that year as well, was considered one of the premier experimental physicists in the world. She retired from her professorship at Columbia in 1981.

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...led by the Chinese-born physicist Chien-Shiung Wu announced conclusive experimental proof that the electrons ejected along with antineutrinos from certain unstable cobalt nuclei in the process of beta decay, a weak interaction, are predominantly left-handed-that is to say, the spin rotation of the electrons is that of a left-handed screw....

...their hypothesis, and in 1956-57 Chien-Shiung Wu, working at Columbia University, experimentally confirmed their theoretical conclusions. ( See also CP violation.)...

Weak interaction, a fundamental force of nature that underlies some forms of radioactivity, governs the decay of unstable subatomic particles such as mesons, and initiates the nuclear fusion reaction that fuels the Sun. The weak interaction acts upon left-handed fermions-i.e., elementary particles...

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Chien-Shiung Wu | Chinese-American physicist

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Chien-Shiung Wu, Chinese-born American physicist who provided the first experimental proof that the principle of parity conservation does not hold in weak subatomic interactions. Wu graduated from the National Central University in Nanking, China, in 1936 and then traveled to the United States to

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A scientist who works in the fields of space launch, air breathing propulsion and chemical and power industries.

He is known for contributing to several aerospace companies.

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Chandrashekhar Ganpatrao Sonwane (born May 2, 1972) is an Indian American scientist who works in the fields of space launch, air breathing propulsion and chemical and power industries. Sonwane is known for contributing to several aerospace companies including Aerojet Rocketdyne, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne and supported various NASA's deep space programs including Artemis 1 (Space Launch System).

He was Elected as a Fellow of Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS) and also an elected member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts.

Sonwane was the principal investigator at Masten Space Systems for NASA Lunar lander related technologies.

Sonwane graduated with a Bachelor of Science in chemical engineering from the Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai. In 1996, he received Master of Science in chemical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India. He completed a PhD in chemical engineering from the University of Queensland in 2000.

Chandrashkhar has various patents and publications to his credit. Below is the list of few.

Injector mixer for a compact gasification reactor system, March 2018, Gas Technology Institute, Inventors: Chandrashekhar Sonwane, Kenneth M. Sprouse

Gas generator and process therefor, April 2016, Aerojet Rocketdyne, Inventors: Stephen Yows, Chandrashekhar Sonwane

Flow splitter for a compact gasification reactor system, May 2011, Aerojet Rocketdyne, Inventors: Chandrashekhar Sonwane, Kenneth M. Sprouse

Recuperative supercritical carbon dioxide cycle, December 2011, Aerojet Rocketdyne, Inventors: Chandrashekhar Sonwane, Kenneth M. Sprouse, Ganesan Subbaraman, George M. O'Connor, Gregory A. Johnson

Pump apparatus including deconsolidator, July 2012, Aerojet Rocketdyne, Inventors: Chandrashekhar Sonwane, Timothy Saunders, Mark Andrew Fitzsimmons

Fundamental Studies in Nanoporpous and Mesoporous Materials, 2000, The University of Queensland[7]

Sonwane with RNASA Stellar award in 2022

2020 Stellar Award - Rotary National Award for Space Achievement[8]

Outstanding Section award for very large first place Los Angeles-Las Vegas[9]

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Chandrashekhar Ganpatrao Sonwane (born May 2, 1972) is an Indian American scientist who works in the fields of space launch, air breathing propulsion and chemical and power industries. Sonwane is known for contributing to several aerospace companies including Aerojet Rocketdyne, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne and supported various NASA's deep space programs including Artemis 1 (Space Launch System).

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60 Years in Print

Silent Spring

Perhaps the finest nature writer of the Twentieth Century, Rachel Carson (1907-1964) is remembered more today as the woman who challenged the notion that humans could obtain mastery over nature by chemicals, bombs and space travel than for her studies of ocean life. Her sensational book Silent Spring (1962) warned of the dangers to all natural systems from the misuse of chemical pesticides such as DDT, and questioned the scope and direction of modern science, initiated the contemporary environmental movement.

Welcome to our website dedicated to the environmental teachings of Rachel Carson! Through my journey of writing and publishing the biography "Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature," I have delved deeply into the life and work of this incredible individual.

​Explore the life and work of Rachel Carson, one of the 20th century's most influential voices in literature and environmentalism. This website, based on the biography Witness for Nature, aims to educate readers about Carson's life, legacy, and the impact of her revolutionary text, Silent Spring.

Carson was a student of nature, a born ecologist before that science was defined, and a writer who found that the natural world gave her something to write about. Born in Springdale, Pennsylvania, upstream from the industrial behemoth of Pittsburgh, she became a marine scientist working for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Washington, DC, primarily as a writer and editor. She was always aware of the impact that humans had on the natural world. Her first book, Under the Sea-Wind (1941) was a gripping account of the interactions of a sea bird, a fish and an eel -- who shared life in the open seas. A canny scholar working in government during World War II, Carson took advantage of the latest scientific material for her next book, The Sea Around Us (1951) which was nothing short of a biography of the sea. It became an international best-seller, raised the consciousness of a generation, and made Rachel Carson the trusted public voice of science in America. The Edge of the Sea (1955) brought Carson's focus on the ecosystems of the eastern coast from Maine to Florida. All three books were physical explanations of life, all drenched with miracle of what happens to life in and near the sea.

In her books on the sea Carson wrote about geologic discoveries from submarine technology and underwater research -- of how islands were formed, how currents change and merge, how temperature affects sea life, and how erosion impacts not just shore lines but salinity, fish populations, and tiny micro-organisms. Even in the 1950's, Carson's ecological vision of the oceans shows her embrace of a larger environmental ethic which could lead to the sustainability of nature's interactive and interdependent systems. Climate change, rising sea-levels, melting Arctic glaciers, collapsing bird and animal populations, crumbling geological faults -- all are part of Carson's work. But how, she wondered, would the educated public be kept informed of these challenges to life itself? What was the public's "right to know"?

In her books on the sea Carson wrote about geologic discoveries from submarine technology and underwater research -- of how islands were formed, how currents change and merge, how temperature affects sea life, and how erosion impacts not just shore lines but salinity, fish populations, and tiny micro-organisms. Even in the 1950's, Carson's ecological vision of the oceans shows her embrace of a larger environmental ethic which could lead to the sustainability of nature's interactive and interdependent systems. Climate change, rising sea-levels, melting Arctic glaciers, collapsing bird and animal populations, crumbling geological faults -- all are part of Carson's work. But how, she wondered, would the educated public be kept informed of these challenges to life itself? What was the public's "right to know"?

Evidence of the widespread misuse of organic chemical pesticides government and industry after World War II prompted Carson to reluctantly speak out not just about the immediate threat to humans and non-human nature from unwitting chemical exposure, but also to question government and private science's assumption that human domination of nature was the correct course for the future. In Silent Spring Carson asked the hard questions about whether and why humans had the right to control nature; to decide who lives or dies, to poison or to destroy non-human life. In showing that all biological systems were dynamic and by urging the public to question authority, to ask "who speaks, and why"? Rachel Carson became a social revolutionary, and Silent Spring became the handbook for the future of all life on Earth.

Welcome to our special collection of pages dedicated to the life of Rachel Carson, an inspiring pioneer in the world of environmental science and conservation.

Journey through her remarkable life, from her early love for nature and writing to her groundbreaking research and advocacy that shaped the modern environmental movement.

Discover the enduring legacy of Rachel Carson, a pioneering environmentalist and author of the groundbreaking book, "Silent Spring." Explore how her courageous work ignited a global environmental movement, inspired generations of eco-activists, and led to significant policy changes that continue to shape our world today.

​Our comprehensive collection of resources will help you explore her groundbreaking research, literary works, and the numerous topics related to her life's work. Gain a deeper understanding of Carson's passion for the environment and her relentless pursuit of the truth, which ultimately led to a worldwide environmental movement. Join us in celebrating her remarkable contributions and learn how her legacy continues to inspire and shape our understanding of the natural world.

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RachelCarson.org - Perhaps the finest nature writer of the Twentieth Century, Rachel Carson (1907-1964) is remembered more today as the woman who challenged the notion that humans could obtain mastery over nature by chemicals, bombs and space travel than for her studies of ocean life.

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Ibn al-Haytham (born c. 965, Basra, Iraq—died c. 1040, Cairo, Egypt) was a mathematician and astronomer who made significant contributions to the principles of optics and the use of scientific experiments.

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Arab astronomer and mathematician

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Arab astronomer and mathematician

Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen, in full, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham, (born c. 965, Basra, Iraq-died c. 1040, Cairo, Egypt), mathematician and astronomer who made significant contributions to the principles of optics and the use of scientific experiments.

Life

Conflicting stories are told about the life of Ibn al-Haytham, particularly concerning his scheme to regulate the Nile. In one version, told by the historian Ibn al-Qifṭī (d. 1248), Ibn al-Haytham was invited by al-Ḥākim (reigned 996-1021; also known as "The Mad Caliph") to Egypt to demonstrate his claim that he could regulate the Nile. However, after personally reconnoitering near the southern border of Egypt, Ibn al-Haytham confessed his inability to engineer such a project. Although still given an official position by the caliph, Ibn al-Haytham began to fear for his life, so he feigned madness and was confined to his own home until the end of al-Ḥākim's caliphate. Ibn al-Qifṭī also reports that Ibn al-Haytham then earned a living in Egypt largely by copying manuscripts; in fact, he claimed to possess a manuscript in Ibn al-Haytham's handwriting from 1040.

There are three lists of Ibn al-Haytham's writings, the first of which comes with his autobiography (1027), that collectively enumerate almost 100 works. It has recently been plausibly argued that there were two Ibn al-Haythams: al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan, the mathematician who wrote on optics, and Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan, the astronomer-philosopher who wrote the autobiography and the works in the first and second lists.

Major works

Ibn al-Haytham's most important work is Kitāb al-manāẓir ("Optics"). Although it shows some influence from Ptolemy's 2nd century ad Optics, it contains the correct model of vision: the passive reception by the eyes of light rays reflected from objects, not an active emanation of light rays from the eyes. It combines experiment with mathematical reasoning, even if it is generally used for validation rather than discovery. The work contains a complete formulation of the laws of reflection and a detailed investigation of refraction, including experiments involving angles of incidence and deviation. Refraction is correctly explained by light's moving slower in denser mediums. The work also contains "Alhazen's problem"-to determine the point of reflection from a plane or curved surface, given the centre of the eye and the observed point-which is stated and solved by means of conic sections. Other optical works include Ḍawʾ al-qamar ("On the Light of the Moon"), al-Hāla wa-qaws quzaḥ ("On the Halo and the Rainbow"), Ṣūrat al-kusūf ("On the Shape of the Eclipse"; which includes a discussion of the camera obscura), and al-Ḍawʾ ("A Discourse on Light").

In his Ḥall shukūk fī Kitāb Uqlīdis ("Solution of the Difficulties of Euclid's Elements") Ibn al-Haytham investigated particular cases of Euclid's theorems, offered alternative constructions, and replaced some indirect proofs with direct proofs. He made an extended study of parallel lines in Sharḥ muṣādarāt Kitāb Uqlīdis ("Commentary on the Premises of Euclid's Elements") and based his treatment of parallels on equidistant lines rather than Euclid's definition of lines that never meet. His Maqāla fī tamām Kitāb al-Makhrūṭāt ("Completion of the Conics") is an attempt to reconstruct the lost eighth book of Apollonius's Conics (c. 200 bc). Among his other mathematical works are treatises on the area of crescent-shaped figures and on the volume of a paraboloid of revolution (formed by rotating a parabola about its axis).

Ibn al-Haytham's most famous astronomical work is Hayʾat al-ʿālam ("On the Configuration of the World"), in which he presents a nontechnical description of how the abstract mathematical models of Ptolemy's Almagest can be understood according to the natural philosophy of his time. While this early work implicitly accepts Ptolemy's models, a later work, al-Shukūk ʿalā Baṭlamyūs ("Doubts about Ptolemy"), criticizes the Almagest, along with Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses and Optics.

Influence

Ibn al-Haytham's greatest work, "Optics," appears to have been neglected in the East until the commentary on it by the mathematician Kamāl al-Dīn Abuʾl Ḥasan Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Fārisī (d. 1320). A Latin translation of it-sometimes literal and sometimes interpretative-was made by an unknown scholar, probably early in the 13th century. The work had a major influence not only on 13th-century thinkers such as Roger Bacon but also on later scientists such as the astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). There were several Latin translations of the "Configuration of the World," a book which influenced Georg Peuerbach (1423-61) among others. Among the Latin translations of Ibn al-Haytham's works by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114-87) is a treatise on dawn and twilight, Liber de crepusculis, that is no longer attributed to Ibn al-Haytham.

Richard Lorch

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Ibn al-Haytham | Arab astronomer and mathematician

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Ibn al-Haytham, mathematician and astronomer who made significant contributions to the principles of optics and the use of scientific experiments. Conflicting stories are told about the life of Ibn al-Haytham, particularly concerning his scheme to regulate the Nile. In one version, told by the

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Nettie Stevens, in full Nettie Maria Stevens, (born July 7, 1861, Cavendish, Vermont, U.S.-died May 4, 1912, Baltimore, Maryland), American biologist and geneticist who was one of the first scientists to find that sex is determined by a particular configuration of chromosomes.

Stevens's early life is somewhat obscure, although it is known that she taught school and attended the State Normal School (now Westfield State College) in Westfield, Massachusetts, in 1881-83. In 1896 she entered Stanford University, earning a B.A. in 1899 and an M.A. in 1900. She began doctoral studies in biology at Bryn Mawr College, which included a year of study (1901-02) at the Zoological Station in Naples, Italy, and at the Zoological Institute of the University of Würzburg, Germany. She received a Ph.D. from Bryn Mawr in 1903 and remained at the college as a research fellow in biology for a year, as reader in experimental morphology for another year, and as associate in experimental morphology from 1905 until her death.

Stevens's earliest field of research was the morphology and taxonomy of the ciliate protozoa; her first published paper, in 1901, had dealt with such a protozoan. She soon turned to cytology and the regenerative process. One of her major papers in that field was written in 1904 with zoologist and geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan, who in 1933 would win the Nobel Prize for his work. Her investigations into regeneration led her to a study of differentiation in embryos and then to a study of chromosomes. In 1905, after experiments with the yellow mealworm ( Tenebrio molitor), she published a paper in which she announced her finding that a particular combination of the chromosomes known as X and Y was responsible for the determination of the sex of an individual.

This discovery, also announced independently that year by Edmund Beecher Wilson of Columbia University, not only ended the long-standing debate over whether sex was a matter of heredity or embryonic environmental influence but also was the first firm link between a heritable characteristic and a particular chromosome. Stevens continued her research on the chromosome makeup of various insects, discovering supernumerary chromosomes in certain insects and the paired state of chromosomes in flies and mosquitoes.

Adam Augustyn.

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Nettie Stevens | American biologist and geneticist

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Nettie Stevens, American biologist and geneticist who was one of the first scientists to find that sex is determined by a particular configuration of chromosomes. Stevens's early life is somewhat obscure, although it is known that she taught school and attended the State Normal School (now

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An Israeli electro-optical engineer and the inventor of wireless capsule endoscopy.

After working on the idea for almost twenty years, he successfully created a prototype in 1998 – a disposable pill-sized camera that passes straight through the digestive tract, continuously broadcasting to an external receiver.

Iddan's invention was approved by the FDA in 2001. In 2011 he became a European Inventor Award nominee.

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An architect, artist and designer, recognized as a major figure in architecture of the late-20th and early-21st centuries.

She was the first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize, in 2004.

She received the UK's most prestigious architectural award, the Stirling Prize, in 2010 and 2011.

In 2012, she was made a Dame by Elizabeth II for services to architecture, and, in February 2016, she became the first woman to be individually awarded the Royal Gold Medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects.

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Dame Zaha Mohammad Hadid ( Arabic: زها حديد Zahā Ḥadīd; 31 October 1950 - 31 March 2016) was a British-Iraqi architect, artist and designer, recognised as a major figure in architecture of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Born in Baghdad, Iraq, Hadid studied mathematics as an undergraduate and then enrolled at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in 1972. In search of an alternative system to traditional architectural drawing, and influenced by Suprematism and the Russian avant-garde, Hadid adopted painting as a design tool and abstraction as an investigative principle to "reinvestigate the aborted and untested experiments of Modernism [...] to unveil new fields of building."

She was described by The Guardian as the "Queen of the curve", who "liberated architectural geometry, giving it a whole new expressive identity". Her major works include the London Aquatics Centre for the 2012 Olympics, the Broad Art Museum, Rome's MAXXI Museum, and the Guangzhou Opera House. Some of her awards have been presented posthumously, including the statuette for the 2017 Brit Awards. Several of her buildings were still under construction at the time of her death, including the Daxing International Airport in Beijing, and the Al Wakrah Stadium in Qatar, a venue for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.

Hadid was the first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize, in 2004. She received the UK's most prestigious architectural award, the Stirling Prize, in 2010 and 2011. In 2012, she was made a Dame by Elizabeth II for services to architecture, and in February, 2016, the month preceding her death, she became the first woman to be individually awarded the Royal Gold Medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects ( Ray Eames and Sheila O'Donnell had previously been awarded it jointly with Charles Eames and John Tuomey respectively).

Zaha Hadid was born on 31 October 1950 in Baghdad, Iraq, to an upper class Iraqi family. Her father, Muhammad al-Hajj Husayn Hadid, was a wealthy industrialist from Mosul. He co-founded the left-liberal al-Ahali group in 1932, a significant political organisation in the 1930s and 1940s. He was the co-founder of the National Democratic Party in Iraq and served as minister of finance after the overthrow of the monarch after the 1958 Iraqi coup d'état for the government of General Abd al-Karim Qasim. Her mother, Wajiha al-Sabunji, was an artist from Mosul while her brother Foulath Hadid was a writer, accountant and expert on Arab affairs. Hadid once mentioned in an interview how her early childhood trips to the ancient Sumerian cities in southern Iraq sparked her interest in architecture. In the 1960s Hadid attended boarding schools in England and Switzerland. Hadid was unmarried with no children.

Hadid studied mathematics at the American University of Beirut before moving, in 1972, to London to study at the Architectural Association School of Architecture. There she studied with Rem Koolhaas, Elia Zenghelis and Bernard Tschumi. Her former professor, Koolhaas, described her at graduation as "a planet in her own orbit." Zenghelis described her as the most outstanding pupil he ever taught. 'We called her the inventor of the 89 degrees. Nothing was ever at 90 degrees. She had spectacular vision. All the buildings were exploding into tiny little pieces." He recalled that she was less interested in details, such as staircases. "The way she drew a staircase you would smash your head against the ceiling, and the space was reducing and reducing, and you would end up in the upper corner of the ceiling. She couldn't care about tiny details. Her mind was on the broader pictures-when it came to the joinery she knew we could fix that later. She was right.' Her AA graduation thesis, Malevich's Tektonik, was a concept and design for a 14-level hotel on London's Hungerford Bridge executed as an acrylic painting, inspired by the works of the Russian suprematist artist Kazimir Malevich.

After graduation in 1977, she went to work for her former professors, Koolhaas and Zenghelis, at the Office for Metropolitan Architecture, in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Through her association with Koolhaas, she met the architectural engineer Peter Rice, who gave her support and encouragement during the early stages of her career. Hadid became a naturalised citizen of the United Kingdom. She opened her own architectural firm, Zaha Hadid Architects, in London in 1980. During the early 1980s Hadid's style introduced audiences to a new modern architecture style through her extremely detailed and professional sketches. At the time people were focused on postmodernism designs, so her designs were a different approach to architecture that set her apart from other designers.

She then began her career teaching architecture, first at the Architectural Association, then, over the years at Harvard Graduate School of Design, Cambridge University, the University of Chicago, the Hochschule für bildende Künste in Hamburg, the University of Illinois at Chicago, and Columbia University. She earned her early reputation with her lecturing and colourful and radical early designs and projects, which were widely published in architectural journals but remained largely unbuilt. Her ambitious but unbuilt projects included a plan for Peak in Hong Kong (1983), and a plan for an opera house in Cardiff, Wales, (1994). The Cardiff experience was particularly discouraging; her design was chosen as the best by the competition jury, but the Welsh government refused to pay for it, and the commission was given to a different and less ambitious architect. Her reputation in this period rested largely upon her teaching and the imaginative and colourful paintings she made of her proposed buildings. Her international reputation was greatly enhanced in 1988 when she was chosen to show her drawings and paintings as one of seven architects chosen to participate in the exhibition "Deconstructivism in Architecture" curated by Philip Johnson and Mark Wigley at New York's Museum of Modern Art. This, a conference at the Tate in London and press coverage of her work began to not only get her name out into the architecture world, but allowed people to associate a particular style of architecture with Hadid.

One of her first clients was Rolf Fehlbaum the president-director general of the Swiss furniture firm Vitra, and later, from 2004 to 2010, a member of the jury for the prestigious Pritzker Architecture Prize. In 1989, Fehlbaum had invited Frank Gehry, then little-known, to build a design museum at the Vitra factory in Weil-am-Rhein. In 1993, he invited Hadid to design a small fire station for the factory. Her radical design, made of raw concrete and glass, was a sculptural work composed of sharp diagonal forms colliding together in the centre. The design plans appeared in architecture magazines before construction. When completed, it only served as a fire station for a short period of time, as Weil am Rhein soon opened their own fire station. It became an exhibit space instead, and is now on display with the works of Gehry and other well-known architects. It was the launching pad of her architectural career.

In 1994, Hadid was commissioned by the city of Vienna to design and construct a three-part scheme for the urban redevelopment of an area adjacent to the Danube Canal. Situated along the Spittelauer Lände, the series of buildings interact with and cross over the railway viaduct by Viennese Modernist architect Otto Wagner, a protected structure. In its initial design consisting of five buildings, the mixed-use scheme, described as a "sculpture-like overbuilding" of the historic Stadtbahn railway, was designed by Hadid's practice ZHA. Hadid, together with British architectural artist Brian Clarke, developed an unexecuted collaborative proposal for the project that incorporated integral artworks by Clarke as part of the Neo-Futurist structures, with interrelated glass mosaic and traditionally-leaded stained glass forming part of the cladding and fenestration of the complex. Clarke developed a new type of mouth-blown glass for the scheme, which he christened 'Zaha-Glas'. Later reduced to three buildings, the project, which experienced delays in construction, was completed in 2006, without the artwork.

At the end of the 1990s, her career began to gather momentum, as she won commissions for two museums and a large industrial building. She competed against Rem Koolhaas and other well-known architects for the design of the Contemporary Arts Center in Cincinnati, Ohio (1997-2000). She won, and became the first woman to design an art museum in the United States. At 8,500 square metres, the museum was not huge, and her design did not have the flamboyance of the Guggenheim Bilbao of Frank Gehry, built at the same time. But the project demonstrated Hadid's ability to use architectural forms to create interior drama, including its central element, a 30-metre long black stairway that passes between massive curving and angular concrete walls.

In 2000 she won an international competition for the Phaeno Science Center, in Wolfsburg, Germany (2002-2005). The new museum was only a little larger than the Cincinnati Museum, with 9,000 square metres of space, but the plan was much more ambitious. It was similar in concept to the buildings of Le Corbusier, raised up seven metres on concrete pylons. Unlike Corbusier's buildings, she planned for the space under the building to be filled with activity, and each of the 10 massive inverted cone-shaped columns that hold up the building contains a cafe, a shop, or a museum entrance. The tilting columns reach up through the building and also support the roof. The museum structure resembles an enormous ship, with sloping walls and asymmetric scatterings of windows, and the interior, with its angular columns and exposed steel roof framework, gives the illusion of being inside a working vessel or laboratory.

BMW Administration Building (2001-2005)

In 2004 she won the Pritzker Architecture Prize, the most prestigious award in architecture, though she had only completed four buildings - the Vitra Fire Station, the Ski Lift in Innsbruck Austria, the Car Park and Terminus Hoenheim North in France, and the Contemporary Art Center in Cincinnati. In making the announcement, Thomas Pritzker, the head of the jury, announced: "Although her body of work is relatively small, she has achieved great acclaim and her energy and ideas show even greater promise for the future."

Between 1997 and 2010 Hadid ventured into the engineers' domain of bridge construction, a field also occupied by other top architects including Norman Foster and Santiago Calatrava. Between 2005 and 2008 she designed and built the Bridge-Pavilion of Zaragoza, which was both an exhibit hall and a bridge, created for Expo 2008, an event on the themes of water and durable development. The concrete bridge span on which the pavilion rests is 85 metres long measured from the Exposition site to an island in the Ebro River. The bridge carries or is attached to four tunnel-like exhibition spaces she termed "pods", which spread onto the island, for a total length of 275 metres. The pods are covered with a skin of 26,000 triangular shingles, many of which open to let in air and light. Like her other structures, the bridge-pavilion is composed entirely of diagonal slopes and curves, with no right-angles of orthogonal forms. By its curving shape and low profile, the bridge-pavilion fits smoothly into the grassy landscape along the river.

Between 1997 and 2010, she constructed a much more ambitious bridge, the Sheikh Zayed Bridge, which honors Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, between the island of Abu Dhabi and the mainland of Abu Dhabi, as well as to the Abu Dhabi International Airport. Both the design of the bridge and the lighting, consisting of gradually changing colours, were designed to give the impression of movement. The silhouette of the bridge is a wave, with a principal arch 235 metres long, standing 60 metres above the water. The total span of four lanes is 842 metres (2,762 feet) long, and also includes pedestrian walkways.

The National Museum of Arts of the 21st Century ( MAXXI for short), in Rome, was designed and built between 1998 and 2010. The main theme of its architecture is the sense of movement; Everything in the structure seems to be moving and flowing. Hadid took inspiration from the surrounding orthogonal site grids to determine the overall form. The facade belongs to her earlier period, with smooth curving white walls and an austere black and white colour scheme. The building is perched on groups of five very thin pylons, and one gallery with a glass face precariously overhangs the plaza in front of the museum, creating shade. Rowan Moore of The Guardian of London described its form as "bending oblong tubes, overlapping, intersecting and piling over each other. The imagery is of flow and movement and it resembles a demented piece of transport architecture. Inside, black steel stairs and bridges, their undersides glowing with white light, fly across a void. They take you off to the galleries, which are themselves works of frozen motion. The design is intended to generate what Hadid called "confluence, interference and turbulence",

In 2002 Hadid won an international competition for her first project in China. The Guangzhou Opera House is located in a new business district of the city, with a new 103-storey glass tower behind it. It covers 70,000 square metres and was built at cost of US$300 million. The complex comprises an 1,800-seat theatre, a multipurpose theatre, entry hall, and salon. A covered pathway with restaurants and shops separates the two main structures. This building, like several of her later buildings, was inspired by natural earth forms; the architect herself referred to it as the "two pebbles". It appears akin to two giant smooth-edged boulders faced with 75,000 panels of polished granite and glass. Edwin Heathcote, writing for the Financial Times, noted Hadid's concentration on how her design could transform the urban landscape of Guangzhou, as the building rose as the centre of the new business area. He wrote in 2011 that Hadid "produced a building that seems to suck the surrounding landscape into a vortex of movement and swirling space... appears both as alien object in a landscape of incomprehensible vastness (and often overwhelming banality), and as an extrusion of the peculiar nature of this landscape." Nicolai Ourousoff, architecture critic of the New York Times, wrote that "stepping into the main hall is like entering the soft insides of an oyster...The concave ceiling is pierced by thousands of little lights-it looks like you're sitting under the dome of a clear night sky." Ourousoff noted that the finished building had construction problems: many of the granite tiles on the exterior had to be replaced, and the plaster and other interior work was poorly done by the inexperienced workers, but he praised Hadid's ability "to convey a sense of bodies in motion" and called the building "a Chinese gem that elevates its setting."

The Riverside Museum (2004-2011), on the banks of the River Clyde Glasgow, Scotland, houses the Glasgow Museum of Transport. Hadid described the 10,000-square metre building, with 7,000 square metres of gallery space, as "a wave", "folds in movement", and "a shed in the form of a tunnel, open at the extreme ends, one end toward the city and the other toward the Clyde." Like many of her buildings, the whole form is only perceived when viewed from above. The facades are covered with zinc plates, and the roofline has a series of peaks and angles. The interior galleries caused some controversy; visitors who came to see the collection of historic automobiles found that they are mounted on the walls, high overhead, so it is impossible to look into them. Rowan Moore of The Guardian of London wrote: "Obviously the space is about movement...Outside it is, typologically, a supermarket, being a big thing in a parking lot that is seeking to attract you in...It has enigma and majesty, but not friendliness."

Hadid described her Aquatics Centre for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London as "inspired by the fluid geometry of water in movement". The building covers three swimming pools, and seats 17,500 spectators at the two main pools. The roof, made of steel and aluminium and covered with wood on the inside, rests on just three supports; it is in the form of a parabolic arch that dips in the centre, with the two pools at either end. The seats are placed in bays beside the curving and outward-leaning walls of glass. At £269 million, the complex cost three times the original estimate, owing principally to the complexity of the roof. This was the subject of much comment when it was constructed, and it was the first 2012 Olympic building begun but the last to be finished. It was praised by architecture critics. Rowan Moore of The Guardian said that the roof "floats and undulates" and called the centre "the Olympics' most majestic space".

The Broad Art Museum at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan, Hadid's second project in the United States, has a space of 4,274 square metres, dedicated to contemporary art and modern art and an historical collection. The parallelogram-shaped building leans sharply and seems about to tip over. Hadid wrote that she designed the building so that its sloping pleated stainless steel facades would reflect the surrounding neighbourhood from different angles; the building continually changes colour depending upon the weather, the time of day and the angle of the sun. As Hadid commented, the building "awakens curiosity without ever truly revealing its contents". Elaine Glusac of The New York Times wrote that the architecture of the new museum "radicalizes the streetscape". The Museum was used in a scene of the 2016 Batman vs. Superman movie.

The Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, Azerbaijan (2007-2013) is a gigantic cultural and conference centre containing three auditoriums, a library and museum, with a total space of 10,801 square metres on a surface of 15,514 square metres, and a height of 74 metres. Hadid wrote that "its fluid form emerges from the folds of the natural topography of the landscape and envelops the different functions of the centre", though the building when completed was largely surrounded by Soviet-era apartment blocks. Peter Cook in Architectural Review called it "a white vision, outrageously total, arrogantly complete ... a unique object that confounds and contradicts the reasonable ... a wave form sweeping up, almost lunging, into the sky ... here is architecture as the ultimate statement of theatre ... It is the most complete realisation yet of the Iraqi-born architect's vision of sweeping curves and flowing space."

Consisting of eight storeys, the centre includes an auditorium with 1000 seats, exhibition space, conference hall, workshop and a museum. No straight line was used in the project of the complex. The shape of the building is wave-like and the overall view is unique and harmonic. Such an architectural structure stands for post-modernist architecture and forms oceanic feeling. The lines of the building symbolise the merging of past and future.

While the building itself was widely praised, Dame Zaha was criticized in many circles when she was awarded Britain's most prestigious prize in architecture, the Design Museum "Design of the Year," the first woman to do so. The building was named for the former ruler of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev, and commissioned by his son, Illham, who became president after his father's death in 2003. Hugh Williamson, director of Human Rights Watch for Europe and the Central Asian division, called Aliyev "an authoritarian leader and so is his son." The former Soviet secret police general ruled for 30 years, first as its Communist leader and then as its president. Amnesty International accused him of human rights abuses, balloting irregularities and intimidating the opposition while in power. Several architecture critics who admired the work itself felt that Dame Zaha should have raised questions about this repressive leader even as she accepted the commission, and other critics questioned the UK granting its most prestigious architecture award to a building which memorialized a vicious Soviet dictator.

The Library and Learning Center was designed as the centrepiece of the new University of Economics in Vienna. Containing 28,000 square metres of space, its distinctive Hadid features include walls sloping at 35 degrees and massive black volume cantilevered at an angle over the plaza in front of the building. She described the interior as follows: "The straight lines of the building's exterior separate as they move inward, becoming curvilinear and fluid to generate a free-formed interior canyon that serves as the principal public plaza of the Center, as well as generating corridors and bridges ensuring smooth transitions between different levels."

The Nanjing International Youth Cultural Centre are two skyscrapers in Nanjing, Jiangsu, China. Tower 1 is 314.5 metres (1,032 ft) tall and Tower 2 is 255 metres (837 ft). Construction began in 2012 and ended in 2015.

The Issam Fares Institute is located in the campus of the American University of Beirut (AUB). It won the Agha Khan Award in 2016, the same year Hadid passed away. It has a 21 meters cantilever in order to preserve the existing landscape. The institute aims to harness, develop and initiate research of the Arab world to enhance and broaden debate on public policy and international relations.

Of all her works, Hadid designed only one government building, the Port Authority Building, or Havenhuis, in Antwerp, Belgium, completed in 2016. Most new government buildings attempt to express solidity and seriousness, but Port Authority, a ship-like structure of glass and steel on a white concrete perch, seems to have landed atop the old port building constructed in 1922. The faceted glass structure also resembles a diamond, a symbol of Antwerp's role as the major market of diamonds in Europe. It was one of the last works of Hadid, who died in 2016, the year it opened. The square in front of the building was renamed to Zaha Hadidplein (Zaha Hadidsquare) to honor her death.

On 31 March 2016, Hadid died of a heart attack at Mount Sinai Medical Center in Miami, where she was being treated for bronchitis. She was 65 years old.

The statement issued by her London-based design studio announcing her death read: "Zaha Hadid was widely regarded to be the greatest female architect in the world today". She is buried between her father Mohammed Hadid and brother Foulath Hadid in Brookwood Cemetery in Brookwood, Surrey, England. In her will she left £67m, and bequeathed various amounts to her business partner and family members. Her international design businesses, which accounted for the bulk of her wealth, were left in trust.

On 25 March 2017, Kam Dhillon reported a yet-to-be completed skyscraper design designed by Hadid prior to her death in 2016 in an article titled "Zaha Hadid Architects Unveils Monumental Skyscraper Project for NYC".

A futuristic building, faithful to the imprint of the architect, which should host the biggest cultural events of the Moroccan capital. The works, launched in October 2014, are still in progress. This project consists of a large multipurpose room, which has 1822 seats and can accommodate different types of shows. For each artistic presentation with specific acoustics needs, the theater will be equipped with adjustable systems. The theater also has a small modular room with 127 seats, a restaurant with panoramic views, shops, cafes and a bookstore.

The complex of three 31-storey residential towers neighbouring Bratislava city centre is still under construction. Part of the construction area includes a preserved historical waterworks building designed by one of the most influential Slovak architects of early 20th century - Dušan Jurkovič.

In the 1990s, she held the Sullivan Chair professorship at the University of Illinois at Chicago's School of Architecture. At various times, she served as guest professor at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg (HFBK Hamburg), the Knowlton School of Architecture at Ohio State University, the Masters Studio at Columbia University, and was the Eero Saarinen Visiting professor of Architectural Design at the Yale School of Architecture. From 2000, Hadid was a guest professor at the Institute of Architecture at the University of Applied Arts Vienna, in the Zaha Hadid Master Class Vertical-Studio.

Hadid also undertook some high-profile interior work, including the Mind Zone at the Millennium Dome in London as well as creating fluid furniture installations within the Georgian surroundings of Home House private members club in Marylebone, and the Z.CAR hydrogen-powered, three-wheeled automobile. In 2009 she worked with the clothing brand Lacoste to create a new, high fashion, and advanced boot. In the same year, she also collaborated with the brassware manufacturer Triflow Concepts to produce two new designs in her signature parametric architectural style.

In 2007, Hadid designed Dune Formations for David Gill Gallery and the Moon System Sofa for leading Italian furniture manufacturer B&B Italia.

In 2013, Hadid designed Liquid Glacial for David Gill Gallery which comprises a series of tables resembling ice-formations made from clear and coloured acrylic. Their design embeds surface complexity and refraction within a powerful fluid dynamic. The collection was further extended in 2015-2016. In 2016 the gallery launched Zaha's final collection of furniture entitled UltraStellar

Following her death in March 2016, Michael Kimmelman of The New York Times wrote: "her soaring structures left a mark on skylines and imaginations and in the process re-shaped architecture for the modern age...Her buildings elevated uncertainty to an art, conveyed in the odd way of one entered and moved through these buildings and in the questions that her structures raised about how they were supported ... Hadid embodied, in its profligacy and promise, the era of so-called starchitects who roamed the planet in pursuit of their own creative genius, offering miracles, occasionally delivering." She is quoted as saying "I don't make nice little buildings".

Deyan Sudjic of The Guardian described Hadid as "an architect who first imagined, then proved, that space could work in radical new ways ... Throughout her career, she was a dedicated teacher, enthused by the energy of the young. She was not keen to be characterised as a woman architect, or an Arab architect. She was simply an architect."

In an interview published in Icon magazine, she said: "I never use the issue about being a woman architect ... but if it helps younger people to know they can break through the glass ceiling, I don't mind that." However, she admitted that she never really felt a part of the male-dominant architecture "establishment". She once said "As a woman in architect you're always an outsider. It's OK, I like being on the edge.'

Sometimes called the "Queen of the curve", Hadid was frequently described in the press as the world's top female architect. although her work also attracted criticism. The Metropolitan Museum in New York cited her "unconventional buildings that seem to defy the logic of construction". Her architectural language was described as "famously extravagant" and she was accused of building "dictator states". Architect Sean Griffiths characterised Hadid's work as "an empty vessel that sucks in whatever ideology might be in proximity to it".

As the architect of a stadium to be used for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, Hadid was accused in The New York Review of Books of giving an interview in which she allegedly showed no concern for the deaths of migrant workers in Qatar involved in the project. In August 2014, Hadid sued The New York Review of Books for defamation and won. Immediately thereafter, the reviewer and author of the piece in which she was accused of showing no concern issued a retraction in which he said "work did not begin on the site for the Al Wakrah stadium, until two months after Ms Hadid made those comments; and construction is not scheduled to begin until 2015 ... There have been no worker deaths on the Al Wakrah project and Ms Hadid's comments about Qatar that I quoted in the review had nothing to do with the Al Wakrah site or any of her projects. I regret the error."

The architectural style of Hadid is not easily categorised, and she did not describe herself as a follower of any one style or school. Nonetheless, before she had built a single major building, she was categorised by the Metropolitan Museum of Art as a major figure in architectural Deconstructivism. Her work was also described as an example of neo-futurism and parametricism. An article profiling Hadid in the New Yorker magazine was titled "The Abstractionist".

At the time when technology was integrating into design, Zaha accepted the use of technology but still continued to hand draw her buildings and make models of the designs. This was because she did not want to limit herself and her designs to only to what the computer could do.

Through her design style, she paints the conceptual designs of her many projects in fluid and geometrical forms where "Zaha Hadid's work took shape." These would be large paintings that would aspire towards her design process and "rational nature of her construction, the drawings pulled the parts and pieces apart, exploding its site and programme."

When she was awarded the Pritzker Prize in 2004, the jury chairman, Lord Rothschild, commented: "At the same time as her theoretical and academic work, as a practising architect, Zaha Hadid has been unswerving in her commitment to modernism. Always inventive, she's moved away from existing typology, from high tech, and has shifted the geometry of buildings."

Hadid herself, who often used dense architectural jargon, could also describe the essence of her style very simply: "The idea is not to have any 90-degree angles. In the beginning, there was the diagonal. The diagonal comes from the idea of the explosion which "re-forms" the space. This was an important discovery."

Hadid was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2002 Birthday Honours and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2012 Birthday Honours for services to architecture.

Hadid was named an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters and an honorary fellow of the American Institute of Architects. She was on the board of trustees of The Architecture Foundation.

In 2002, Hadid won the international design competition to design Singapore's one-north master plan. In 2004, Hadid became the first female recipient of the Pritzker Architecture Prize. In 2005, her design won the competition for the new city casino of Basel, Switzerland and she was elected as a Royal Academician. In 2006, she was honoured with a retrospective spanning her entire work at the Guggenheim Museum in New York; that year she also received an Honorary Degree from the American University of Beirut.

In 2008, she was ranked 69th on the list of " The World's 100 Most Powerful Women". In 2010, she was named by as an influential thinker in the 2010 TIME 100 issue. In September 2010 the New Statesman listed Zaha Hadid at number 42 in its annual survey of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures of 2010".

In 2013, she was assessed as one of the 100 most powerful women in the UK by Woman's Hour on BBC Radio 4. In 2014, 2015 and 2016, Hadid appeared on Debrett's list of the most influential people in the UK. In January 2015, she was nominated for the Services to Science and Engineering award at the British Muslim Awards.

She won the Stirling Prize, the UK's most prestigious award for architecture, two years running: in 2010, for one of her most celebrated works, the MAXXI in Rome, and in 2011 for the Evelyn Grace Academy, a Z‑shaped school in Brixton, London. She also designed the Dongdaemun Design Plaza & Park in Seoul, South Korea, which was the centrepiece of the festivities for the city's designation as World Design Capital 2010. In 2014, the Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre, designed by her, won the Design Museum Design of the Year Award, making her the first woman to win the top prize in that competition. In 2015, she became the first woman to receive the Royal Gold Medal awarded by the Royal Institute of British Architects.

In 2016 in Antwerp, Belgium a square was named after her, Zaha Hadidplein, in front of the extension of the Antwerp Harbour House designed by Zaha Hadid.

Her architectural design firm, Zaha Hadid Architects, employs 400 people and its headquarters are in a Victorian former-school building in Clerkenwell, London.

Malevich's Tektonik (1976-77), London, UK

Museum of the nineteenth century (1977-78), London, UK

Dutch Parliament Extension (1978-79), The Hague, Netherlands

Irish Prime Minister's Residence (1979-80), Dublin, Ireland

Hafenstraße Development (1989), Hamburg, Germany

Cardiff Bay Opera House (1995), Cardiff, Wales - not realised

Price Tower the extension hybrid project (2002), Bartlesville, Oklahoma, United States - pending

Signature Towers (2006)

Kartal-Pendik Masterplan (2006), Istanbul, Turkey

Bahrain International Circuit (2007), Sakhir, Bahrain

Surfers Paradise Transit Centre Site (2007), Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia

Vitra Fire Station (1994), Weil am Rhein, Germany

Bergisel Ski Jump (2002), Innsbruck, Austria

Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art (2003), Cincinnati, Ohio, United States

Hotel Puerta America (2003-2005), Madrid, Spain

BMW Central Building (2005), Leipzig, Germany

Ordrupgaard annexe (2005), Copenhagen, Denmark

Phaeno Science Center (2005), Wolfsburg, Germany

R. Lopez De Heredia Wine Pavilion (2001-2006), Haro, La Rioja, Spain

Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and International Affairs at the American University of Beirut (2006-14), Beirut, Lebanon

Maggie's Centres at the Victoria Hospital (2006), Kirkcaldy, Scotland

Hungerburgbahn new stations (2007), Innsbruck, Austria

Chanel Mobile Art Pavilion (2006-08), worldwide

Bridge Pavilion (2008), Zaragoza, Spain

Pierresvives (2002-12), Montpellier, France

MAXXI - National Museum of the 21st Century Arts (1998-2010), Rome, Italy. Stirling Prize 2010 winner.

Guangzhou Opera House (2010), Guangzhou, People's Republic of China

Sheikh Zayed Bridge (2007-10), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Galaxy SOHO in Beijing, China.

London Aquatics Centre (2011), 2012 Summer Olympics, London, United Kingdom

Riverside Museum (2004-11) development of Glasgow Transport Museum, Scotland

Deutsche Guggenheim (2005), Berlin, Germany

CMA CGM Tower (2006-11), Marseilles, France

Ark Evelyn Grace Academy (2006-10) in Brixton, London, UK. Stirling Prize 2011 winner.

Capital Hill Residence (2006), in Moscow, Russia. Private home owned by Vladislav Doronin.

Urban Nebula (2007), London Design Festival, London, UK

Lilas (2007), Serpentine Gallery, London, UK

Roca London Gallery (2009-11) in Chelsea Harbour, London, UK

d'Leedon, Singapore (2007-2011)

Design For Proposed Museum In Vilnius (2007-2011), Vilnius, Lithuania

Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre (2007-12) in Baku, Azerbaijan.

Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum (2010-12), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States

Mandarin Oriental Dellis Cay, Villa D (2012) (private home under construction), Dellis Cay, Turks & Caicos Islands

Library and Learning Center of the Vienna University of Economics and Business Campus (2010-2013)

Salerno Maritime Terminal (2007-13), Salerno, Italy

Jockey Club Innovation Tower (2013), Hong Kong

Citylife office tower (Storto) and residentials, Milan, Italy (2014)

King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (2010-15)

Dubai Opera, Dubai, UAE (2016)

The Opus, Dubai, UAE (2007-2018)

Scorpion Tower, One Thousand Museum, Miami, Florida, US (2018)

Messner Mountain Museum, Corones, Province of Bozen, South Tyrol, Italy (2015)

Incomplete projects

Vilnius Guggenheim Hermitage Museum in 2008. In 2010, commissioned by the Iraqi government to design the new building for the Central Bank of Iraq. An agreement to complete the design stages of the new CBI building was finalised on 2 February 2012, at a ceremony in London. This was her first project in her native Iraq. In 2012, Hadid won an international competition to design a new National Olympic Stadium as part of the successful bid by Tokyo to host the 2020 Summer Olympics. As the estimated cost of the construction mounted, however, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced in July 2015 that Hadid's design was scrapped in favour of a new bidding process to seek a less expensive alternative. Hadid had planned to enter the new competition, but her firm was unable to meet the new requirement of finding a construction company with which to partner.

600 Collins Street, Melbourne, Australia

Nuragic and Contemporary art museum (on hold), Cagliari, Italy

Eleftheria square (Freedom Square) in Nicosia, Cyprus

Esfera City Center in Monterrey, Mexico

Dominion Tower in Moscow, Russia

Danjiang Bridge in New Taipei, Taiwan

Iraqi Parliament Building in Baghdad

2017 666 Fifth Avenue, New York, USA

California Residence, California, USA

Middle East Centre. St Antony's College, Oxford, UK

Regium Waterfront, Reggio, Italy

Dubai Financial Market, Dubai, UAE

Museum exhibitions

1978 - Guggenheim Museum, New York

1983 - Retrospective at the Architectural Association, London

1985 - GA Gallery, Tokyo

1988 - Deconstructivist Architecture show at Museum of Modern Art, New York

1995 - Graduate School of Design at Harvard University

1997 - San Francisco MoMA

2000 - British Pavilion at the Venice Biennale

2001 - Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg

2002 - (10 May - 11 August) - Centro nazionale per le arti contemporanee, Rome

2003 - (4 May - 17 August) - MAK - Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museum of Applied Arts) in Vienna

2006 - (3 June - 25 October) - Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

2006 - (1 June - 29 July) - Ma10 Mx Protetch Gallery, Chelsea, New York

2007 - (29 June - 25 November) - Design Museum, London

2007 - Dune Formations with David Gill Gallery - Venice Biennale

2011/12 - (20 September - 25 March) - Zaha Hadid: Form in Motion at the Philadelphia Museum of Art

2012 - Liquid Glacial - David Gill Gallery, London

2013 - (29 June - 29 September) - Zaha Hadid: World Architecture at the Danish Architecture Centre

2015 - (27 June - 27 September) - Zaha Hadid at the State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia

Nightlife (1999). Zaha Hadid designed the stage set for the Pet Shop Boys' world tour.

A Day with Zaha Hadid (2004). A 52-minute documentary where Zaha Hadid discusses her current work while taking the camera through her retrospective exhibition "Zaha Hadid has Arrived". Directed by Michael Blackwood.

In October 2008, she guest-edited magazine.

On 2 January 2009, she was the guest editor of the BBC's flagship morning radio news programme, .

Taschen, Aurelia, ed. (2016). L'Architecture Moderne de A à Z (in French). Taschen, Balthazar. Bibliotheca Universalis. ISBN 978-3-8365-5630-9.

Fontana-Giusti, Gordana and Schumacher, Patrik. (2004). Complete Works of Zaha Hadid, 4 volumes, Thames and Hudson, Rizzoli, published in English, translated into German and Spanish. ISBN 0-500-34200-8

1. ^ Serrazanetti, Francesca; Schubert, Matteo, eds. (2011). Zaha Hadid: Inspiration and Process in Architecture. China: Moleskine. p. 56. ISBN 9788866130048. Technology's rapid development and our ever-changing lifestyles created a fundamentally new and exhilarating backdrop for building, and in this new world context I felt we must reinvestigate the aborted and untested experiments of Modernism - not to resurrect them, but to unveil new fields of building.

2. ^ Kimmelman, Michael (31 March 2016). "Zaha Hadid, Groundbreaking Architect, Dies at 65". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.

3. Kamin, Blair (1 April 2016). "Visionary architect 1st woman to win Pritzker". Chicago Tribune. p. 7.

4. ^ "Obituary - 'Foulath Hadid: Writer and expert on Arab affairs'". The Independent. 11 October 2012. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022.

5. ^ Qureshi, Huma (14 November 2012). "Zaha Hadid: 'Being an Arab and a woman is a double-edged sword'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077.

6. ^ Fontana-Giusti, Gordana (June 2016). "Zaha Hadid: 1950-2016". Architectural Research Quarterly. 20 (2): 95-98. doi:10.1017/S1359135516000348. ISSN 1359-1355.

7. "Spittelau Viaducts Housing Project". Zaha Hadid Architects. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2022.

8. ^ Betsky, Aaron (1998). Zaha Hadid: The Complete Buildings and Projects. London: Thames & Hudson.

9. ^ Trümpler, Stefan (1997). Brian Clarke - Linda McCartney: Collaborations. Romont: Musée Suisse du Vitrail. ISBN 3-7165-1086-6.

10. ^ Henry H Kuehn (2017). "Architects' Gravesites: A Serendipitous Guide". p. 43. MIT Press.

11. ^ Hindustan Times. 26 April 2022 https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/mumbai-news/navi-mumbai-international-airport-project-finally-takes-off-as-all-hurdles-cleared-101650978713962.html.

12. ^ Brooks, Xan (23 September 2013). "Zaha Hadid: "I don't make nice little buildings"". The Guardian (Australia edition).

13. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) (2008). Recent Acquisitions, A selection: 2007-2008 - The Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Museum. p. 55.

14. ^ The Complete Zaha Hadid: Expanded and Updated. London: Thames and Hudson. 2013. ISBN 9780500342893.

15. ^ Caroline Davies; Robert Booth; Mark Brown (31 March 2016). "'Queen of the curve' Zaha Hadid dies aged 65 from heart attack". The Guardian. London.

16. ^ Farah Nayeri (27 August 2010). "Zaha Hadid to Design New Iraqi Central Bank After June Attack". Bloomberg L.P.

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Dame Zaha Mohammad Hadid ( Arabic: زها حديد Zahā Ḥadīd; 31 October 1950 - 31 March 2016) was a British-Iraqi architect, artist and designer, recognised as a major figure in architecture of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Born in Baghdad, Iraq, Hadid studied mathematics as an undergraduate and then enrolled at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in 1972.

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An artist who was part of the Neo-expressionism movement. His art explores his experiences in the black community, attacks on power structures and systems of racism.

In 2017, Untitled, a 1982 painting, sold for $110.5 million, becoming one of the most expensive paintings ever purchased.

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A self-taught Black folk artist from Louisiana, USA. She was born into a Louisiana Creole family.

She is the first African-American artist to have a solo exhibition at the present-day New Orleans Museum of Art.

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Clementine Hunter (pronounced Clementeen; late December 1886 or early January 1887 - January 1, 1988) was a self-taught Black folk artist from the Cane River region of Louisiana, who lived and worked on Melrose Plantation.

Hunter was born into a Louisiana Creole family at Hidden Hill Plantation near Cloutierville, in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. She started working as a farm laborer when she was young and never learned to read or write. In her fifties, she began to sell her paintings, which soon gained local and national attention for their complexity in depicting Black Southern life in the early 20th century.

Initially she sold her first paintings for as little as 25 cents. But by the end of her life, her work was being exhibited in museums and sold by dealers for thousands of dollars. Clementine Hunter produced an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 paintings in her lifetime. Hunter was granted an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree by Northwestern State University of Louisiana in 1986, and she is the first African-American artist to have a solo exhibition at the present-day New Orleans Museum of Art. In 2013, director Robert Wilson presented a new opera about her, entitled Zinnias: the Life of Clementine Hunter, at Montclair State University in New Jersey.

Baptism by Clementine Hunter. Mural (detail)

Clementine Hunter was born in late December 1886 or early January 1887 at Hidden Hill Plantation, near Cloutierville in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. She was the first of seven children born to Janvier Reuben (though Clementine Hunter called him John) and Mary Antoinette Adams. Hunter's siblings were named Maria, Ida, Rosa, Edward, Simon, and John. Hunter's maternal grandmother Idole, an enslaved Black and Native American woman, was born in Virginia and brought to Louisiana. Her maternal grandfather was called Billy Zack Adams. Hunter's paternal grandfather, who was of mixed African, French, and Irish descent, traded horses during the Civil War, but died before she was born. Hunter knew her paternal grandmother well, a Black and Native American woman who she called MéMé (pronounced May-May). Her parents were married on October 15, 1890, in Cloutierville at the town's Catholic church, St. John the Baptist.

She was baptized a Catholic on March 19, 1887, in Cloutierville, and it is known that she was about three months old. Although her exact date of birth is unknown, she said she was born around Christmas. She went by the name Clémence for the first part of her life, was baptized Clementiam and changed her name to Clementine after moving to Melrose Plantation. Her family called her by the nickname Tébé, the French for "little baby," a nickname she carried into adulthood.

Hunter's father, Janvier "John" Reuben was hired as a wage laborer by John H. Henry, the current owner of Melrose. Hunter also worked for a wage as an agricultural laborer, harvesting 150 to 200 pounds of cotton a day, making 75 cents. In the fall, she would also harvest pecans, working six days a week for months of the year. While in her teens, Hunter took informal classes at night with other workers at Melrose Plantation. Her mother, Mary Antoinette Reuben, died in 1905 at Melrose.

In the early 1940s, Hunter's husband Emmanuel became terminally ill and bedridden. She was now the sole financial provider for the family, working full time, while caring for Emmanuel, and painting late at night. Emmanuel died in 1944, leaving Hunter to work and care for her children alone.

During this period in the early 1940s, Hunter adopted Mary Francis LaCour, an eleven-year-old girl whose parents couldn't care for her. Hunter cared for the girl, teaching her how to paint, the two displaying her creations outside of Hunter's home. In her teens, Mary Francis moved to California to live with her father. In 1951, Mary Francis died at less than twenty years old.

The Wash (c.1950s), Minneapolis Institute of Art

Hunter has become one of the most well-known self-taught artists. Hunter is described as a memory painter because she documented Black Southern life in the Cane River Valley in the early 20th century. She was entirely self-taught and received almost no formal education, art or otherwise. Although she was first recognized for her painting skills in 1939, Hunter speaks about painting long before then. Her most famous work depicts brightly colored depictions of important events like funerals, baptisms, and weddings and scenes of plantation labor like picking cotton or pecans, and domestic labor. However, Hunter's paintings vary in subject and style, including many abstract paintings and still life paintings of zinnias.

Hunter painted from memory, stating: "I just get it in my mind and I just go ahead and paint but I can't look at nothing and paint. No trees, no nothing. I just make my own tree in my mind, that's the way I paint."

Cammie Henry created an artists' colony after the death of her husband at Melrose Plantation. Numerous artists and writers visited, including Lyle Saxon, Roark Bradford, Alexander Woollcott, Rose Franken, Gwen Bristow, and Richard Avedon. Frequently, the paint and brushes left by New Orleans artist Alberta Kinsey are cited as the first materials Hunter used to paint with on a window shade. However, it's clear from Hunter's textile work that she was producing narrative and expressionist work before painting. Additionally, Hunter's own accounts of her early career contradict the story of Kinsey's influence, Hunter has spoken about painting earlier than 1939.

Picking Cotton (c.1955), Minneapolis Institute of Art

Hunter began selling paintings after the death of her husband, Emmanuel Hunter. On the outside of the cabin where she lived was a sign that read: "Clementine Hunter, Artist. 25 cents to Look." Clementine Hunter's first shows were in 1945 in Rosenwald Grant, Brownwood, and Waco Texas. In 1949, a show of Hunter's paintings at the New Orleans Arts and Crafts Show garnered attention outside of the Cane River Valley. An article was published about Hunter in Look magazine in June 1953, giving her national exposure.

Hunter gained support from numerous individuals associated with Melrose Plantation, including François Mignon, a friend of Cammie Henry and Clementine Hunter. He supplied her with paint and materials, and promoted her widely. Hunter's paintings were displayed in the local drugstore, where they were sold for one dollar.

In 1956, Hunter and François Mignon coauthored Melrose Plantation Cookbook, featuring photographs of Melrose Plantation, illustrations drawn by Hunter, and recipes. Hunter was skilled at reinterpreting traditional dishes, which were passed down in her family by oral tradition.

Untitled (c.1970) at the National Gallery of Art's showing of Afro-Atlantic Histories in Washington, DC in 2022

Black Jesus (c.1985) at the National Gallery of Art's showing of Afro-Atlantic Histories in Washington, DC in 2022

Hunter's paintings changed throughout her lifetime. Her early work, such as "Cane River Baptism" from 1950, features more earth tones and muted colors. Before the patronage and support from François Mignon and others, Hunter used paint left by visiting artists at Melrose Plantation, therefore she was working within other artists' palettes. Additionally, Hunter would frequently thin out her supply of paint with turpentine, creating more of a watercolor effect, which caused many Hunter scholars to believe she had a watercolor experimental phase. Beginning in the 1950s, her painting style was altered by arthritis in her hands. From this period on, she leaned more towards abstract and impressionist work, with less fine detail, because it was difficult for her to paint. In 1962, her friend James Pipes Register encouraged her to become even more abstract, painting works like Clementine Makes a Quilt. However, by 1964, Hunter returned to more narrative works. In the 1980s, as she approached one hundred years old, she began painting on smaller, more handheld objects like jugs.

In late 1971, sixty of Hunter's paintings were shown at an exhibition at Louisiana State University.

Hunter lived in communities of Black sharecroppers and tenant farmers where she learned to sew clothes and household items. Before she began painting, she would sew clothes for family, would make quilts, weave baskets. François Mignon recognized Hunter's talents with fabric and sewing before he saw any of her painted works. On December 19, 1939, Mignon recorded in his journals that Clementine (Mignon called her Clemence) first showed him dolls she created with embroidered features. Additionally, he wrote that she was exceptionally talented at making fringe and can spin cotton. James Register also recorded Clementine Hunter's exceptional skill at making fringe in an article in the Natchitoches Times in 1972. She could also make hand-tied lace curtains.

Hunter's quilts and tapestries are clear examples of her artistic talent before she began painting, and feature subjects and her color palette that are central to the majority of her artwork. Many of her quilts are titled "Melrose Quilt" or "Melrose Plantation" Textile or Tapestry as many of them depict buildings on the Melrose grounds. The Melrose Plantation Textile, which is hand appliquéd and sewn, is from 1938 or 1939, and is thematically similar to her painted works. Most of Hunter's textile work is owned in private collections; however, a photograph of Hunter in her home shows her using one of her Chevron as a couch covering. Each square is hand sewn together. Many of Hunter's quilts are not batted, which signals that they are designed to hang as a tapestry, rather than serve a household function.

Hunter made several quilts that are more abstract. One Chevron Quilt is at the New Orleans Museum of Art. Some of the squares of chevron are alternating solid colors, while other squares are pieces of scrap patterned cloth. Although Hunter's abstract paintings made in 1962 and 1936 are generally regarded as a break in her canon, her early textile work and paintings play with abstraction and impressionism. Additionally, Shelby Gilley's collection of Hunter's "Crazy Quilts" or Chevron quilts are dated as 1960, and the Chevron Quilt at the New Orleans Museum of Art is dated 1951, before her collaboration with James Register.

A director of the Museum of American Folk Art in New York City described Hunter as "the most celebrated of all Southern contemporary painters."

Inscription on Clementine Hunter's Gravestone

Hunter was the first African-American artist to have a solo exhibition at the Delgado Museum (now the New Orleans Museum of Art). In February 1985, the museum hosted A New Orleans Salute to Clementine Hunter's Centennial, an exhibit in honor of her one-hundredth birthday. She achieved significant recognition during her lifetime, including an invitation to the White House from U.S. President Jimmy Carter and letters from both President Ronald Reagan and U.S. Senator J. Bennett Johnston, Jr.

Radcliffe College included Hunter in its Black Women Oral History Project, published in 1980. An interview with Hunter is part of the Black Women Oral History Project records, 1976-1997, housed at Harvard University, Radcliffe Institute, Schlesinger Library. In the Mildred H. Bailey Collection of Interviews at Northwestern State University of Louisiana, there are digitized interviews with Hunter and those closest to her.

Northwestern State University of Louisiana granted her an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree in 1986. The following year, Louisiana governor Edwin Edwards designated her as an honorary colonel, a state honor, and aide-de-camp.

A biography, Clementine Hunter: Cane River Artist (2012), was co-written by Tom Whitehead, a retired journalism professor who knew Hunter well. \

Hunter has been the subject of biographies and artist studies, and inspired other works of art. In 2013, composer Robert Wilson presented a new opera about her: Zinnias: the Life of Clementine Hunter, at Montclair State University in New Jersey. Shinnerrie Jackson's one-woman musical Ain't I a Woman? honors the lives of four influential African American women, including Hunter.

Hunter's work can be found in numerous museums such as the Dallas Museum of Fine Art, the American Folk Art Museum, Minneapolis Institute of Arts, the Ogden Museum of Southern Art, the New Orleans Museum of Art, and the Louisiana State Museum.

Clementine Hunter's World is a 2017 documentary directed by noted Hunter scholar Art Shiver. The film celebrates Hunter's life and artwork through the lens of photographs, oral histories, and the newly resorted African House Murals. In addition to the film, the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History & Culture created an exhibition centering on Hunter called "Clementine Hunter: Life on Melrose Plantation." According to Smithsonian American Art curator Tuliza Fleming, the 22 works by Hunter is the largest collection by a single artist at the museum.

In 2019, Louisiana State Legislators passed a resolution that designated October 1 as Clementine Hunter Day. Loletta Jones-Wynder, the director of the Creole Heritage Center at Northwestern State University of Louisiana, created the resolution to honor Hunter's legacy and impact on the State of Louisiana.

As Hunter became increasingly more famous over her lifetime, and began selling her painted works for more money, forged paintings started becoming a problem. Relatives of Clementine Hunter and Cammie Henry created forgeries, although very few. Although there were many Hunter fakes, William and Beryl Toye were the most prolific. In 1974, William J. Toye was charged with forging twenty-two Hunter paintings by the New Orleans police. Toye was able to pass these paintings off as Hunter originals because he recreated her distinctive signature, a backwards C and an H interlocking. William Toye's wife Beryl claimed that she purchased the paintings directly from Hunter at Melrose Plantation in the 1960s. Toye's case never went to trial, despite verification from Hunter herself that she had not painted the works. In 1996, Toye was accused of forging Matisse and Degas paintings, selling them to an auction house in Baton Rouge. Toye likely began forging Hunter paintings again in 1999, selling them or using them as a form of payment for doctor's bills or as collateral for a bank loan until the mid 2000s.

Toye sold many his fakes to New Orleans art and antiques dealer, Robert Lucky Jr. Lucky intentionally lied to his customers about the origins of fifty to one hundred Hunter paintings, reselling paintings that were returned as fakes. In 2000, Robert Lucky Jr. took payment for a Hunter painting that he never gave to the customer, and was charged and arrested. Some noted Hunter collectors caught on his scheme, such as Robert Ryan who returned some paintings bought from Lucky, demanding a refund. Shelby Gilley and Tom Whitehead, scholars, collectors, and friends of Hunter, also figured out that the bulk of Hunter fakes were coming from Lucky, leading them to open an investigation. Whitehead had bought a total of seventeen fake Clementine Hunter paintings from Lucky, spending a total of $55,000.

In 2005, Tom Whitehead, Shelby Gilley, and Jack Brittain hired Frank Preusser, an art authentication expert, to investigate these forgeries. Preusser analyzed the materials used in the paintings in question, compared to those sold by Lucky and determined that they were in fact inconsistent materials. The investigation uncovered paintings sold by William Toye, which were consistent with the fakes sold by Robert Lucky Jr., as Toye began selling the fakes directly to buyers in 2005. At that time, Beryl Toye was selling Hunter fakes for $3,500 a painting at a New Orleans auction house.

In 2009, Federal Bureau of Investigation Special Agent Randolph Deaton assembled a team of noted art authentication experts, to begin a formal investigation into the forgeries. The team included Joseph Barabe of McCrone Associates, a scientific analysis company and James Martin a forensic art expert of Orion Analytical. The group used several methods to analyze Hunter's original works to compare to the alleged forgeries, including an analysis of pigment cracks, paint age, painting style. However, one of the most important clues that a painting was a Hunter original were her fingerprints on the back of the oil paintings. Hunter did not use an easel, so the backs and borders of her paintings are smudged with paint, unlike the forgeries by Toye who used an easel to paint his fakes.

This investigation was crucial to protecting Hunter's legacy, as many of the fakes were shown in museums in private collections around the world. Additionally, very few FBI forgery cases investigate folk artists or outsider artists, and so this case helped to legitimize the value of self-taught artists.

Funeral Procession, ca. 1950, Savannah College of Art and Design

, 1981, National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C.

Melrose Quilt, ca. 1960, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.

The Wash, ca. 1950s, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN

Picking Cotton, ca. 1950s, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN

The Annunciation and the Adoration of the Wise Men, 1957, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA

Cotton Pickin', 1948, American Folk Art Museum, New York, NY

Saturday Night, 1965, American Folk Art Museum, New York, NY

Baptism, 1950-1956, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum at Colonial Williamsburg, Williamsburg, VA

Funeral, 1957, Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA

Sugar Cane Syrup Makin', 1979, Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA

Baptism, Late 1950s, Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA

Window Shade, 1950s, National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C.

ca. 1950s, Pérez Art Museum Miami, FL

Mildred Hart Bailey, Four Women of Cane River (1980)

Shelby R. Gilley, Painting by Heart: The Life and Art of Clementine Hunter, Louisiana Folk Artist (2000), St. Emma Press

Clementine Hunter, Clementine Hunter: A Sketchbook (2014), University of New Orleans Press. ISBN 978-1-60801-036-3

Mary E. Lyons, Talking with Tebé (1998), Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780395720318

François Mignon, illustrated by Clementine Hunter, Melrose Plantation Cookbook (1956), ASIN B000CS68QA

Art Shiver, Tom Whitehead (editors), Clementine Hunter: The African House Murals (2005), Northwestern State University of Louisiana Press. ISBN 0-917898-24-9

Art Shiver, Tom Whitehead (co-authors), Clementine Hunter Her Life and Art (2012), LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-4878-5

James Register, illustrated by Clementine Hunter, The Joyous Coast (1971), Mid-South Press, Shreveport, Louisiana

James Wilson, Clementine Hunter: American Folk Artist (1990), Pelican Publishing Company

1. Shelby R. Gilley, Painting by Heart: The Life and Art of Clementine Hunter, Louisiana Folk Artist. St. Emma Press (2000).

2. James Lynwood Wilson, Clementine Hunter: American Folk Artist, Pelican Publishing Company (1990), ISBN 0-88289-658-X. Retrieved June 9, 2011.

3. ^ Hunter, Clementine. Audiotape interview by Mildred Bailey, 1976.

4. Campbell Robertson, "For a Longtime Forger, Adding One Last Touch" The New York Times (June 8, 2011). Retrieved June 8, 2011.

5. Oaks, John (May 8, 1985). "South's Very Own Grandma Moses Nears 100". Fort Worth Star-Telegram.

6. Janet McConnaughey, ^ "La man admits selling forged folk artist paintings" The Washington Examiner (June 6, 2011). Retrieved June 8, 2011.

7. Ruth Laney, Clementine Hunter Fakes" Archived August 9, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Country Roads, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (January 2010). Retrieved June 8, 2011.

8. ^ Layton, Robert; Shennan, Stephen; Stone, Peter G. (2006). A Future for Archaeology: The Past in the Present. Psychology Press. pp. 131-133. ISBN 978-1-84472-126-9.

9. John Ed Bradley, "The Talented Mr. Toye", Garden & Gun (April/May 2010). Retrieved June 13, 2011.

10. Richard Burgess, ^ "Guilty plea in art forgeries", The Advocate Arcadiana (June 7, 2011). Retrieved June 15, 2011.

11. ^ "Funeral Procession". Collections. Savannah College of Art and Design. Archived from the original on February 11, 2017.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Clementine Hunter (pronounced Clementeen; late December 1886 or early January 1887 - January 1, 1988) was a self-taught Black folk artist from the Cane River region of Louisiana, who lived and worked on Melrose Plantation. Hunter was born into a Louisiana Creole family at Hidden Hill Plantation near Cloutierville, in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana.

# data[].attributes.body
A painter. She has been called "one of the greatest avant-garde women artists of the early 20th century" and a pioneer in modern Indian art.

Her paintings are among the most expensive by Indian women painters today, although few acknowledged her work when she was alive.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Amrita Sher-Gil (30 January 1913 – 5 December 1941) was a Hungarian-Indian painter. She has been called “one of the greatest avant-garde women artists of the early 20th century” and a pioneer in modern Indian art. Drawn to painting from an early age, Sher-Gil started formal lessons at the age of eight. She first gained recognition at the age of 19, for her 1932 oil painting Young Girls. Sher-Gil depicted everyday life of the people in her paintings.

# data[].attributes.body
A British artist originally from Saint Lucia, the sovereign island in the Caribbean Sea.

Works by Branch are included in the collections of Tate Britain, the Legion of Honor De Young Museum in San Francisco, California, and the St Louis Museum of Art in Missouri.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Winston Branch (born in 1947) is a British artist originally from Saint Lucia, the sovereign island in the Caribbean Sea.[1] He still has a home there, while maintaining a studio in California. Works by Branch are included in the collections of Tate Britain, the Legion of Honor De Young Museum in San Francisco, California, and the St Louis Museum of Art in Missouri. Branch was the recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1978,[2] the British Prix de Rome, a DAAD ( German Academic Exchange Service) Fellowship to Berlin, a sponsorship to Belize from the Organization of American States, and was Artist in Residence at Fisk University in Tennessee. He has been a professor of fine arts and has taught at several art institutions in London and in the US. He has also worked as a theatrical set designer with various theatre groups.

As described by art critic Carlos Diaz Sosa, Branch paints "abstract canvases in cool, cloudy colours that have a quality which allow the viewer to explore the depths of the mind. Branch uses paint like a symbol, a purely aesthetic language, an illustration of spirit."[1]

Sunrise on Bodega Bay

Born in Castries, Saint Lucia, Branch attended a Catholic school there,[3] before being sent to London at the age of 12 in the 1960s.[4] He explains: "My parents saw I had an aptitude for art and wanted to give me the best opportunity."[5] He studied at the Slade School of Fine Art, University College London, where his talent was recognized early, and after graduating in 1970 he won the prestigious British Prix de Rome, enabling him at the age of 24 to attend the British School at Rome for a year (1971-72).[6] Critic Amon Saba Saakana notes: "Branch had a first hand experience of the Renaissance masters and subsequent developments of art movements in Europe. And though he ingested these European masters, he was searching for a form that incorporated and reflected his beginnings in the Caribbean. Though first working in the figurative tradition, he moved to abstracts as he apprehended the world of colour reflected in the cosmos, lightning, volcanoes, tropical storms, and earthquakes."[3]

In The Blue Light

In 1971, Branch was a visiting tutor at Hornsey College of Art and at Goldsmiths College of Art, London University. His first visit to the US was as Artist-in-Residence at Fisk University, Nashville, Tennessee, in 1973, and in the UK between 1973 and 1992 he also taught at Kingston School of Art, Chelsea Art School and at the Slade School.[7] He was a professor of art at the University of California, Berkeley, and at Kansas State University.[5]

He has also given several public lectures, including at Oakland Museum of California, at the Beach Museum of Art, Kansas State University, and at Barrows Hall, University of California at Berkeley.[8]

Branch has exhibited his work consistently since the 1960s, including at the Oakland Museum of California, the Alliance Francaise de San Francisco, the permanent collection of the Berkeley Art Museum, the 11th and 23rd São Paulo Art Biennial, Museo de Arte Moderno in São Paulo, the 4th Bienal de Pincture de Cuenca, Modern Art Museum ( Cuenca, Ecuador) and the Biennale de Paris, Musée National d'Art Moderne and the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.[7]

In 2010 he fell ill while at San Francisco International Airport waiting for a flight in order to exhibit work and give a lecture at the Museum of Modern Art in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, and was cared for at the Alta Bates Summit Medical Center, where following his recovery he held an exhibition entitled A Gift of Life (1 May-24 June 2011).[9] He has subsequently spent more time in London, where he has a close longtime association with the Chelsea Arts Club.[3]

Most recently, he was one of the artists featured prominently in No Colour Bar: Black British Art in Action 1960-1990 (July 2015-January 2016) at the City of London's Guildhall Art Gallery,[10][11][3] with three of his paintings hung at the entrance of the exhibition.[12] One of the works shown was his painting West Indian - "a marked exception" to the non-figurative style now more typical of Branch[13] - on loan from Rugby Borough Council's respected collection of 20th- and 21st-century British art, which also includes works by L. S. Lowry, Barbara Hepworth, Stanley Spencer and Bridget Riley.[14]

From early on in his career, Branch's work has won recognition and awards, such as the British Prix de Rome in 1971, a DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) Fellowship to Berlin in 1976, and a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1978[2] (in which year he was featured in the international quarterly journal Black Art).[13][15]

His paintings are in public and private collections. Several are in St. Lucia, Germany and France: the British Museum, The Brooklyn Museum, The Arts Council of Great Britain, Sinclair Research Limited (United Kingdom), Victoria and Albert Museum,[5] John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, Sprint World Headquarters Campus, and Her Majesty's Military Government ( Berlin, Germany).

Individual shows

2011: Winston Branch: A Gift of Life, Alta Bates Summit Medical Center, Berkekey, CA.[16]

2009: Robert Mondavi Winery Exhibition, Napa, California[17]

2004: Alliance Française de San Francisco, California

2003: Alliance Française, Los Angeles, California

2001: Willard Hall, Kansas State University, Kansas

2000: Alliance Française, San Francisco, California

1999: Townsend Center for the Humanities, University of California at Berkeley

1998: 150th Anniversary of the Abolition of Slavery in the French Antilles, Alliance Française, Castries, St. Lucia

1997: Clink Wharf Gallery, London

1996: Dunnottar School, Castries, St. Lucia

1994: Belize Arts Council, Belize

1994: Department of Museums, Belmopan, Belize

1994: Alliance Française, Roseau, Dominica

1994: Sir Arthur Lewis Community College, Castries. St. Lucia

1993: National Commercial Bank, Castries, St. Lucia

1992: Alliance Française, Castries, St. Lucia

1987: Jersey Arts Council, Bernie Gallery, Channel Isles

1985: Artist's Open Studio, Whitfield Place, London

1984: Joanna Lonsdale, London

1983; Lady Marabelle Kelly, Carlyle Square, London

1977; Hochschule der Künste, Berlin

1976: Galerie Richter, Berlin

1975: Winston Branch, Terry Dintenfass Gallery, New York.[1][18]

1973: Fisk University, Carl van Vechten Gallery, Nashville, Tennessee

1969: Winston Branch with Felix Topolski, St Martin-in-the-Fields, London

1967: Winston Branch Paintings & Drawings, Arts Lab Gallery, Drury Lane, London

Group shows

2018: About Face, Portraits from the National Portrait Gallery, The Lowry and Rugby Collection, Rugby Art Gallery and Museum, Rugby, UK

2018: The 30th London Art Fair, Business Design Center, London

2017: Maxes, Bankside Gallery, London

2015-16: No Colour Bar: Black British Art in Action 1960-1990, Guildhall Art Gallery, London.[3]

2013-14: Crosscurrents: Africa and Black Diaspora in Dialogue 1960-1980, Museum of the African Diaspora.

2010: 1 International Caribbean Triennial (Primera Trienal Internacional del Caribe), Dominican Republic.

2004-05: Alitask KeBede Gallery, Los Angeles, California

2003-04: 4th Bienal de Pintura del Caribe y Centroamerica, Muséo de Arte Moderno, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

2003: Seventeen Bay Area Artists, Joyce Gordon Gallery, Oakland, California

2002: Being There: 45 Oakland Artists, Museum of California, Oakland

2001: Art Faculty Exhibition, Kansas State University, Wamego, Kansas

2000: 1st Bienal Argentina de Grafica Latinoamericaana, Muséo Nacional del Grabado, Argentina

1999-2000: Urban Life in the Caribbean, Museum of the National Pantheon, Port-au-Prince, Haiti (Travelling exhibition)

1999: Faculty of Art Practice, University of California at Berkeley

1998: Caribe: exclusion, fragmentacion y paraiso, Muséo Extremoeno e Iberomericano de Arte Contemporaneo, Badajoz, Madrid,

1998: XXXeme Festival International de Peinture, Cagnes-sur-Mer, France

1998: XII Bienal de San Juan del Grabado Latinoamericano y del Caribe, Puerto Rico

1997: V Salon of Drawing of Santo Dominigo, Dominican Republic

1997: Transforming the Crown: African, Asian and Caribbean Artists in Britain, 1966-1996, Studio Museum in Harlem, New York[19]

1997: Caribe Entranable, Ultimo Arte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

1997: Exhibition and auction of Contemporary Art for SOS Children's Villages in Thessaloniki, Greece

1996: 23rd Bienal of Sao Paulo, Muséo de Arte Moderno, Sao Paulo, Brazil

1996: 3rd Bienal de Pintura del Caribe y Centroamerica, Muséo de Arte Moderno, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

1995: Africa95, Prints and Photographs by Artists of African Descent, Victoria and Albert Museum, London

1994: 2nd Bienal de Pintura del Caribe y Centroemerica, Muséo de Arte Moderno, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

1994: 4th Bienal de Pinture de Cuenca, Modern Art Museum, Cuenca, Ecuador

1994: Indigo 94, Pointe-a-Pitre, Guadeloupe

1994: 4th Annual International Art Exhibition and Auction, Sotheby's, The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington, DC.

1993: St. Lucia National Trust Collection, Castries, St. Lucia

1992: Les Afros Americains et L'Europe, Paris

1991: Auction, Modern and Contemporary Paintings, Watercolours, Drawings and Sculpture, Christie's South Kensington, London

1991: Recent Acquisitions of the Contemporary Art Society, James Major Gallery, London

1991: The Chelsea Arts Club Auction, 20th Century Paintings, Drawings and Sculpture, Sotheby's London

1986: Artists of Promise and Renown, University of Warwick, UK

1982: Biennale de Paris, Musée d'Art Moderne, Paris

1981: British Artists in Berlin, Goethe Institute, London

1980: British School in Rome, South London Art Gallery, London

1979: Modern International Graphix IX, Lubeck, Germany

1978: Year of Child Traveling Exhibition, Poland, Holland, Mexico, Japan

1977: 2nd World Festival of African Arts and Culture, Lagos, Nigeria

1976: Terry Dintenfass Gallery, Summer Group Show, New York

1979: Freie Berliner Kunstausstellung, Berlin

1976: Kutztown State College, Pennsylvania, USA

1976: Glassboro State College, New Jersey, USA

1975: Ruth S. Schaffner Gallery, Los Angeles, USA

1971: Carifesta, Georgetown, Guyana

1971: 11th Bienal of Sao Paulo, Muséo de Arte Moderno, Sao Paulo, Brazil

1971: Salon des Jeunes Peintures, Grand Palais, Paris

1971: Recent Acquisitions of the Contemporary Art Society, Gulbenkian Hall, Royal College of Art, London

1971: Caribbean Artists in England, Commonwealth Institute, London

1970: Young British Painters, UK Travelling Exhibition

1970: Young Generation of British Painters, USA Traveling Exhibition

1969: Carifta Expo, Grenada, West Indies

1969: Exposition Contemporaire des Villes, Jumelles d'esch sur Alzette, France

1969: Young Artists from the Commonwealth, Royal Commonwealth Society, London

1969: National Arts Students Exhibition, Roundhouse, London

1969: London Group, Royal Institute Galleries, London

1967: Art Colleges Exhibition, FBA Galleries, London

1966: University of London Union, London

1966: Luton International Arts Council, Bedford, UK

1966: Whitechapel Library, London

The Coming of Autumn by Winston Branch

2004: Peter Selz, Ronald Alley, Alliance Française, San Francisco, California. 27 March

2002: "Being There: 45 Oakland Artists" Museum of California, Oakland

2000: Marianne de Tolentino, "Urban Life in the Caribe" Muséo del Pantéon National, Art Nexus, May 2000, #36

2000: Jan Biles, "Inner Vision Drives Artist", Lawrence Journal-World, 9 November 2000

2000: Jennifer Detweiler, "Sharing His Art", The Manhattan Mercury, Sunday, 8 October 2000

1999: Wendy Martin, "A Matter of Survival - Portrait of Winston Branch", Women's Studies, No. 3, Volume 28, ISSN 0049-7878

1999: Julia Sommer, Berkeleyan, "Painter Winston Branch - Visiting Artist Shares His 'Great Love' for Painting & education", August 1999, ISSN 0885-3142

1998: Ronald Alley, 30th Festival International de La Peinture, Cagnes-Sur-Mer, France, Cat. 1988-1999

1998: Maria Lluisa Borras and Antonio Zaya, Casa de America, Caribe Insular, Exclusion, Fragmentaçion y Paraiso, Madrid, Spain, Cat. 1998

1998: Vlad, "Winston Branch ou les Métaphores de la Liberté", Frances-Antilles Magazine: Arts Plastiques, Saturday, 30 May-5 June 1998

1997: Holland Cotter, "This Realm of Newcomer, This England", The New York Times, 24 October 1997

1997: Mora Beauchamp Byrd, Transforming the Crown, ISBN 09654082-0-5

1996: André Chahot, 23rd Bienal International Sao Paulo, "The Inner Landscape", Cat. 1996

1996: Caroline Popovic, "The Precarious Life of Art", B.W.I.A. Caribbean Beat, November-December 1995

1994: André Chapot, Alliance Française de Roseau, Dominica

1993: Winston Branch, "In Search of the Green Banana", Evening Standard, 27 January 1993

1992: Anne Walmsley, The Caribbean Artists Movement: A Literary and Cultural History, 1966-1971, London and Port of Spain: New Beacon Books, ISBN 978-1873201060

1992: Ferdinand Dennis, "Ferdinand Dennis in Conversation with Winston Branch", BBC Radio Forum Work Talk, November 1992

1992: Michael Fabre, Los Afro Americains et L'Europe (catalogue), Paris: Galerie d'Art Noir Contemporain

1988: This is London, "Artist Opens City Studio", No. 1708, 30 June 1988

1987: Rod McLoughlin, "Exploring the Depths", Jersey Evening Post, Friday, 8 May 1987

1982: Carlos Diaz Sosa, 12th Biennale de Paris, "The Light in the Colors", Museé de Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Cat. 1982

1981: Goethe Institute, "Two Decades of the DAAD's British Artists in Berlin", London, November 1981

1978: David Simolke, "Winston Branch - A Study in Contrast", Black Art International Quarterly, Volume 2, No. 2, 1978

1978: Bernd Lubowski, "Ich Lasse Mich von Kimt der Stadt beein Flussen", Berliner Morgenpost, 3 December 1978, #282/81. JAHRG

1977: Jules Walter, "Winston Branch Painting 1976-77", DAAD: Hochschule der Kunst, Berlin, 1977

1977: Peter Hans Gopfert, "Malerische Dialoge Zwischen Kalkul und Phantasie", Die Welt, Tuesday, 12 July 1977-B NR 159/28W

1976: Was ist Wann?, "Winston Branch: Guest of Berlin DAAD", #6, Vol. 15.5-15.8, 1976

1973: Dr David C. Driskell, "The Recent Paintings of Winston Branch", The Carl Van Vechten Gallery, Department of Art, Fisk University, Nashville, Tennessee, October 1973

1973: Clara Hieronymus, "Major Show At Fisk", The Tennessean, Sunday, 14 October 1973

1. ^ Popovic, Caroline (December 1995). "Winston Branch: The Precarious Life of Art". Caribbean Beat (16).

2. ^ "Winston Branch". John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.

3. ^ Saakana, Amon, "Winston Branch: A painter at the crossroads", Kensington, Chelsea & Westminster Today, 12 October 2015.

4. ^ Work Talk, BBC Radio 4, November 1992. Interview by Ferdinand Dennis.

5. ^ Sommer, Julia (10 March 1999). "Painter Winston Branch - Visiting Artist Shares His 'Great Love' for Painting and Education". Berkeleyan.

6. ^ Martin, Wendy (1 January 1999). "A matter of survival-a portrait of Winston Branch". Women's Studies. 28 (3): 281-290. doi:10.1080/00497878.1999.9979260.

7. ^ "Winston Branch CV".

8. ^ "Wednesday, Feb. 9: Modernity Out of the Calabash - The Art and Artists of the Caribbean, Part I: A lecture by Winston Branch", Black History Month: Events, February 2000. Berkeleyan, February 2 - 8, 2000 (Volume 28, Number 20).

9. "Gallery Exhibit - Tribute to Alta Bates Summit Staff", ^ Winston Branch: "A Gift of Life" (exhibition brochure).

10. Tresadern, Molly, ^ "Ten black British artists to celebrate", Art UK, 23 November 2016.

11. ^ Chambers, Eddie, Black Artists in British Art: A History from 1950 to the Present, I.B.Tauris, 2014, pp. 79-80.

12. Simolke, David, "Winston Branch: A Study in Contrast", ^ Black Art: an international quarterly, Volume 2, Number 2, Winter 1978: 4-8.

13. Biles, Jan, ^ "'Inner vision' drives artist", Lawrence Journal-World, 9 November 2000.

14. Cotter, Holland, ^ "ART REVIEW; This Realm of Newcomers, This England", The New York Times, 24 October 1997.

15. "Saint Lucia artist paints mural for Hewanorra Airport", ^ St Lucia Mission, New York, Vol. 13, 7 June 1995.

Official website.

"Winston Branch CV".

Molly Tresadern, "Winston Branch: on Ju Ju birds and never staying still" (interview), Art UK, 15 January 2018.

4 artworks by or after Winston Branch at the Art UK site

"Winston Branch", Diaspora Arts.

Eddie Chambers, "Black British artists who should be better known", The I.B. Tauris Blog, 7 August 2014.

Amon Saakana, "Winston Branch: A painter at the crossroads", Kensington, Chelsea & Westminster Today, 12 October 2015.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Winston Branch (born in 1947) is a British artist originally from Saint Lucia, the sovereign island in the Caribbean Sea.[1] He still has a home there, while maintaining a studio in California.

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A sculptor specializing in installation and conceptual art.

He has received several distinctions and prizes, such as the Premio Duemila Prize at the XLIV Venice Biennale the Turner Prize, the Unilever Commission for the Turbine Hall at Tate Modern, the Padma Bhushan, a knighthood, and an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Oxford.

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Sir Anish Mikhail Kapoor, (born 12 March 1954) is a British-Indian sculptor specializing in installation art and conceptual art. Born in Mumbai, Kapoor attended the elite all-boys Indian boarding school The Doon School, before moving to the UK to begin his art training at Hornsey College of Art and, later, Chelsea School of Art and Design.

His notable public sculptures include (2006, also known as "The Bean") in Chicago's Millennium Park; , exhibited at the Rockefeller Center in New York City in 2006 and Kensington Gardens in London in 2010; , at Middlehaven, Middlesbrough; Leviathan, at the Grand Palais in Paris in 2011; and ArcelorMittal Orbit, commissioned as a permanent artwork for London's Olympic Park and completed in 2012. In 2017, Kapoor designed the statuette for the 2018 Brit Awards.

An image of Kapoor features in the British cultural icons section of the newly designed British passport in 2015. In 2016, he was announced as a recipient of the LennonOno Grant for Peace.

Kapoor has received several distinctions and prizes, such as the Premio Duemila Prize at the XLIV Venice Biennale in 1990, the Turner Prize in 1991, the Unilever Commission for the Turbine Hall at Tate Modern, the Padma Bhushan by the Indian government in 2012, a knighthood in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to visual arts, an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Oxford in 2014. and the 2017 Genesis Prize for "being one of the most influential and innovative artists of his generation and for his many years of advocacy for refugees and displaced people".

Anish Mikhail Kapoor was born in Mumbai, India, to an Iraqi Jewish mother and an Indian Punjabi Hindu father. His maternal grandfather served as cantor of the synagogue in Pune. At the time, Baghdadi Jews constituted the majority of the Jewish community in Mumbai. His father was a hydrographer and applied physicist who served in the Indian Navy. Kapoor is the brother of Ilan Kapoor, a professor at York University, Toronto, Canada.

Kapoor attended The Doon School, an all-boys boarding school in Dehradun, India. In 1971 he moved to Israel with one of his two brothers, initially living on a kibbutz. He began to study electrical engineering, but had trouble with mathematics and quit after six months. In Israel, he decided to become an artist. In 1973, he left for Britain to attend Hornsey College of Art and Chelsea School of Art and Design. There he found a role model in Paul Neagu, an artist who provided a meaning to what he was doing. Kapoor went on to teach at Wolverhampton Polytechnic in 1979 and in 1982 was Artist in Residence at the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool. He has lived and worked in London since the early 1970s.

Kapoor became known in the 1980s for his geometric or biomorphic sculptures using simple materials such as granite, limestone, marble, pigment and plaster. These early sculptures are frequently simple, curved forms, usually monochromatic and brightly coloured, using powder pigment to define and permeate the form. He has said of the sculptures "While making the pigment pieces, it occurred to me that they all form themselves out of each other. So I decided to give them a generic title, A Thousand Names, implying infinity, a thousand being a symbolic number. The powder works sat on the floor or projected from the wall. The powder on the floor defines the surface of the floor and the objects appear to be partially submerged, like icebergs. That seems to fit inside the idea of something being partially there..." Such use of pigment characterised his first high-profile exhibit as part of the New Sculpture exhibition at the Hayward Gallery London in 1978.

Holocaust Memorial, Liberal Jewish Synagogue London, 1996

In the late 1980s and 1990s, Kapoor was acclaimed for his explorations of matter and non-matter, specifically evoking the void in both free-standing sculptural works and ambitious installations. Many of his sculptures seem to recede into the distance, disappear into the ground or distort the space around them. In 1987, he began working in stone. His later stone works are made of solid, quarried stone, many of which have carved apertures and cavities, often alluding to, and playing with dualities (earth-sky, matter-spirit, lightness-darkness, visible-invisible, conscious-unconscious, male-female, and body-mind). "In the end, I'm talking about myself. And thinking about making nothing, which I see as a void. But then that's something, even though it really is nothing."

Since 1995, he has worked with the highly reflective surface of polished stainless steel. These works are mirror-like, reflecting or distorting the viewer and surroundings. Over the course of the following decade Kapoor's sculptures ventured into more ambitious manipulations of form and space. He produced a number of large works, including Taratantara (1999), a 35-metre-high piece which was installed in the Baltic Flour Mills in Gateshead, England, prior to the renovation beginning there which turned the structure into the Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art; and (2002), a large work consisting of three steel rings joined by a single span of PVC membrane that reached end to end of the 3,400-square-foot (320 m ²) Turbine Hall of Tate Modern. Kapoor's Eye in Stone (Norwegian: Øye i stein) is permanently placed at the shore of the fjord in Lødingen in northern Norway as part of Artscape Nordland. In 2000, one of Kapoor's works, Parabolic Waters, consisting of rapidly rotating coloured water, was shown outside the Millennium Dome in London.

The use of red wax is also part of his repertoire, evocative of flesh, blood, and transfiguration. In 2007, he showed Svayambh (which translated from Sanskrit means "self-generated"), a 1.5-metre block of red wax that moved on rails through the Nantes Musée des Beaux-Arts as part of the Biennale estuaire; this piece was shown again in a major show at the Haus der Kunst in Munich and in 2009 at the Royal Academy in London. Some of Kapoor's work blurs the boundaries between architecture and art. In 2008, Kapoor created Memory in Berlin and New York for the Guggenheim Foundation, his first piece in Cor-Ten, which is formulated to produce a protective coating of rust. Weighing 24 tons and made up of 156 parts, it calls to mind Richard Serra's huge, rusty steel works, which also invite viewers into perceptually confounding interiors.

In 2009, Kapoor became the first Guest Artistic Director of Brighton Festival. Kapoor installed four sculptures during the festival: at Brighton Pavilion gardens; C-Curve at The Chattri, Blood Relations (a collaboration with author Salman Rushdie); and 1000 Names, both at the Fabrica Gallery. He also created a large site-specific work titled The Dismemberment of Jeanne d'Arc and a performance-based installation: Imagined Monochrome. The public response was so overwhelming that police had to re-divert traffic around C Curve at the Chattri and exercise crowd control.

In September 2009, Kapoor was the first living artist to have a solo exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts. As well as surveying his career to date, the show also included new works. On display were Non-Object mirror works, cement sculptures previously unseen, and Shooting into the Corner, a cannon that fires pellets of wax into the corner of the gallery. Previously shown at MAK, Vienna, in January 2009, it is a work with dramatic presence and associations and also continues Kapoor's interest in the self-made object, as the wax builds up on the walls and floor of the gallery the work slowly oozes out its form.

In early 2011, Kapoor's work, Leviathan, was the annual Monumenta installation for the Grand Palais in Paris. Kapoor described the work as: "A single object, a single form, a single colour...My ambition is to create a space with in a space that responds to the height and luminosity of the Nave at the Grand Palais. Visitors will be invited to walk inside the work, to immerse themselves in colour, and it will, I hope, be a contemplative and poetic experience."

In 2011, Kapoor exhibited Dirty Corner at the Fabbrica del Vapore in Milan. Having fully occupied the site's "cathedral" space, the work consists of a huge steel volume, 60 metres long and 8 metres high, that visitors enter. Inside, they gradually lose their perception of space, as it gets progressively darker and darker until there is no light, forcing people to use their other senses to guide them through the space. The entrance of the tunnel is goblet-shaped, featuring an interior and exterior surface that is circular, making minimal contact with the ground. Over the course of the exhibition, the work was progressively covered by some 160 cubic metres of earth by a large mechanical device, forming a sharp mountain of dirt which the tunnel appears to be running through.

In 2016, his art exposition in MUAC ( Mexico City) was a success, with literary contributions from Catherine Lampert, Cecilia Delgado, and Mexican writer Pablo Soler Frost.

Kapoor sued the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) in 2018. The gun lobby group had, without the sculptor's consent, used a filmed image of Cloud Gate in an approximately one-minute-long promotional video called "The Violence of Lies". The suit was ultimately settled out of court. Kapoor reported that the settlement included the removal of his work from the NRA's film, saying "They have now complied with our demand to remove the unauthorized image of my sculpture Cloud Gate from their abhorrent video, which seeks to promote fear, hostility, and division in American society".

Turning the World Upside Down, Israel Museum, 2010

Kapoor's earliest public commissions include the Cast Iron Mountain at the Tachikawa Art Project in Japan, as well as an untitled 1995 piece installed at Toronto's Simcoe Place resembling mountain peaks. In 2001, , a large mirror piece that reflects the sky and surroundings, was commissioned for a site outside the Nottingham Playhouse. Since 2006, , a 110- ton stainless steel sculpture with a mirror finish, officially titled Cloud Gate, has been permanently installed in Millennium Park in Chicago. Viewers are able to walk beneath the sculpture and look up into an bellybutton or "omphalos" above them.

In the autumn of 2006, a second 10-metre , was installed at Rockefeller Center, New York City. This work was later exhibited in Kensington Gardens in 2010 as part of the show Turning the World Upside Down, along with three other major mirror works.

ArcelorMittal Orbit, London Olympic Park, 2012

In 2009, Kapoor created the permanent, site-specific work Earth Cinema for Pollino National Park, the largest national park in Italy, as part of the project ArtePollino - Another South. Kapoor's work, Cinema di Terra ( Earth Cinema), is a 45m long, 3m wide and 7m deep cut into the landscape made from concrete and earth. People can enter from both sides and walk along it, viewing the earth void within. Cinema di Terra officially opened to public in September 2009.

Kapoor was also commissioned by Tees Valley Regeneration (TVR) to produce five pieces of public art, collectively known as the Tees Valley Giants. The first of these sculptures, Tememos, was unveiled to the public in June 2010. Temenos stands 50 metres high and is 110 metres in length. A steel wire mesh pulled taut between two enormous steel hoops, it remains an ethereal and an uncertain form despite its colossal scale.

In 2010, Turning the World Upside Down, Jerusalem was commissioned and installed at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. The sculpture is described as a "16-foot tall polished-steel hourglass" and it "reflects and reverses the Jerusalem sky and the museum's landscape, a likely reference to the city's duality of celestial and earthly, holy and profane".

The Greater London Authority selected Kapoor's Orbit sculpture from a shortlist of five artists as the permanent artwork for the Olympic Park of the 2012 Olympic Games. At 115 metres tall, Orbit is the tallest sculpture in the UK.

When asked if engagement with people and places is the key to successful public art, Kapoor said:

I'm thinking about the mythical wonders of the world, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Tower of Babel. It's as if the collective will comes up with something that has resonance on an individual level and so becomes mythic. I can claim to take that as a model for a way of thinking. Art can do it, and I'm going to have a damn good go. I want to occupy the territory, but the territory is an idea and a way of thinking as much as a context that generates objects.

Throughout his career, Kapoor has worked extensively with architects and engineers. He says this body of work is neither pure sculpture nor pure architecture.

His notable architectural projects include:

Ark Nova, an inflatable concert hall that will travel around the earthquake struck regions of Japan, designed in collaboration with architect Arata Isozaki.

Orbit, the permanent artwork for London's Olympic Park, in collaboration with engineer Cecil Balmond.

Temenos the first work of the Tees Valley Giants, the world's five largest sculptures, in collaboration with Cecil Balmond. Temenos is situated in Middlehaven Dock, Middlesbrough.

Dismemberment Site 1, installed in New Zealand at the Gibbs Farm sculpture park, owned by New Zealand businessman and art patron Alan Gibbs.

56 Leonard Street, New York, in collaboration with architects Herzog and de Meuron.

Two subway stations in Naples at Monte San Angelo and Triano in collaboration with Future Systems.

Taratantara (1999-2000) was installed at the Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art, Gateshead and later at Piazza Plebiscito, Naples.

An unrealised project for the Millennium Dome, London, (1995) in collaboration with Philip Gumuchdjian.

Building for a Void, created for Expo '92, Seville, in collaboration with David Connor.

Of his vision for the Cumana station in Monte Sant'Angelo, Naples, Italy under construction (as of June 2008), Kapoor has said:

It's very vulva-like. The tradition of the Paris or Moscow metro is of palaces of light, underground. I wanted to do exactly the opposite - to acknowledge that we are going underground. So it's dark, and what I've done is bring the tunnel up and roll it over as a form like a sock.[62]

In a collaboration with author Salman Rushdie, Kapoor conceived a sculpture consisting of two bronze boxes conjoined with red wax and inscribed around the outside with the first two paragraphs of Rushdie's text; "Blood Relations" or an "Interrogation of the Arabian Nights" in 2006.

Kapoor has designed stage sets including for; the opera at Glyndebourne in 2003; Pelléas et Mélisande, La Monnaie in Brussels, and a dance-theatre piece called in-i with Akram Khan and Juliette Binoche at the National Theatre in London.

The Anish Kapoor Foundation was founded as a charity in 2017, registered in London. In early 2021, the Venice city council approved construction plans for the foundation to convert the Palazzo Priuli Manfrin into an exhibition venue, artist studio and repository for a number of the artist's works from the foundation's collection. The project will be led by architecture firms FWR Associati of Venice and Studio Una of Hamburg.

In 2014, Kapoor began working with Vantablack, a substance thought to be one of the least reflective substances known. Vantablack S-VIS, a sprayable paint which uses randomly aligned carbon nanotubes and only has high absorption in the visible light band, also called the "blackest black" colour, has been exclusively licensed to Anish Kapoor's studio for artistic use. His exclusive license to the material has been criticized in the art world, but he has defended the agreement, saying: "Why exclusive? Because it's a collaboration, because I am wanting to push them to a certain use for it. I've collaborated with people who make things out of stainless steel for years and that's exclusive."

Artists like Christian Furr and Stuart Semple have criticised Kapoor for what they view to be the appropriation of a unique material to the exclusion of others. In retaliation, Semple developed a pigment called the "pinkest pink" and specifically made it available to everyone except Anish Kapoor and anyone affiliated with him. He later stated that the move was itself intended as something like performance art and that he did not anticipate the amount of attention it received. In December 2016, Kapoor obtained the pigment and posted an image on Instagram of his extended middle finger which had been dipped in Semple's pink. Semple also developed more products such as "Black 2.0" and "Black 3.0", which are supposed to look nearly identical to Vantablack despite being acrylic, and "Diamond Dust", an extremely reflective glitter made of crushed glass shards that are designed to hurt Kapoor if he dipped his finger in it, all of which were released with the same restriction against Kapoor as the "pinkest pink".

Kapoor initially began exhibiting as part of New British Sculpture art scene, along with fellow British sculptors Tony Cragg and Richard Deacon. His first solo exhibition took place at Patrice Alexandra, Paris, in 1980. He achieved widespread recognition when he represented Britain at the 1990 Venice Biennale, and recounts the experience in Sarah Thornton's Seven Days in the Art World. In 1992 Kapoor contributed to documenta IX with Building Descent into Limbo. In 2004, he participated in The 5th Gwangju Biennale in Gwangju, Korea. Solo exhibitions of his work have since been held in the Tate and Hayward Gallery in London, Kunsthalle Basel in Switzerland, Reina Sofia in Madrid, the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa, Musée des arts contemporains (Grand-Hornu) in Belgium, the CAPC Museum of Contemporary Art in Bordeaux, the Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil in Brazil, and the Guggenheim in Bilbao, New York City and Berlin.

In 2008, the Institute of Contemporary Art in Boston held the first U.S. mid career survey of Kapoor's work. That same year, Kapoor's Islamic Mirror (2008), a circular concave mirror, was installed in a 13th-century Arab palace now being used as by the Convent of Santa Clara in Murcia, Spain.

Kapoor was the first living British artist to take over the Royal Academy, London, in 2009; the show attracted 275,000 visitors, rendering it at the time the most successful exhibition ever by a living artist held in London. Eventually it was overtaken by the more than 478,000 who attended the David Hockney exhibition at the Tate Modern in 2017. This show subsequently travelled to the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. In 2010, Kapoor retrospective exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA) in New Delhi and Mumbai's Mehboob Studio, the first showcase of his work in the country of his birth. In 2011 Kapoor had a solo touring exhibition with the Arts Council, part of their "Flashback " series of shows. In May he exhibited Leviathan at the Grand Palais, and two concurrent shows in Milan at the Rotonda della Besana and Fabbrica del Vapore. He had a major exhibition at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney (MCA) from December 2012 to April 2013 as part of the Sydney International Art Series.

Dirty Corner, exhibited at the Palace of Versailles in 2015, was a topic of controversy due to its "blatantly sexual" nature. Kapoor himself reportedly described the work as "the vagina of a queen who is taking power".

In 2020 Kapoor unveiled a new exhibition at the grounds of Houghton Hall in Norfolk. It was the largest ever outdoor exhibition of pieces by Kapoor, containing 21 sculptures, some previously unseen, as well as a selection of drawings of his.

From 2 October 2021 - 13 February 2022 an exhibition of works created during the pandemic - 'Painting' - was shown at the Museum of Modern Art Oxford.

Kapoor's work is collected worldwide, notably by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City; Tate Modern in London; Fondazione Prada in Milan; the Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney; the Guggenheim in Bilbao; De Pont Museum of Contemporary Art in Tilburg, the Netherlands; the Moderna Museet, Stockholm; the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art in Kanazawa, Japan; and the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

In 1995, Kapoor married German-born medieval art historian Susanne Spicale. They have a daughter Alba and a son Ishan and lived in a house designed by architect Tony Fretton in Chelsea, London. In 2009, Kapoor purchased a 14,500 sq ft (1,350 m ²) Georgian-style residence at Lincoln's Inn Fields for about £3.6 million and had it redesigned by David Chipperfield. The couple separated and divorced in 2013. He later married garden designer Sophie Walker, his former sculptor's assistant, after the two began dating in 2013. The couple has one daughter together.

Heinz-Norbert Jocksin conversation with Anish Kapoor. Scheitere oft, aber schnell, Kunstforum International, Bd. 254, Cologne 2018, pp. 174-195

Artistic accolades

Civilian honours

Honorary Fellowships

Other

1. "Anish Kapoor: Turning the World Upside Down". Serpentine Galleries. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016.

2. ^ "Sir Anish Kapoor, 2017 Genesis Prize Laureate". The Genesis Prize. Mr. Kapoor was recognized for being one of the most influential and innovative artists of his generation and for his many years of advocacy for refugees and displaced people.

3. Jeffries, Stuart (8 June 2016). "Anish Kapoor on Wagner: 'He was antisemitic and I'm Jewish. Who cares?'". The Guardian.

4. ^ "ArtPremium - Anish Kapoor - "It waves you to a more removed ground"". ArtPremium. 13 March 2017. Archived from the original on 24 August 2018.

5. ^ Riba, Naama (3 May 2017). "'Jewish Nobel' Ceremony Canceled at Anish Kapoor's Request Over Syrian Refugees". Haaretz.

6. ^ Sexton, Rose; Cempellin, Leda (26 April 2009). "Finding Everything in the Space of Emptiness". Undergraduate Research Journal for the Human Sciences. 8 (1). www.kon.org. Archived from the original on 28 August 2012.

7. Anish Kapoor: Sky Mirror, 19 September - 27 October 2006 Archived 2 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Public Art Fund.

8. Kapoor, Anish. "Anish Kapoor." "BOMB Magazine" Spring 1990, Retrieved 16 April 2012.

9. ^ Abrams, Amah-Rose (8 December 2015). "Anish Kapoor: From Conceptualism to Activism". Artnet News.

10. ^ "La UNAM presenta obras deal artists Anish Kapoor". Archived from the original on 31 May 2016.

11. ^ ""ArtePollino- Another South". Three contemporary artists in the region of Basilicata". UniCredit Group. 5 September 2009.

12. ^ Bronner, Ethan (20 July 2010). "Cleaning Up Intersection of Ancient and Modern". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 July 2010.

13. Kabir Jhala (30 July 2021), Anish Kapoor is converting a vast, crumbling Venetian palace into his permanent exhibition space and workshop The Art Newspaper.

14. ^ Delaney, Brigid (26 September 2016). "'You could disappear into it': Anish Kapoor on his exclusive rights to the 'blackest black'". The Guardian.

15. ^ Frank, Priscilla (29 February 2016). "Anish Kapoor Angers Artists By Seizing Exclusive Rights To 'Blackest Black' Pigment". HuffPost.

16. ^ O'Connor, Roisin (27 December 2016). "Anish Kapoor in an act of childish greed, gets his hands on 'pinkest pink' after being banned from use by its creator". The Independent.

17. ^ Imagine - Winter 2009 - 1. The Year of Anish Kapoor: BBC One, 11:35 pm Tuesday 17 November 2009.

18. Sebastian Smee, ^ Anish Kapoor challenges perceptions in a mind-bending show at the ICA Archived 18 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine. The Boston Globe, 30 May 2008.

19. Quinn Latimer (11 December 2008), ^ Rosa Martinez on Anish Kapoor's "Islamic Mirror" Archived 11 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Blouin Artinfo.

20. Mark David (22 September 2021), ^ Anish Kapoor Asks $26 Million for One of Central London's Largest Homes .

21. Wise, Louis (25 February 2022). "Anish Kapoor's 'mad, mad project'". Financial Times.

22. Mead, Rebecca (15 August 2022). "Anish Kapoor's Material Values". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X.

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Sir Anish Mikhail Kapoor, (born 12 March 1954) is a British-Indian sculptor specializing in installation art and conceptual art. Born in Mumbai, Kapoor attended the elite all-boys Indian boarding school The Doon School, before moving to the UK to begin his art training at Hornsey College of Art and, later, Chelsea School of Art and Design.

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A portrait painter based in New York City known for his naturalistic paintings of Black people that reference the work of Old Master paintings.

In 2017, Wiley was commissioned to paint former President Barack Obama's portrait for the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery.

He was included in Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People of 2018.

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A leader, labourer and bark painter.

He is most known for his bark painting, producing many works using natural ochres on eucalyptus bark.

His work helped modify Western perspectives of "contemporary" art while also helping bring Aboriginal art to the Western art landscape.

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Yirawala (c. 1897 - 17 April 1976) was an Aboriginal Australian leader, labourer and bark painter. He is most known for his bark painting. He was born in the Northern Territory, which at the time was responsibility of the state of South Australia, and died in Minjilang, otherwise known as Croker Island.

Yirawala was born into the Naborn clan of the Kunwinjku language, and he was raised in the Marrkolidjban region, inland from Maningrida, an Indigenous community in Western Arnhem Land. He was born of the Duwa moiety. Though little is known of Yirawala's early life, he was fathered by Nowaritj, a significant religious leader who retained knowledge of his people's symbols and cave galleries rock paintings. He spent most of his life on Croker Island and retained strong family and cultural ties. His artistic ability became apparent at an early age. He grew up surrounded by the rich culture as he learned his father's designs, songs, stories, and rock art. Spiritual and cultural knowledge is taught by elders in the community and is integral to the Aboriginal people, therefore, Yirawala spent much of his early life learning.

Yirawala was commonly known as " Picasso of Arnhem Land". Picasso was an admirer of Yirawala's work and apparently said "When one observes his dynamic use of positive and negative space one understands why this is so." Through this encounter, Yirawala demonstrated the power of indigenous artists to impact non-indigeonous audiences. After seeing Yirawala's intricately manufactured aesthetic of bark paintings, Picasso declared "This is what I have been trying to achieve all my life". Yirawala was a key figure in the history of Australian art and the 1970s contemporary Indigenous art movement in Papunya.

Yirawala was an active painter from the 1960s until his death. He has produced many works using natural ochres on eucalyptus bark, a medium that is traditional of Northern Arnhemland. His art style is characteristic of those present on the rock-art galleries he grew up around. He garnered a lot of guidance and inspiration from rock-art styles and transformed ceremonial knowledge into bark paintings. He is widely acknowledged as one of the most important artists of his generation. His work is distinguished from other styles as he incorporates Mardayin, Lorrkon, and Wubarr traditional body designs, while incorporating rarrk. Rarrk is a style that is derived from traditional ritual practices and features geometric cross-hatching. Rarrk is symbolic of ancestral power. Yirawala, due to his authority as a cultural leader, demonstrated his authority by revolutionizing the art of Arnhem land. Much of his work features dynamic figures in the x-ray style of art.

In 1964 Yirawala met Sandra Le Brun Holmes, who became his patron. Holmes was a Darwin resident who helped the Aboriginal people preserve their culture. She organized his first solo exhibition in 1971. This travelling exhibition of his bark paintings was shown in Adelaide, Melbourne, Orange and Port Morseby.

Art dealers went against Yirawala's wishes of presenting and selling his paintings in story cycles, and most of the profit for his artwork went directly to the art dealers. His artwork was sold both within Australia and overseas. This caused Yirawala to become disillusioned with the art industry and he never knew the outcome of many of his famous and sacred artworks. Yirawala strongly opposed the commercialisation of his work. Through his artwork, Yirawala was a part of a movement among the Aboriginal people to acquire self-determination and independence. His work helped modify Western perspectives of "contemporary" art while also helping bring Aboriginal art to the Western art landscape.

Yirawala often told witty stories and had a great sense of humour which prevented him becoming completely disillusioned with the commercial art industry. He is often fondly remembered as having a handsome and dignified face with piercing eyes, shielded by an old bush hat.

Marrkolidjban outstation in the Liverpool River region played an important role in the development of Aboriginal art. It was here that Yirawala taught and influenced other artists such as Curly Bardkadubba, Peter Marralwanga and John Mawurndjul. Techniques in cross-hatching were learned and expanded on by a new generation of artists.

When Yirawala returned to Croker Island, he introduced cross-hatching to artists there, including Midjau Midjau and Samual Wagbara.

Yirawala's willingness to blend different regional painting styles resulted in major artistic and stylistic innovations in Aboriginal bark paintings.

Yirawala was married three times and had seven children. For a time, he lived in Oenpelli( Gunbalanya) with his first wife, with whom he had three children. He then married Mary Malilba with whom he had one daughter and two sons. He later married Margaret Monanggu with whom he had a son. Little is known about them aside from two sons, Bobby and Danny, who lived on Croker Island. He settled with his family on Croker Island in the late 1950s, by which time he was an influential and important bark painter.

Yirawala was a ceremonial leader, a law-carrier and a medicine man and healer. Yirawala was perceived as a man of integrity and wisdom. He dedicated himself to the preservation of his people's culture. Lazarus Lamilami described him as one of a great line of ceremonial leaders who inherited sacred designs to be passed on to future generations. As elders within the community are tasked with passing down cultural knowledge, by the 1950s, Yirawala became a teacher to both his own community and outsiders. Yirawala was also a strong advocate for land rights.

Yirawala was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in 1971 and received the International Art Cooperation Award. Following the awarding of his MBE, Adelaide sculptor John Dowie was commissioned to create a bronze bust of Yirawala. Yirawala believed that this sculpture held his spirit.

Yirawala died on 17 April 1976 on Croker Island, where he is buried in Minjilang cemetery. After his death, the possession of the bronze sculpture became controversial. At the time, the sculpture was held by the Adelaide Art Gallery, however, after some dispute, it was given to Yirawala's family.

The National Gallery of Australia was the first public institution to recognize his significance as an Australian artist, as they acquired 139 of his paintings in 1976. In 1982. One of his paintings was used on the 27¢ stamp, which commemorated the 15th anniversary of the National Gallery. At the time, it was the largest collection by an Aboriginal artist to be featured in a public institution. His works are hosted in many Australian state galleries and international collections. He has been the subject of two films that Holmes made: Return to the Dreaming (1968) and The Picasso of Arnhem Land (1982). Images of Yirawala's bark paintings from the National Museum of Australia's collection can be found online.

1971 Yirawala, University of Sydney

1988 Dreamings: The Art of Aboriginal Australia, Asia Society, New York

1993 Aratjara: Art of the First Australians, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Dusseldorf (1993), touring Europe (1993-1994)

1993-1994 MCA Aboriginal Art: The Arnott's Collection, Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sydney

2004 Crossing Country: The Alchemy of Western Arnhem Land Art, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney

2007 One sun, one moon, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney

2008 They Are Meditating: Bark Paintings from the MCA's Arnott's Collection, Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sydney

2010 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art: Collection Highlights, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra

2011 Tell me Tell me: Australian and Korean Contemporary Art 1976-2011, Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sydney and National Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art, Seoul

2014 Old Masters: Australia's Great Bark Artists, National Museum of Australia, Canberra

1. Taylor, Luke. "Yirawala (1897-1976)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. ISSN 1833-7538.

2. David Carment; Barbara James; Robyn Maynard; Alan Powell; Helen J Wilson, eds. (2008). Northern Territory dictionary of biography (Rev. ed.). Darwin: Charles Darwin University Press. ISBN 9780980384697.

3. Taylor, Luke. "Yirawala (1897-1976)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. ISSN 1833-7538.

4. ^ Taylor, Luke. "Yirawala (1897-1976)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. ISSN 1833-7538.

5. Baum, Tina (2012). Masterpieces for the nation fund 2012 : the master of Arnhem Land bark painting, Yirawala. OCLC 902809522.

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Yirawala (c. 1897 - 17 April 1976) was an Aboriginal Australian leader, labourer and bark painter. He is most known for his bark painting. He was born in the Northern Territory, which at the time was responsibility of the state of South Australia, and died in Minjilang, otherwise known as Croker Island.

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A British painter and writer of Ghanaian heritage. She is best known for her portraits of imaginary subjects.

Her work has contributed to the renaissance in painting the Black figure.

Her paintings often are presented in solo exhibitions.

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A Nigerian-born visual artist working in Los Angeles, California. She creates collage and photo transfer-based paintings that expose the challenges of occupying two worlds – Nigeria and California.

In 2017, she was awarded the Genius Grant from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.

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A British visual artist, intuitive philosopher, cultural facilitator, teacher, choreographer, songwriter, and performer.

She is best known for her large scale, black-and-white line drawings, she performs many of her drawings for a live audience.

Born in London, Martin lives and works in Los Angeles and New York.

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Shantell Martin (born October 1, 1980) is a British visual artist, intuitive philosopher, cultural facilitator, teacher, choreographer, songwriter, performer, and more. Best known for her large scale, black-and-white line drawings, she performs many of her drawings for a live audience. Born in Thamesmead, London, Martin lives and works in Los Angeles and New York. Along with exhibitions and commission for museums and galleries, Martin frequently collaborates with international commercial projects, both private and public.

Martin was born in Thamesmead in South East London and was educated nearby at Bexleyheath School in Bexleyheath. After a year at Camberwell College of Arts, she was admitted to Central Saint Martin's College of Art and Design in London. She graduated with honours in 2003. Martin is half-Nigerian, and identifies as queer.

After graduation, she lived in Japan where she first experimented with live performance art as a visual jockey. From 2006 to 2009, Martin developed her drawing skills through "liveography" - the process of projecting live drawings to sound, music or other experience.

In 2008, Martin moved to New York. This period marked the next phase of her career, where she began to focus primarily on physical drawing.

Her first solo exhibition, Continuous Line, was held at Black and White Gallery in Williamsburg, New York, and her first solo museum show, ARE YOU YOU, opened at The Museum of Contemporary African Diasporan Arts in Brooklyn. This was followed by Black and White, a collaboration in embroidery with her grandmother, as a part of the Brooklyn Museum group show, Crossing Brooklyn: Art from Bushwick, Bed-Stuy, and Beyond, in 2015. In New York City, she has exhibited at Studio 301, Milk Gallery, Museum of the Moving Image and 3 Howard Street. She has also exhibited at the Bata Shoe Museum in Toronto and the Albright-Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York.[citation needed ]

She staged a live drawing installation at the Museum of Modern Art in New York for a private event.

Martin has had residencies at 92nd Street Y's Milton J. Weill Art Gallery, The Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas (in collaboration with Art Production Fund), Summit Series in Utah, Clark College in Washington and Autodesk in San Francisco.[citation needed ]

Since 2013, Martin has been adjunct professor at NYU Tisch ITP, a visiting scholar at MIT Media Lab, and a fellow at Columbia University's Brown Institute for Media Innovation (at NYU Tisch School of the Arts where she taught the course "Drawing on Everything"). Martin was previously a visiting scholar and research affiliate at MIT Media Lab, Social Computing group (2011-2017). She was a 2018-2019 advisory board member for the Climate Museum in New York and an ambassador for the Global Poverty Project. In 2014, she participated in Sundance Institute's New Frontier. She is also a fellow at the Brown Institute for Media Innovation at Columbia University.[citation needed ]

In addition to contributing to a body of work, Martin is a public figure. In 2012, her Bedford-Stuyvesant bedroom and artwork were featured in the New York Times' Home and Garden Section. Her personal style has been documented in , and The New Yorker created a short video on her creative process in 2014, called "Follow the Pen".

In 2019, Martin was featured in an exhibition at the Denver Art Museum, which showed her iconic black-and-white drawings on the museum's walls, floors and ceilings all over the building. The exhibition explored the concepts of intersectionality, identity and play. Martin's drawings in the museum were swapped in and out throughout the length of the exhibition, making it fluid and different on each visit.[citation needed ]

In 2016, Martin collaborated with Kendrick Lamar for a 75-minute performance at Art Basel in Miami. She worked with Puma for three separate collaborations, PUMA x SHANTELL MARTIN. In 2018, for her third collaboration, Puma staged a pop-up on Canal Street in New York City. She has also collaborated with Tiffany & Co., The North Face, Vespa and 1800 Tequila, as part of the tequila company's "Essential Artists" series. For Kelly Wearstler, she created a mural for the Melrose Avenue boutique and a line of clothing and furniture. She gave a TED talk, "How Drawing Can Set You Free" in June 2021. In March 2022, she appeared with Critical Mass at SXSW to help educate artists on how to successfully navigate brand collaborations.

Martin had a commission in the lobby of the New York City Ballet as part of its annual Art Series. and a permanent mural for Young & Rubicam's Manhattan headquarters. In March 2022, Martin premiered her first choreographed ballet, "KITES," at the Boston Ballet.

WAVE: A Journey Through the Sea of Imagination for the Adventurous Colorist was published by TarcherPerigee as a nine-foot long coloring book with the artist's black-and-white line drawings. The book was created from a series of micro-detailed drawings in a series of 27 notebooks.

In March 2020, Heni Publishing released Martin's monograph, LINES, charting her prolific career. A 200 limited edition version was included on release with a unique front and back cover drawn by the artist.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Shantell Martin (born October 1, 1980) is a British visual artist, intuitive philosopher, cultural facilitator, teacher, choreographer, songwriter, performer, and more. Best known for her large scale, black-and-white line drawings, she performs many of her drawings for a live audience. Born in Thamesmead, London, Martin lives and works in Los Angeles and New York.

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Frank Bowling (Sir Richard Sheridan Patrick Michael Aloysius Franklin Bowling OBE RA)

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Frank Bowling (Sir Richard Sheridan Patrick Michael Aloysius Franklin Bowling OBE RA)

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A British artist who was born in British Guiana. He is particularly renowned for his large-scale, abstract "Map" paintings.

Bowling has been described as "one of Britain’s greatest living abstract painters", as "one of the most distinguished black artists to emerge from post-war British art schools" and as a "modern master".

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Sir Richard Sheridan Patrick Michael Aloysius Franklin Bowling Richard Sheridan Franklin Bowling; born 26 February 1934), known as Frank Bowling, is a British artist who was born in British Guiana. He is particularly renowned for his large-scale, abstract "Map" paintings, which relate to abstract expressionism, colour field painting and lyrical abstraction. Bowling has been described as "one of Britain's greatest living abstract painters", as "one of the most distinguished black artists to emerge from post-war British art schools" and as a "modern master". British cultural critic and theorist Stuart Hall situates Bowling's career within a first generation, or "wave" of post-war, Black-British art, one characterised by postwar politics and British decolonisation. He is the first black artist to be elected a member of the Royal Academy of Arts.

In 2019, Bowling was the subject of a hugely successful retrospective at Tate Britain and, in 2022, opened a major show of works that took place from 1966 to 1975 at the Museum of Fine Arts Boston. He is represented in more than fifty international collections, including the Museum of Modern Art (New York), the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), Tate Britain (London) and the Royal Academy of Arts (London).

Bowling studied at the Regent Street Polytechnic, Chelsea School of Art and, later, the City and Guilds of London Art School. In 1959, he was awarded a scholarship at the Royal College of Art, where he joined fellow students David Hockney, R. B. Kitaj, Derek Boshier and Patrick Caulfield.

Bowling was born on 26 February 1934 in Bartica, British Guiana, to Richard Bowling and his wife, Agatha.

In 1940, Bowling's father moved the family to New Amsterdam so as to take up his post as accountant and paymaster in the local police force. Bowling's mother was a highly skilled seamstress, dressmaker, and milliner; she created a successful business from scratch and built a grand three-storey clapperboard building with a boldly lettered fascia that proclaimed: "Bowling's Variety Store".

In May 1953, at the age of 19, Bowling emigrated to Britain, where he lived with an uncle in London and enrolled at Westminster College of Commerce to study English.

After National Service in the Royal Air Force, Bowling met the future artist and architect Keith Critchlow. Influenced by Critchlow, Bowling went on to study art, despite earlier ambitions to be a poet and a writer. He lodged at his parents' house in Redcliffe Gardens, Chelsea, where he was painted by Critchlow, and he studied at the Chelsea School of Art.

In 1959, Bowling won a scholarship to London's Royal College of Art, where fellow students included artists such as David Hockney, Derek Boshier, Allen Jones, R. B. Kitaj and Peter Phillips. At the beginning of his studies there, Bowling concentrated on painting -still-life compositions of bottles, animals, meat and figure drawings. His Sheep's Head paintings, made in the autumn of 1960, were a series of muddy, murky intense works reminiscent of Giorgio Morandi and his muted colour palette. Another series of paintings produced in 1960, titled the Athletes, are characterised by vivid chromatic colour and dynamically asymmetrical compositions.

Bowling graduated from the Royal College of Art in 1962.

Frank Bowling, Cover Girl, 1966

Bowling's artistic career began with his first commercial exhibition, Image in Revolt, at the Grabowski Gallery in Chelsea, London, in October 1962.

In autumn 1963, Bowling had begun to teach painting at Camberwell School of Art in London. There, with the assistance of the textiles department, he amassed a stockpile of canvas pieces bearing the image of his mother's emporium screen-printed in red or green. The first painting in which the image was deployed was Cover Girl (1966). The title refers to the young woman with the Mary Quant-style dress and the Vidal Sassoon helmet haircut, an image appropriated from the cover of an colour supplement of March 1966.

The masterpiece of the first phase of Frank Bowling's career is Mirror (1964-66), the culmination of years of development in London. In this painting, Bowling appears twice: at the top of a spiral staircase from the Royal College of Art's painting school, and at the foot of the stairwell, a metaphor for transition and emergence. In between is the figure of Paddy Kitchen.

Frank Bowling, Polish Rebecca, 1971

From around 1967 to 1971, shortly after arriving in New York, Bowling made a group of works now known as the map paintings. For Bowling, the map motif served both as evocative subject matter and as device to organize the flat, modernist picture plane. Bowling elected to present three of these epically proportioned canvases - Marcia H Travels (1970), Texas Louise (1971), and Australia to Africa (1971) - together with two marginally smaller works, Polish Rebecca (1971) and Traveling with Robert Hughes (1969-70), in his first solo museum exhibition, held at the Whitney Museum of American Art from 4 November to 6 December 1971.

Frank Bowling, Grating Rhymes, 1978

In 1974, Bowling constructed a movable wood platform, pivoted like a seesaw, so that paint could be poured onto unstretched canvas pegged to the tilted surface. Known as the poured paintings, they were characterised by their upright, rectangular format, linearity of cascading poured paint and masked edges. The combination of chance and precise technique resulted in process-driven works that share affinities with a long lineage of abstract painting. The poured paintings were the subject of an exhibition at Tate Britain in 2012.

Frank Bowling, Philoctetes' Bow, 1987

By the early 1980s, dense, encrusted and flowing paintings, often using a large amount of gel, were a significant aspect of Bowling's painterly practice. A turning point arrived in the summer of 1984, when he arrived at the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture in Maine for an artist-teacher residency. Quite quickly, he began to incorporate a broad range of objects into his paintings such as newsprint, plastic and foam. In 1986, Bowling exhibited a group of major new paintings at the Serpentine Gallery in London, curated by Ronald Alley, then Keeper of Modern Art at the Tate Gallery. Among the works on display was Wintergreens (1986), now in the Royal Academy's collection. A year after the show at the Serpentine Gallery, a key work from the same year, Spreadout Ron Kitaj (1986), was acquired by Tate. Also in 1987, Bowling created Philoctete's Bow, a work characterised by complex, textured surfaces, essentially additive and collage-like (involving stitching, patching and gluing fragments to the surface).

Towards the end of the 1980s, Bowling made his Great Thames series of paintings (1989), in homage to the great English landscape painters J. M. W. Turner and Thomas Gainsborough. This was also the period Bowling started making sculpture. Seven sculptures resulted. For the 1988 exhibition at the Royal West of England Academy (RWA) in Bristol, he made a further group of sculptures in galvanised steel.

Frank Bowling, Epps, 2009

In 2009, Bowling produced a series of vertical and horizontal "zippers" paintings, including Epps, Litchfield and Chinese Chance (all 2009), suggesting tall skies or long horizons. In 2011, Bowling presented new works known as the Crossings at ROLLO Contemporary Art in London. In these paintings, bands of colour are overloaded along the centre of the canvas creating a thickly textured build-up of contrasting colour. Crossing: Snakeheadpassage (2011) and Crossing: Liberty (2011) are two such examples.

In 2017, there was a retrospective of his work at Haus der Kunst in Munich. A major retrospective exhibition of his work was on view at Tate Britain in 2019. Land of Many Waters, a major exhibition of unseen works by Bowling, alongside key paintings from the previous decade, was exhibited at the Arnolfini in Bristol in 2021. In 2022, the Stephen Lawrence Gallery at the University of Greenwich focused on his sculptures and the sculptural aspects of his paintings in an exhibition called Frank Bowling and sculpture.

The exhibition Frank Bowling's Americas was at the Museum of Fine Arts Boston from 22 October 2022 to 9 April 2023 and will be at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) from 13 May to 10 September 2023.

Bowling's paintings have been shown in numerous exhibitions in continental Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States and are included in major private and corporate collections worldwide. His work can also be seen in the permanent collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York, as well as the Tate Gallery in London.

From 1969 to 1972, Bowling was a critic and contributing editor at Arts Magazine, where he rejected the idea that "artists who happen to be black" should be making overtly political or protest art, and defended those engaged in abstraction. His critical writings represent a significant contribution to intellectual debates on "black art". His writings have been included in several publications such as The Soul of a Nation Reader and Mappa Mundi.

In 1969, Bowling organised an important exhibition at Stony Brook University, New York, titled 5+1, that included abstract works by five Black American artists - Melvin Edwards, Daniel LaRue Johnson, Al Loving, Jack Whitten, and William T. Williams - together with his own paintings. Bowling held teaching positions at many institutions, including at Camberwell School of Art, where he taught painting in 1963, and lectureships at the University of Reading (until 1967); Columbia University, New York (until 1969); Rutgers University, New Jersey (until 1970); and Massachusetts College of Art, Boston (1970-71).

From the late 1960s onwards, Bowling's work appeared in many of the century's most important exhibitions that centred upon the work of Black-British and Afro-Caribbean artists. Historian and artist Eddie Chambers notes how Bowling took part in an important, though now largely forgotten, 1978 London exhibition entitled Afro-Caribbean Art alongside a variety of other major artists from Africa and its diasporic populations. Participants included Lubaina Himid, Donald Locke, Eugene Palmer, Mohamed Ahmed Abdalla and Keith Ashton.

Bowling was also featured in the highly influential 1989 exhibition The Other Story, held in London's South Bank Centre. The show sought to survey the history of postwar, Black-British art, serving as one of only two shows to ever tackle the subject matter. Curated by the London-based, Pakistani artist Rasheed Araeen, the landmark show sought to demonstrate the ways in which the history of contemporary non-Western art could be understood as both a variety of independent art-historical narratives as well as integral to a mainstream story of global art history. Araeen devised this curatorial approach as a protest against what he took to be a pervasive way of marginalising non-Western art histories in which artists working outside of the Western canon would be presented as existing within an insular, Western-adjacent canon. Participants included Rasheed Araeen, Salim Arif, Eddie Chambers, Aubrey Williams and Ronald Moody.

While working at the Royal College of Art, he met the novelist, biographer and art critic Paddy Kitchen when she was a member of staff there. They married in 1960 (divorcing in 1966) and had one son, who is now deceased: Richard Sheridan Bowling (1962-2001), who was known as Dan Bowling.

Frank Bowling has two other sons: Ben Bowling (born 1962), Professor of Criminology & Criminal Justice at King's College London, whose mother is the artist Claire Spencer; and Sacha Bowling (born 1964), a film maker and photographer, whose mother is Irene Delderfield Bowling (whom Bowling married in 1969).

Over the course of six decades, Bowling has relentlessly pursued a practice which boldly expands the possibilities and properties of paint. Ambitious in scale and scope, his dynamic engagement with the materiality of his chosen medium, and its evolution in the broad sweep of art history, has resulted in paintings of unparalleled originality and power.

In his earliest works, Bowling was influenced by the work of Rembrandt, Goya, Van Gogh and Francis Bacon. From 1962 onwards, Bowling began to think deeply about geometry as an architectonic principle in his paintings. His interest in this direction dated at least from his Royal College dissertation on Piet Mondrian. The diptych Big Bird (1964) and Mirror (1964-66) are major examples of the importance of geometry to his work.

A notable change in Bowling's style occurred in 1966, shortly after arriving in New York. Paintings from his first months in the city understandably spring from pop art influences that had characterised his art over the past years but, around 1969, Bowling worked with personal photographs, letters, and cutout stencils of continents, overlapping references to geography, memory, and history in canvases he stained and splattered with liquid sweeps of acrylic paint. At this point, he befriended pop artists Larry Rivers and Jasper Johns, who were instrumental in his development as a painter.

In 1984, Bowling spent a productive nine weeks as an artist-in-residence at Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture in rural Maine, United States, where he was inspired by the green landscape of the surrounding countryside. Bowling's paintings from the mid-1980s assimilated his memories of classical English landscape painting with the revelation at Skowhegan. It was at this point that Bowling began incorporating objects into his paintings, influenced by the painter Larry Poons.

The sculptures Bowling made for the 1988 Royal West of England Academy recall the work of a number of modernist sculptors, among them Bowling's friend David Evison, Brian Wall, John Panting and William Turnbull.

The work Bowling has made since 2010 is in many ways a summation of his earlier concerns. And yet one development in Bowling's recent paintings is of special importance: the incorporation of found objects. Letters from friends and family, banknotes from British Guiana and France, cut-up bank cards, plastic animals, shirt collars, silk handkerchiefs, oyster shells, party poppers and medical equipment have all have become an increasingly significant element of his work, alluding to family connections and stories as well as international journeys.

Art historians and critics have understood Bowling as a late proponent of modernism. This can easily be observed in his career-long engagement with abstract expressionism. However, Bowling more fundamentally maintains the famously modernist understanding of painting, and art-making more generally, as a profoundly intellectual act that, as Kobena Mercer notes, "demanded continuous reflection on the ideas, sources and materials of their work". Stuart Hall notes how the African and diasporic artists of Bowling's generation understood their appropriation of modernist abstraction, a European style, as a critical or postcolonial endeavour. He writes, "However 'modern art' was seen by them as an international creed, fully consistent with anti-colonialism which was regarded as intrinsic to a modern consciousness". Rasheed Araeen, the Pakistani conceptual artist and famed curator of The Other Story, calling modernism "the only way of dealing with the aspirations of our time". This emphasis on modernist art as a means of reflective critique, though not necessarily political, is theorised by modernist critic Clement Greenberg, one of Bowling's most important influences, in essays such as "Modernist Painting".

Bowling has been described as "one of Britain's greatest living abstract painters", as "one of the most distinguished black artists to emerge from post-war British art schools" and as a "modern master". Writing for Art Basel, the art curator Sam Cornish said: "Central to Bowling's art is an astonishing aliveness to the mutability of color, as hue and material, combined with a flair for accumulating granular visual detail into dramatic, large-scale panoramas".

Awards, honours and recognition

Bowling's first award was a bursary from the Royal College of Art. He graduated in 1962 with a silver medal for painting. After graduating, Bowling was awarded a travelling scholarship, and travelled to Barbados, Trinidad and British Guiana (now Guyana). In 1967, Bowling was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, followed by a painting prize at Edinburgh Open 100, Scotland, for his painting, My Guyana, 1966-67. In 1973, he received his second Guggenheim Fellowship and then, in 1977, a Arts Council of Great Britain Award.

In 2005, Bowling was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Arts. He was among about a dozen artists proposed to fill one of two vacancies in the 80-member academy, and is the first black artist to be elected a Royal Academician in the history of the institution. He was elected a Senior Royal Academician on 1 October 2011.

Bowling was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours. He was knighted in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to art. He was awarded the 2022 Wolfgang Hahn Prize by the Gesellschaft für Moderne Kunst am Museum Ludwig.

Frank Bowling's Americas, New York, 1966-75. Museum of Fine Arts Boston and San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 2022-23.

Frank Bowling: Penumbral Light. Hauser & Wirth, Zurich, 2022.

Frank Bowling: Sculpture. Stephen Lawrence Gallery, University of Greenwich Galleries, London, 2022.

Frank Bowling: Wolfgang Hahn Prize. Museum Ludwig, Cologne, Germany, 2022.

Slip Zone: A New Look at Postwar Abstraction in the Americas and East Asia, Dallas Museum of Art, 2021-22.

Frank Bowling: Land of Many Waters. Arnolfini Gallery, Bristol, 2021.

Frank Bowling. Tate Britain. London, 2019.

Soul of a Nation: Art in the Age of Black Power. Tate Modern, London, 2018.

Frank Bowling: Mappa Mundi. Haus der Kunst, Munich, 2017-18.

Journeyings: Recent Works on Paper by Frank Bowling RA. Royal Academy of Arts, London, 2011.

Frank Bowling RA: Crossings. Rollo Contemporary Art, London, 2011.

Frank Bowling: Full of Light - A Survey Exhibition Featuring Paintings from 1978 to 2004. G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, Detroit, Michigan, United States, 2005.

Bending the Grid: Black Identity and Resistance in the Art of Frank Bowling. Aljira, a Center for Contemporary Art, Newark, New Jersey, United States, 2003.

Fault Lines: Contemporary African Art and Shifting Landscapes. Venice Biennale, 2003.

Frank Bowling: Bowling on Through the Century. Multiple venues, 1996-67.

Frank Bowling: Painting. Serpentine Gallery, London, 1986.

Frank Bowling. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, 1971.

Alloway, Lawrence, Hunter, Sam and Bowling, Frank. 5+1. New York: State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1969.

Alley, Ronald. Frank Bowling. London: Serpentine Gallery, 1986.

Enwezor, Okwuri; with contributions by Frank Bowling, Okwui Enwezor, Rose Jones, Kobena Mercer, Anna Schneider, Zoe Whitley, Lynette Yiadom-Boakye. Frank Bowling: Mappa Mundi. Munich, London, and New York: Prestel, 2014.

Crippa, Elena, ed. Frank Bowling. London: Tate Publishing, 2009.

Brace, Gemma. Frank Bowling. Land of Many Waters. Bristol: Arnolfini, 2021.

Bowling's works can be found in more than 50 international public institutions, including:

Tate Britain, London

Museum of Modern Art, New York

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

Museum of Fine Arts Boston, Boston

San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco

Pinault Collection, Bourse du Commerce, Paris

Moderna Museet, Stockholm

Museum Ludwig, Cologne

Royal Academy of Arts, London

Museum of Art, Łódź, Poland

Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Victoria and Albert Museum, London

The Menil Collection, Houston

Whitney Museum of American Art, New York

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Sir Richard Sheridan Patrick Michael Aloysius Franklin Bowling Richard Sheridan Franklin Bowling; born 26 February 1934), known as Frank Bowling, is a British artist who was born in British Guiana. He is particularly renowned for his large-scale, abstract "Map" paintings, which relate to abstract expressionism, colour field painting and lyrical abstraction.

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An British artist. His work explores cultural identity, colonialism and post-colonialism within the contemporary context of globalisation.

A hallmark of his art is the brightly coloured Ankara fabric he uses.

As Shonibare is paralysed on one side of his body, he uses assistants to make works under his direction.

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An artist. She was one of four shortlisted for the 2016 Turner Prize. She is known for creating strange and surreal artworks and large-scale installations.

In 2017 she became the first black woman to be awarded a commission to create a work for Tate Britain's Duveen Galleries.

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Anthea Hamilton, 2018

Anthea Hamilton (born 1978) is a British artist who graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University ( Leeds Beckett University) and the Royal College of Art and was one of four shortlisted for the 2016 Turner Prize. Hamilton was responsible for the show's most popular exhibit Project for a Door (After Gaetano Pesce) depicting a doorway consisting of large naked buttocks which reworks a proposal by Italian architect Caetano Pesci, dating from the early 1970s . She is known for creating strange and surreal artworks and large-scale installations.

Her exhibitions have included Sorry I'm Late at Firstsite.

In 2017 she became the first black woman to be awarded a commission to create a work for Tate Britain's Duveen Galleries, and according to Alex Farquharson, Tate Britain's director, Hamilton has made a "unique contribution to British and international art with her visually playful and thoughtful works". Her sculptures feature collage-like images which reuse images from her previous works.

Hamilton was born in 1978 in London, where she lives and works. She expressed no interest in becoming an artist as a child and she told her mother at an early age that she wanted to be an accountant, because of her love for maths.

2018: The New Life, Secession, Vienna, Austria

2018: The Squash, Tate Britain, London, UK

2015: Donuts, Fig-2, ICA, London, England

2014: LOVE (with Nicholas Byrne), Glasgow International, Glasgow, Scotland

2013: LET'S GO!, Bloomberg Space, London, England

2012: Kabuki, The Tanks, Tate Modern, London, England

2009: Calypsos (in collaboration with Nicholas Byrne), Studio Voltaire, Zoo Art Fair, London, UK, Anthea Hamilton, Ibid Projects, London, UK

2009: Spaghetti Hoops (curated by Jill Gasparina and Caroline Soyez-Petithomme), La Salle de bains, Lyon, FR

Turnhalle (Gymnasium), Kunstverein Freiburg, Freiburg, DE

2008: Gymnasium, Chisenhale Gallery, London, UK

2007: Anthea Hamilton and Thomas Kratz, Mary Mary, Glasgow, UK

2007: Cut-outs, Galerie Fons Welters, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

2007: Art Statements Art Basel 38, Basel, Switzerland

2006: Solo Presentation, Liste 06: The Young Art Fair, Basel, Switzerland

2005: How Deep Is Your Love?, Vision On, London, UK

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Anthea Hamilton (born 1978) is a British artist who graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University ( Leeds Beckett University) and the Royal College of Art and was one of four shortlisted for the 2016 Turner Prize.

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An artist and designer known for his bold use of bright colours and playful designs for furniture and public spaces.

His work includes architecture, interior design, graphic design, textiles, sculpture, and furniture. His work uses design as a medium for storytelling, referencing his British and Nigerian heritage.

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Olay Yinka Ilori (born April 1987) is a British artist and designer known for his bold use of bright colours and playful designs for furniture and public spaces. His work includes architecture, interior design, graphic design, textiles, sculpture, and furniture. It includes storytelling using design as a medium, referencing his British and Nigerian heritage.

The New York Times Style Magazine described Ilori as "one of '12 Talents Shaping the Design World'", and referred to him as belonging "to a more open-minded and inclusive generation that sees design as offering a possible response to social and environmental changes."

Ilori grew up in a multicultural neighbourhood on Essex Road in Islington and attended St Jude and St Paul's Church of England Primary School.

His father was a store manager for B&Q and his mother worked as an events caterer. Ilori recalls the vibrant outfits worn by his parents' friends and family at house parties when he was little. Visiting Nigeria as a child had an important impact on him and helped him better understand his family's cultural heritage.

Ilori studied art and design (with a focus on furniture and product design) at London Metropolitan University from 2006 to 2009.

The Colour Palace, Dulwich Pavilion (with Pricegore architects)

Blackfriars Road mural

Happy Street, Thessaly Road bridge

Happy Street (another view)

After completing his degree, Ilori worked as an intern with furniture designer Lee Broom. His first solo work was supported by a £3,500 grant from The Prince's Trust. He began his professional practice in 2011, initially by upcycling second-hand furniture, and taking inspiration from the colour and design aesthetic of West African textiles. Early in his career, he worked at a Marks & Spencer store in Moorgate. The company later engaged him to design products, including a recyclable carrier bag.

Ilori's mixed cultural heritage is an influence in his work. The Nigerian parables his parents told him as a child have become a major source of inspiration for his designs. In 2013, one such parable, "No matter how long the neck of a giraffe is, it still cannot see the future", led to a five-piece collection of chairs which Ilori transformed from broken and cast-off furniture into abstract, brightly coloured new works of art "to share a lesson from this childhood story - that we should not be judgemental".

More recently, he has created public works and installations such as Happy Street, in which he transformed a railway bridge underpass at Nine Elms with brightly coloured murals; The Colour Palace at Dulwich Picture Gallery, a temporary pavilion described as "a testament to universal themes of [colour], pattern, and celebration"; and Get Up Stand Up at Somerset House, which "celebrates half a century of black creativity in the UK" and was called "a riot of colour and pattern".

Ilori founded his design studio in 2015. The practice includes architects and designers for whom colour is a key interest. As his team has expanded, Ilori has been able to take on larger-scale architectural and interior design projects. His clients include companies such as Adidas, Kvadrat, Lego, Meta, Nike, Pepsi, and SCP, as well as the NHS Foundation Trust for which he created works for the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, and Springfield University Hospital.

In 2020 he launched an eponymous homeware brand which manufactures and distributes his own products, and he was also awarded the Emerging Design Medal by the London Design Festival.

Ilori collaborated with British stage designer Es Devlin on the design of the Britannia statuettes for the 2021 BRIT Awards.

In 2022 Ilori designed a playground named The Flamboyance of Flamingos in Parsloes Park, East London. In the same year, the Design Museum in London staged an exhibition of his work featuring 100 of his projects as well as "Canary Wharf's first ever basketball court." His work has also been exhibited in museums such as the V&A Dundee, Vitra Design Museum in Basel, and the Guggenheim Bilbao, and is held in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum in New York as part of the Afrofuturist Period Room.

Ilori has said, "I use colour as a way of starting a conversation. It's quite a nice way of opening up a topic and softening what could be a harsh reality", and is quoted in The Guardian as saying, "My work is very much about inclusivity and how people enjoy design." He lives and works in London, and was made a Member of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2021 New Year's Honours.

According to the architect David Adjaye, Ilori's work "transcends just function and product and acts as a device for cultural memory".

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Olay Yinka Ilori (born April 1987) is a British artist and designer known for his bold use of bright colours and playful designs for furniture and public spaces. His work includes architecture, interior design, graphic design, textiles, sculpture, and furniture. It includes storytelling using design as a medium, referencing his British and Nigerian heritage.

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A Karachi-born, London-based conceptual artist, sculptor, painter, writer, and curator.

He graduated in civil engineering from the NED University of Engineering and Technology in 1962, and has been working as a visual artist since his arrival in London from Pakistan in 1964.

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Rasheed Araeen. Photo: Socrates Mitsios.

Rasheed Araeen ( Urdu: رشید آرائیں; born 15 June 1935) is a Karachi-born, London-based conceptual artist, sculptor, painter, writer, and curator. He graduated in civil engineering from the NED University of Engineering and Technology in 1962, and has been working as a visual artist bridging life, art and activism since his arrival in London from Pakistan in 1964.

Araeen was pursuing a career as an engineer in Karachi when he was first exposed to avant-garde art. This arrived through two channels: imported Western books and magazines and contact with Pakistani contemporary artists. Consequently, he decided to pursue art-making and embarked on a second career.

Upon arriving in London in 1964, Araeen began working as an artist without any formal training, producing sculptures influenced by Minimalism and the work of Anthony Caro alongside his engineering experience. By his own account, works created or imagined in this period such as Chakras (1969-1970) and Zero to Infinity (1968-2004), while using basic structural units such as cubes, lattice and discs, were process-based and open to transformation by "the creative energy of the collective". Concepts of this period would make ripple effects throughout his career, both formally and politically. Chakras, the 16 red painted circular discs released on the water from Saint Katherine's Dock in 1970, would later evolve and give rise to the concept of Disco Sailing (1970-74), a new form between floating sculpture and dance. The work was revisited and resurrected many times through the decades and performed most recently at Garage Museum in Moscow in 2019.

Starting from the 1970s Araeen was increasingly concerned with questions of postcolonialism as he struggled with the Eurocentrism of institutions. Centering around issues of identity, representation and racial violence, he created the performance Paki Bastard, Portrait of The Artist as a Black Person (1977) using video projection, live performance and sound. He complemented this with writing statements and manifestos, which he considered to be a "textual form of art".

He also often traveled back to Karachi and make frequent visits to Baluchistan as a "return to the source". These travels have prompted in interest around land art and environmental issues described as "Ecoaesthetics" in his 2010 publication Art Beyond Art.

Araeen participated in Les Magiciens de la Terre (1989); 2nd Johannesburg Biennale (1997), 11th Biennale of Sydney (1998), 9th Shanghai Biennale (212), 9th Gwangju Biennale (2012), 57th Venice Biennale (2017) and documenta 14 (2017). In December 2017 a major retrospective of Araeen's work which spotted 60 years of his work was presented at Van Abbemuseum in Eindhoven and then toured to MAMCO in Geneva, the BALTIC in Gateshead, and Garage Museum in Moscow.

Araeen's artistic activity has been complemented by writing and publishing. He founded and began editing the journal Black Phoenix in 1978, which came to an abrupt end after three issues. In 1987 he founded the groundbreaking journal Third Text. Third World Perspectives on Contemporary Art and Culture, dealing with art, the Third World, Postcolonialism and ethnicity. In the first decade of its publication, the main aim was to reveal "the institutional closures of the art world and the artists they included, the second began the inquiry into the emergent phenomenon first signaled by the notorious show Magiciens de la terre of the assimilation of the exotic other into the new world art," as Sean Cubitt summarized the goals in the Third Text Reader in 2002. In 1999 Araeen spoke about his own journal Third Text as an attempt to "demolish the boundaries that separate art and art criticism".

Some of Araeen's contributions to Third Text were "From Primitivism to Ethnic Arts / & / Why Third Text?", Third Text #1, Autumn 1987; "Our Bauhaus Others' Mudhouse" [the Magiciens de la terre issue], Third Text #6, Spring 1989 and "Modernity, Modernism and Africa's Authentic Voice", Third Text Vol 24 #2, 2010.

Araeen founded Third Text Asia in 2008. The journal published three issues before ceasing activity.

Araeen from the early 1970s was among the first cultural practitioners to voice the need of artists of African, Latin American and Asian origins to be represented in British cultural institutions. He curated exhibitions; initiated and published a number of journals; and produced art installations and community-based artistic projects.

Before founding the journal Black Phoenix in 1972, he joined the Black Panther Movement, and then wrote "Preliminary Notes For A Black Manifesto" in 1975-76. He established a black voice in the British arts through his activities as a publisher, writer, and artist. In 1988 he curated the exhibition The Essential Black Art. This provided a foretaste of The Other Story, a larger 1989 exhibition featuring artists including Araeen himself, Frank Bowling, Sonia Boyce, Eddie Chambers, Uzo Egonu, Mona Hatoum, Lubaina Himid, Gavin Jantjes, Donald Locke, David Medalla, Ronald Moody, Ahmed Parvez, Ivan Peries, Keith Piper, F. N. Souza and Aubrey Williams. A groundbreaking exhibition of British African, Caribbean and Asian modernism, The Other Story was mounted at the Hayward Gallery, South Bank Centre, and went on to Wolverhampton Art Gallery and Manchester City Art Gallery and Cornerhouse.

In 2001 Araeem was invited by the Kunsthaus Bregenz in Austria to publish his institutional critique of the present art museum in the publication The Museum as Arena. Araeen published the outcome of his private correspondence with the Ikon Gallery in Birmingham, which had asked him to join an exhibition in 1980 (also published in Rasheed Araeen, Making Myself Visible). His proposal was declined when the other ten artists refused to show their work alongside his. Their opposition not only manifested cultural conflicts, but was also meant to defend the purity of the gallery space where Araeen had proposed to perform the slaughter and consumption of a goat (according to a Muslim ritual). Along with the actual performance, he had announced that he would display and tear up "the pages of a contemporary art history book". Thus, the action directed against the exclusionary aesthetics of the art gallery was complemented with a rejection of the official story of modernist art and avant-garde history. Araeen's main key writings were edited in Spanish by curator José-Carlos Mariátegui and Metales Pesados, as Del Cero al Infinito: Escritos de Arte y Lucha. In 2019 he opened Shamiyaana, a restaurant/space in Stoke Newington, where people can enjoy simple, vibrant, nourishing, low-cost food in an environment purpose-designed for conversation and eating.

Making Myself Visible (London: Kala Press, 1984)

From Modernism to Postmodernism: Rasheed Araeen: a Retrospective, exhibition catalogue, essays by P. Bickers, J. Roberts, and D. Phillipi (Birmingham: Ikon Gal., 1987)

From Two Worlds (London: Whitechapel Art Gallery, 1986)

Global Visions: Towards a New Internationalism in the Visual Arts (London: Kala Press, 1994)

Rasheed Araeen, exhibition catalogue, essay by P. Overy (London: S. London A. G., 1994)

Rasheed Araeen: Del Cero al Infinito: Escritos de Arte y Lucha, essay by José-Carlos Mariátegui (Santiago de Chile, Metales Pesados, 2019).

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Rasheed Araeen ( Urdu: رشید آرائیں; born 15 June 1935) is a Karachi-born, London-based conceptual artist, sculptor, painter, writer, and curator. He graduated in civil engineering from the NED University of Engineering and Technology in 1962, and has been working as a visual artist bridging life, art and activism since his arrival in London from Pakistan in 1964.

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An artist and photographer. He is known for his portrait photographs.

One of his most famous works is Kesh Angels (2010), a photograph of five veiled women from Marrakech sitting on motorbikes in front of the Theatre Royal.

He was commissioned by Vogue to shoot a series of photographs of pop singer Billie Eilish for the cover of their March 2020 magazine.

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Hassan Hajjaj (born 1961), is a Moroccan contemporary artist and photographer who lives and works between London, United Kingdom, and Marrakech, Morocco. He is known for his portrait photographs.

Hajjaj was born in Larache, Morocco in 1961.

Hajjaj's first feature-length film, Karima: A Day in the Life of a Henna Girl, premiered at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in May 2015. The film takes viewers into the world of one Hajjaj's most iconic series, Kesh Angels, depicting the henna girls of Marrakesh.[further explanation needed ][citation needed ]

Hassan Hajjaj: My Rock Stars was exhibited at the Memphis Brooks Museum of Art in 2016. The film was shown at Art Basel in Basel, Switzerland in June 2015, curated by Cairo-based film curator and lecturer Maxa Zoller.

The exhibition Hassan Hajjaj: La Caravane opened in London's Somerset House on 5 October 2017, his first solo show in the city in seven years.

Hajjaj paid tribute to fellow Moroccan celebrities in "My Maroc Stars". The work featured artists, singers and designers such as Hindi Zahra, Dizzy DROS, Yassine Morabite, and many others.[citation needed ]

One of Hajjaj's most famous works include Kesh Angels (2010), a photograph of five veiled women from Marrakech, Morocco, as they sit on motorbikes stationed in front of the Theatre Royal. In Hajjaj's photograph, the women are adorned with colorful, heart-shaped sunglasses and striped socks, as the edited graphic pattern of repeating upside-down red food cans lines the border.

Hajjaj was commissioned by to shoot a series of photographs of pop singer Billie Eilish for the cover of their March 2020 magazine. In Hajjaj's cover, the singer sports a Gucci jacket and necklace, as she poses against a colorful patterned backdrop, for which the self-taught photographer is known. The magazine issue also included other photos shot by Hajjaj, including one where Eilish wore a blazer made from the flag of Casablanca football club, Wydad AC. Eilish was dressed in Hajjaj's clothing label Andy Wahloo, and is shown posing in front of a decorative straw rug that is commonly found in North Africa.

Aside from mixing elements of both Moroccan and pop culture references together in his art, Hajjaj is also known for subverting the Western viewer's expectations as he deconstructs the "tourist gaze that fetishizes veiled women" and instead situates them in a purposefully jumbled, animated light. By refashioning the Westernized view of Orientalism, Hajjaj states that he wanted to illustrate the multidimensional facets of Moroccan society in his photograph.

Similarly, Femmes du Maroc, a popular magazine for women in Morocco, held the first fashion event to showcase Moroccan wear in 1996. Journalist Aïcha Zaïmi Sakhri has commented on the now-popularized event, Caftan, by stating that its purpose was to show women that the caftan is not just a part of cultural wear, but a garment that could be worn in a fun, fashionable and modern sense. Much like the magazine's attempts to modernize Moroccan women fashion, Hajjaj's colorful photograph of the veiled, playful women atop their motorbikes contrasts the audience's perceptions of Moroccan women to show the "tension between assumption... and reality".

Hajjaj's style is easily recognizable and combines "elements of high fashion with trashy pop culture". He is known to mix luxury brands with obvious fakes and usually frames his photography with repeated motifs consisting of tin cans. Hajjaj's stylings combine camouflage, polka-dot, or animal prints with traditional fabrics from the souk. His photos "bring a sense of play that melds Moroccan heritage with a patchwork hip-hop swagger".

Hajjaj was the winner of the 2011 Sovereign Middle East and African Art Prize and was shortlisted for Victoria & Albert Museum's Jameel Prize in 2009. In 2013, Rose Issa Projects published the monograph By Hassan Hajjaj, Photography, fashion, film, design edited by Katia Hadidian, London (2014) exploring his upbringing in Morocco and London, his experiences in fashion and interior design, and his adventures in the music industry influence the vibrant colours, joyful spirit, and visual rhythm of his highly sought-after images.

In 2019 Hassan Hajjaj was published by the Maison Europeenne de la Photographie, Paris.[citation needed ]

Hajjaj's work is in the collections of the Brooklyn Museum, New York City; the British Museum, London; the Nasher Museum of Art, Duke University, Durham, NC; the Newark Museum, New Jersey; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles; Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; the Victoria & Albert Museum, London; the Farjam Collection, Dubai; Institut du Monde Arabe, Paris; the Kamel Lazaar Foundation, Tunisia; and Virginia Museum of Fine Art, Richmond, VA.

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Hassan Hajjaj (born 1961), is a Moroccan contemporary artist and photographer who lives and works between London, United Kingdom, and Marrakech, Morocco. He is known for his portrait photographs. Hajjaj was born in Larache, Morocco in 1961. Hajjaj's first feature-length film, Karima: A Day in the Life of a Henna Girl, premiered at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in May 2015.

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An artist. He won the 48th Venice Biennale International Golden Lion Prize and 2001 CalArts/Alpert Award in the Arts.

He was the Director of Visual and Special Effects for the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.

In October 2012, he was awarded the Praemium Imperiale in Tokyo as the first Chinese national Laureate.

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In his late teens and early twenties, Cai Guo-Qiang acted in two martial art films, The Spring and Fall of a Small Town and Real Kung Fu of Shaolin. Later intrigued by the modernity of Western art forms such as oil painting, he studied stage design at the Shanghai Theater Academy from 1981 to 1985.

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A contemporary Japanese artist.

She has been acknowledged as one of the most important living artists to come out of Japan, the world's top-selling female artist, and the world's most successful living artist.

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“Kusama” redirects here. For the film director, see Karyn Kusama.

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A British composer and conductor. He was particularly known for his three cantatas on the epic 1855 poem The Song of Hiawatha by American Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

He was the son of a doctor from Sierra Leone. He and his mother moved to Croydon when he was a baby.

He studied at the Royal College of Music.

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An American fine-art photographer and educator. She is a professor of photography at University of California.

She won the Artists Fellowship (2006) and the President’s Award for Lifetime Achievement from the Women’s Caucus for Art (2009).

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Catherine Sue Opie (born 1961) is an American fine-art photographer and educator. She lives and works in Los Angeles, as a professor of photography at University of California at Los Angeles.

Opie studies the connections between mainstream and infrequent society. By specializing in portraiture, studio, and landscape photography, she is able to create pieces relating to sexual identity. Through photography, Opie, documents the relationship between the individual and the space inhabited, offering an exploration of the American identity, particularly probing the tensions between the constructed American dream and the diverse realities of its citizens. Merging conceptual and documentary styles, Opie's oeuvre gravitates towards portraiture and landscapes, utilizing serial images and unexpected compositions to both spotlights and blur the lines of gender, community, and place, while invoking the formal gravitas reminiscent of Renaissance portraiture and hinting at her deep engagement with the history of art and painting.

She is known for her portraits exploring the Los Angeles leather- dyke community. Her work is held in the collections of the Museum of Modern Art and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and she has won awards including the United States Artists Fellowship (2006) and the President's Award for Lifetime Achievement from the Women's Caucus for Art (2009).

Opie was born in Sandusky, Ohio. She spent her early childhood in Ohio, and was influenced heavily by photographer Lewis Hine. At the age of nine she received a Kodak Instamatic camera, and immediately began taking photographs of her family and community. She evolved as an artist at age 14 when she created her own darkroom. Her family moved from Ohio to California in 1975. She earned her BFA from the San Francisco Art Institute in 1985.

She later received a Masters of Fine Arts degree from the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) in 1988. Prior to arriving at CalArts, she was a strictly black-and-white photographer. Opie's thesis project entitled Master Plan (1988) examined a wide variety of topics. The project looked deeper into construction sites, advertisement schemes, homeowner regulations, and the interior layout of their homes within the community of Valencia, California.

In 1988 Opie moved to Los Angeles, California, and began working as an artist. She supported herself by accepting a job as a lab technician at the University of California, Irvine. Opie and her former partner, painter Julie Burleigh, constructed working studios in the backyard of their home in South Central Los Angeles.

In 2001, Opie gave birth to a boy named Oliver though intrauterine insemination.

At the Hammer Museum, Opie was on the first Artist Council (a series of sessions with curators and museum administrators) and served on the board of overseers. Along with fellow artists John Baldessari, Barbara Kruger and Ed Ruscha, Opie served as member on the board for the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. In 2012, she and the others resigned; however, they joined the museum's 14-member search committee for a new director after Jeffrey Deitch's resignation in 2013. Opie returned in support of the museum's new director, Philippe Vergne, in 2014. She was also on the board of the Andy Warhol Foundation.

Along with Richard Hawkins, Opie curated a selection of work by the late artist, Tony Greene, at the 2014 Whitney Biennial, in New York. As of 2017, Opie has her studio at The Brewery Art Colony.

John and Scott (1993), from the Portraits series (1993-1997), at the Rubell Museum DC in 2022

Opie's work is characterized by a combination of formal concerns, a variety of printing technologies, references to art history, and social/political commentary. It demonstrates a mix between traditional photography and unconventional subjects. For example, she explores abstraction in the landscape vis-a-vis the placement of the horizon line in the Icehouses (2001) and Surfers (2003) series. She has printed photographs using Chronochrome, Iris prints, Polaroids, and silver photogravure. Examples of art history references include the use of bright color backgrounds in portraits which reference the work of Hans Holbein and the full body frontal portraits that reference August Sander. Opie also depicts herself with her son in the traditional pose of Madonna and child in Self Portrait/Nursing (2004).

Opie first came to be known with Being and Having (1991) and Portraits (1993-1997), which portray queer communities in Los Angeles and San Francisco. Being and Having looks at the outward portrayal of masculinity and is a reference to 17th-century Old Master portraiture. It conveyed strong ideals and perceptions based among persons of the LGBT community, referencing gender, age, race and identity; all constructed surrounding identity. This body of work similarly plays with performative aspects and play. These works read as iconography, themselves.

Use of certain symbols in her works have allowed these portraits to sit separately from any of her previous works. The portraits, for instance, Self Portrait/Pervert (1994) uses blood. The symbolism used in this work is recognized as a reoccurring statement for Opie, personally and allegorically. These images convey symbolic references to the celebration, embracing and remembrance of the shift and personal relationship with one's body. Opie's use of blood is also seen in another work, entitled, Self-portrait/Cutting (1993).

Opie's earlier work relies more heavily on documentary photography as opposed to allegorical, yet still provides a stark relationship to her investigation and use of powerful iconography throughout the years.

A common social/political theme in her work is the concept of community. Opie has investigated aspects of community, making portraits of many groups including LGBT community; surfers; and most recently high school football players. Opie is interested in how identities are shaped by our surrounding architecture. Her work is informed by her identity as an out lesbian. Her works balance personal and political. Her assertive portraits bring queers to a forefront that is normally silenced by societal norms. Her work also explores how the idea of family varies between straight and LGBTQ communities. Opie highlights that LGBTQ households often base their families in close friendships and community while straight families focus on their individual family.

Opie has referenced problems of visibility; where the reference to Renaissance paintings in her images declare the individuals as saints or characters. Opie's portraits document, celebrate and protect the community and individuals in which she photographs. In Portraits (1993-1997) she presents a variety of identities among the queer community such as drag kings, cross dressers, and F-to-M transexuals.

This Los Angeles-focused series sparked her ongoing project American Cities (1997-present) which is a collection of panoramic black-and-white photographs of quintessential American cities. This series is similar to an earlier work of hers, Domestic (1995-1998) which documented her 2-month RV road trip, portraying lesbian families engaging in everyday house-hold activities across the country.

Drawing inspiration from transgressive photography of Robert Mapplethorpe, Nan Goldin, and sex radicals, who provided a space for liberals and feminists, Opie has also explored controversial topics and imagery in her work. In her O folio-6 photogravures from 1999-Opie photographed S-M porn images she took earlier for On Our Backs, but as extreme close-ups.

In 2011 Opie photographed the home of the actress Elizabeth Taylor in Bel Air, Los Angeles. Taylor died during the project, and never met Opie. Opie took 3,000 images for the project; 129 comprised the completed study. The resultant images were published as 700 Nimes Road. Collector Daily noted the "relentless femininity of Taylor's taste" in the images contrasted with Opie's self declared "identity as a butch woman" in Opie's forward to 700 Nimes Road and Opie's "status as an ordinary mortal" in comparison to Taylor's stardom.

Opie's first film The Modernist (2017) is a tribute to French filmmaker Chris Marker's 1962 classic Composed of 800 still images, the film features Pig Pen (aka Stosh Fila)-a genderqueer performance artist-as the protagonist. The Modernist has been described as an ode to the city in which it takes place, Los Angeles, but it is also seen as questioning the legacy of modernism in America. The twenty-two-minute film, in summary, is about an aggravated artist who just wants his own homes as he has fallen in love with the architecture of Los Angeles. Being unable to purchase a place to live, the performance artist goes around burning down lovely architecture of LA.

Opie's teaching career began in 2001 at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). In 2019, UCLA announced Opie as the university's inaugural endowed chair in the art department, a position underwritten by a $2-million gift from philanthropists Lynda and Stewart Resnick.

Freeways. Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles

Catherine Opie, essays by Kate Bush, Joshua Decter & Russell Ferguson. The Photographers' Gallery, London.

Catherine Opie: In Between Here and There. Saint Louis, MO: Saint Louis Art Museum, 2000. With an essay by Rochelle Steiner. Exhibition catalogue.

Catherine Opie. The Photographers' Gallery, London, 2000.

Catherine Opie: Skyways and Ice Houses. Walker Art Center 2002.

1999 / In and Around Home. The Aldrich Contemporary Museum of Art, Ridgefield, CT, and the Orange County Museum of Art, Newport Beach, CA, 2006.

Chicago (American Cities), curated by Elizabeth T.A. Smith, published by Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, 2006.

Catherine Opie: An American Photographer. Guggenheim Museum, New York, NY, 2008. ISBN 978-0892073757

"Catherine Opie" This is Not to be Looked At. Morse, Rebecca. Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, CA, 2008.

Catherine Opie: Empty and Full, Molesworth, Helen, ed. Hatje Cantz, Stuttgart, 2011. ISBN 978-3775730150

700 Nimes Road, Catherine Opie, with essays by Hilton Als, Ingrid Sischy, Prestel, Munich, 2015. ISBN 978-3791354255

Catherine Opie: Keeping an Eye on the World. Buchhandlung Walter König, König, 2017.

Catherine Opie, with essays by Hilton Als, Douglas Fogle, Helen Molesworth, Elizabeth A.T. Smith, interview by Charlotte Cotton, Phaidon Press, New York, 2021. ISBN 978-1838662189

Angela Scheirl (1993), Museum of Fine Arts, Houston; and Museum of Modern Art, New York

Dyke (1993), Museum of Modern Art, New York; Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; Tang Teaching Museum, Saratoga Springs, New York; and Whitney Museum, New York

Jo (1993), Rubell Museum, Miami and Washington, D.C.; and Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts

Mike and Sky (1993), Museum of Modern Art, New York; Rubell Museum, Miami and Washington, D.C.; and Whitney Museum, New York

Pig Pen (1993), Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas; and Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut

Self Portrait/Cutting (1993), Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; and Whitney Museum, New York

Untitled #1, from the series Freeway (1993-1994), Tang Teaching Museum, Saratoga Springs, New York

Untitled #5, from the series Freeway (1993-1994), J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles; and Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut

Untitled #16, from the series Freeway (1993-1994), Nevada Museum of Art, Reno, Nevada

Untitled #20, from the series Freeway (1993-1994), Whitney Museum, New York

Untitled #27, from the series Freeway (1993-1994), Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles

Crystal Mason (1994), Groninger Museum, Groningen, Netherlands; and Rubell Museum, Miami and Washington, D.C.

Ron Athey (1994), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; and Whitney Museum, New York

Self Portrait/Pervert (1994), Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

Vaginal Davis (1994), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Flipper, Tanya, Chloe, & Harriet, San Francisco, California (1995), Museum of Fine Arts, Houston; Tate, London; and Whitney Museum, New York

Dyke Deck (1996), Hood Museum of Art, Hanover, New Hampshire; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Providence, Rhode Island; and Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut

Untitled #1, from the series Mini-malls (1997-1998), Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago; and Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles

Melissa & Lake, Durham, North Carolina (1998), Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; and Tate, London

Tammy Rae & Kaia, Durham, North Carolina (1998), Saint Louis Art Museum; and Walker Art Center, Minneapolis

Untitled #1, from the series Wall Street (2000-2001), Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago

Untitled #11, from the series Wall Street (2000-2001), Samuel P. Harn Museum of Art, Gainesville, Florida; and Tate, London

Untitled #9, from the series Icehouses (2001), Los Angeles County Museum of Art; and Walker Art Center, Minneapolis

Untitled #10, from the series Icehouses (2001), Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; and Walker Art Center, Minneapolis

Self Portrait/Nursing (2004), Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

Fall, Winter, Spring, Summer (Lake Michigan) (2004-2005), Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago

Football Landscape #3 (Notre Dame vs. St. Thomas More, Lafayette, LA) (2007), Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas

Football Landscape #13 (Twentynine Palms vs. Big Bear, Twentynine Palms, CA) (2008), Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Inauguration portfolio (2009), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; Los Angeles County Museum of Art; and Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles

Jewelry Boxes #6, from the portfolio 700 Nimes Road (2010-2011), Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; and Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebæk, Denmark

Her name appears in the lyrics of the Le Tigre song " Hot Topic."

Links to Works

Media related to Catherine Opie at Wikimedia Commons

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Catherine Sue Opie (born 1961) is an American fine-art photographer and educator. She lives and works in Los Angeles, as a professor of photography at University of California at Los Angeles. Opie studies the connections between mainstream and infrequent society. By specializing in portraiture, studio, and landscape photography, she is able to create pieces relating to sexual identity.

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A Canadian musician, writer, and visual artist.

She is an assistant professor in the creative writing program at the University of Calgary.

She is a seven-time Lambda Literary Award finalist, and considered a Great Canadian Filmmaker of the Future by CBC Arts.

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Vivek Shraya (born February 15, 1981) is a Canadian musician, writer, and visual artist. She currently lives in Calgary, Alberta, where she is an assistant professor in the creative writing program at the University of Calgary. As a trans femme of colour, Shraya often incorporates her identity in her music, writing, visual art, theatrical work, and films. She is a seven-time Lambda Literary Award finalist, and considered a Great Canadian Filmmaker of the Future by CBC Arts.

Shraya is dedicated to bringing creative writing opportunities to emerging BIPOC writers over the age of 50 through the founding of her award-winning publishing imprint VS. Books, which serves as a "mentorship and publishing opportunity" for these writers.

Shraya is also a director on the board of the Tegan and Sara Foundation, which fights for health, economic justice and representation for LGBTQ women.

How to Fail as a Popstar, a web series adapted from her stage play and book of the same name, premiered in 2023 on CBC Gem.

Shraya began writing songs at the age of 13 and released her first album, THROAT, in 2002. Since then, she has released a dozen solo albums in a range of genres, including If We're Not Talking (2007), Keys & Machines (2009) and 1:1 (2011). Shraya has also created two albums, Bronze (2015) and Angry (2018), with her band, Too Attached, which she and her brother, Shamik Bilgi, formed in 2015. She has toured extensively in North America, both as a solo artist and with Too Attached, sharing the stage with Tegan and Sara, Dragonette, Melanie C, Team Dresch, Melissa Ferrick, Brian Byrne, Greg MacPherson and Bonjay.

Shraya's 2017 album, Part-Time Woman, a collaboration with the Queer Songbook Orchestra, was named one of the 17 best Canadian albums of 2017 by CBC Arts and longlisted for the 2018 Polaris Music Prize.

In 2010, Shraya published her first book, God Loves Hair, an illustrated collection of 21 linked short stories about a brown, genderqueer child growing up in immigrant family in Alberta. God Loves Hair was nominated for a 2011 Lambda Literary Award in the Children's/Young Adult category. Shraya's second book, She of the Mountains, a lyrical novel consisting of two intertwined love stories, was named one of The Globe and Mail's Best 100 Books of 2014, and nominated for a 2015 Lambda Literary Award for Transgender Fiction. Shraya was awarded the Honour of Distinction at the 2015 Dayne Ogilvie Awards.

In 2016, Shraya released her debut poetry collection, even this page is white, an incisive exploration of the effects of everyday racism and colonialism in Canada that won a 2017 Publishing Triangle award and was longlisted for CBC's Canada Reads. The Boy & The Bindi, a children's picture book about a young boy's fascination with the dot on his mother's forehead, was also published in 2016. Shraya's first non-fiction book, I'm Afraid of Men, was released in August 2018.

In 2017, Shraya partnered with Arsenal Pulp Press to create an imprint, VS. Books. Through VS. Books, Shraya supports young writers of colour by providing mentorship through the writing and editing processes and publishing a book by a different emerging artist every year. The first VS. title, Téa Mutonji's short story collection Shut Up You're Pretty, was published in 2019.

Shraya's first graphic non-fiction work Death Threat was published by Arsenal Pulp Press in 2019. Ness Lee did the visual art for the book.

Shraya's second novel The Subtweet was published on April 7, 2020 by ECW Press. The book is focused on an intense friendship between two women of colour musicians.

Quill & Quire reviewed The Subtweet in March 2020, concluding that "While it wrestles with the political realities of working in the arts and navigating social media, The Subtweet also elucidates certain social-justice modes of thought. Shraya's narrative pushes back against the ways mainstream and pop-culture formulations of social justice are used to further agendas misaligned with principles of equity. It critiques the ways in which social-justice rhetoric can be wielded as a weapon for the purpose of self-aggrandizement or the pursuit of personal vendettas. The Subtweet attempts to nudge the reader toward a more critical perspective and to encourage the reader to be more skeptical of what comes out of the mouths of public figures, especially when money and politics are involved."

Shraya's 2022 book People Change was published by Penguin Random House and was included in CBC Books list of "26 Canadian Books to Read for Pride Month".

Media and visual arts

Shraya has created five short films that have screened at festivals across Canada and internationally. In 2016, she released a photo series, Trisha, featuring old photos of her mother displayed alongside contemporary re-creations of the images with Shraya herself as the subject. This project has been shown in galleries across North America and a digital version of Trisha has circulated internationally.

Before coming out as trans on February 15, 2016, Shraya made the film, Seeking Single White Male on August 1, 2010. This film depicts a set of pictures of Shraya increasingly altering her features to those more associated with a Caucasian person. The images depict the bleaching of her brown hair to blonde in addition to the constant use of blue eye contacts over her brown eyes. In a post on her website just over two years after the original post, Shraya shares that the purpose behind the film was "to show how the internalization of racism can manifest externally." An analysis of Seeking Single White Male completed in June 2019 reveals that "The comments incorporated into this video clearly address the existence of racialized conceptions of desirability within the gay community in Ontario, Canada." Prior to 2010, Shraya altered her appearance to appear more Caucasian in response to the "racialized conceptions of desirability" in the Edmonton gay bars that she frequented. Seeking Single White Male has been shown in multiple screenings including the Vancouver Queer Film Festival in 2011 and the Reel Asian International Film Festival in Toronto, ON in 2012.

Shraya's first theatrical work debuted on February 18, 2020. The work is called How to Fail as a Popstar, chronicling "her journey to 'not quite' pop music superstardom. A reflection on the power of pop culture, dreams, disappointments and self-determination, this astonishing performance is a triumph in finding one's authentic voice." The play includes original songs written and performed by Shraya.

In 2020, Shraya partnered with Pantene on their global Hair Has No Gender Project, highlighting the importance of hair in a trans or gender non-binary person's identity and transition. The campaign's film included a conversation about self-expression and familial support between Shraya and her father, Mohan Bilgi.

Shraya has also composed music for the television series . Alongside Emily Persich, Moël, Terrell Morris, Shan Vincent de Paul and Ceréna, she won the Canadian Screen Award for Best Original Music in a Comedy Series at the 11th Canadian Screen Awards in 2023.

Vivek Shraya identifies as bisexual. On February 15, 2016, Shraya also came out as transgender and announced via her Facebook account that she is now using she/her pronouns.

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Vivek Shraya (born February 15, 1981) is a Canadian musician, writer, and visual artist. She currently lives in Calgary, Alberta, where she is an assistant professor in the creative writing program at the University of Calgary.

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An internationally bestselling author and podcaster. Her book Enchantment became an instant New York Times and Sunday Times bestseller.

The Electricity of Every Living Thing, her memoir of a midlife autism diagnosis, was adapted as an audio drama by Audible.

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Playing A/Part: Autistic Girls, Identities and Creativity

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I've finally managed to find the time to finish editing, exporting and uploading this video documenting the event that took place on Wednesday 8th September 2021 at the magnificent Colyer-Fergusson hall, University of Kent. After installing "zones of flow (iii)" and doing a dress rehearsal, we were ready to present it to the public that attended the conference and the general public.

The video features author Katherine May while reading from the book memoir of late-diagnosis "The Electricity of Every Living Thing" amidst the light installation "zones of flow (iii)" by Rocio von Jungenfeld.

The event was part of the "Beyond Stereotypes" conference organised as part of the AHRC-funded Playing A/Part project, a collaboration between the University of Kent, University of Surrey and Limpsfield Grange school.

The public event was supported by the Institute of Cultural and Creative Industries from the University of Kent.

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Current Flows: reading - installation - Playing A/Part: Autistic Girls, Identities and Creativity - Research at Kent

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I've finally managed to find the time to finish editing, exporting and uploading this video documenting the event that took place on Wednesday 8th September 2021 at the magnificent Colyer-Fergusson hall, University of Kent. After installing "zones of flow (iii)" and doing a dress rehearsal, we were ready to present it to the public that [...]

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A British writer, dub poet, actor, musician and professor of poetry and creative writing.

In his work, Zephaniah drew on his lived experiences of incarceration, racism and his Jamaican heritage.

In 2003, he was offered appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) but publicly rejected the honour, stating that: "I get angry when I hear that word 'empire'; it reminds me of slavery, it reminds of thousands of years of brutality […]”

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Benjamin Obadiah Iqbal Zephaniah (born 15 April 1958) is a British writer, dub poet and Rastafarian. He was included in The Times list of Britain's top 50 post-war writers in 2008.

Life and work

Zephaniah was born and raised in the Handsworth district of Birmingham, which he has called the "Jamaican capital of Europe". He is the son of a Barbadian postman and a Jamaican nurse. A dyslexic, he attended an approved school but left aged 13 unable to read or write.

He writes that his poetry is strongly influenced by the music and poetry of Jamaica and what he calls "street politics". His first performance was in church when he was eleven, and by the age of fifteen, his poetry was already known among Handsworth's Afro-Caribbean and Asian communities. He received a criminal record with the police as a young man and served a prison sentence for burglary. Tired of the limitations of being a black poet communicating with black people only, he decided to expand his audience, and headed to London at the age of twenty-two.

He became actively involved in a workers' co-operative in Stratford, London, which led to the publication of his first book of poetry, Pen Rhythm (Page One Books, 1980). Three editions were published. Zephaniah has said that his mission is to fight the dead image of poetry in academia, and to "take [it] everywhere" to people who do not read books, so he turned poetry readings into concert-like performances.

His second collection of poetry, The Dread Affair: Collected Poems (1985), contained a number of poems attacking the British legal system. Rasta Time in Palestine (1990), an account of a visit to the Palestinian occupied territories, contained poetry and travelogue.

His 1982 album Rasta, which featured The Wailers' first recording since the death of Bob Marley as well as a tribute to Nelson Mandela, gained him international prestige and topped the Yugoslavian pop charts. It was because of this recording that he was introduced to the political prisoner and soon-to-be South African president Nelson Mandela, and in 1996, Mandela requested that Zephaniah host the president's Two Nations Concert at the Royal Albert Hall, London. Zephaniah was poet in residence at the chambers of Michael Mansfield QC, and sat in on the inquiry into Bloody Sunday and other cases, these experiences leading to his Too Black, Too Strong poetry collection (2001). We Are Britain! (2002) is a collection of poems celebrating cultural diversity in Britain.

Zephaniah's first book of poetry for children, called Talking Turkeys, was reprinted after six weeks. In 1999 he wrote a novel for teenagers, , the first of four novels to date.

Zephaniah lived for many years in East London but in 2008 began dividing his time between Beijing and a village near Spalding, Lincolnshire.

He was married for twelve years to Amina, a theatre administrator, whom he divorced in 2001.

In 2011, Zephaniah accepted a year-long position as poet in residence at Keats House in Hampstead, London.

Zephaniah is a supporter of Aston Villa F.C. and is the patron for an Aston Villa supporters' website.

Zephaniah is an honorary patron of The Vegan Society, Viva! (Vegetarians' International Voice for Animals), EVOLVE! Campaigns, the anti-racism organisation Newham Monitoring Project with whom he made a video in 2012 about the impact of Olympic policing on black communities, Tower Hamlets Summer University and is an animal rights advocate. In 2004 he wrote the foreword to Keith Mann's book From Dusk 'til Dawn: An insider's view of the growth of the Animal Liberation Movement, a book about the Animal Liberation Front. In August 2007, he announced that he would be launching the Animal Liberation Project, alongside People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. He became a vegan when he read poems about "shimmering fish floating in an underwater paradise, and birds flying free in the clear blue sky".

In 2016 Zephaniah curated We Are All Human, an exhibition at the Southbank Centre presented by the Koestler Trust which exhibited art works by prisoners, detainees and ex-offenders.

The poet joined Amnesty International in speaking out against homophobia in Jamaica, saying: "For many years Jamaica was associated with freedom fighters and liberators, so it hurts when I see that the home of my parents is now associated with the persecution of people because of their sexual orientation."

Zephaniah is a Rastafari. He gave up smoking cannabis in his thirties.

In 2003, Zephaniah was offered appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, but publicly rejected it. In a subsequent article for The Guardian he elaborated upon his reaction to learning about being considered for the award and his reasons for rejecting it: "Me? I thought, OBE me? Up yours, I thought. I get angry when I hear that word 'empire'; it reminds me of slavery, it reminds of thousands of years of brutality, it reminds me of how my foremothers were raped and my forefathers brutalised...Benjamin Zephaniah OBE - no way Mr Blair, no way Mrs Queen. I am profoundly anti-empire."

Zephaniah has spoken in favour of a British Republic and the dis-establishment of the crown. In 2015 he called for Welsh and Cornish to be taught in English schools, saying "Hindi, Chinese and French are taught [in schools], so why not Welsh? And why not Cornish? They're part of our culture."

Zephaniah self-identifies as an anarchist. He appeared in literature to support changing the British electoral system from first-past-the-post to alternative vote for electing members of parliament to the House of Commons in the Alternative Vote referendum in 2011. In a 2017 interview, commenting on the ongoing Brexit negotiations, Zephaniah stated that "For left-wing reasons, I think we should leave the EU but the way that we're leaving is completely wrong".

In December 2019, along with 42 other leading cultural figures, Zephaniah signed a letter endorsing the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership in the 2019 general election. The letter stated that "Labour's election manifesto under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership offers a transformative plan that prioritises the needs of people and the planet over private profit and the vested interests of a few."

Achievements

Zephaniah won the BBC Young Playwright's Award. He has been awarded honorary doctorates by the University of North London (in 1998), the University of Central England (in 1999), Staffordshire University (in 2001), London South Bank University (in 2003), the University of Exeter and the University of Westminster (in 2006). On 17 July 2008 Zephaniah received an honorary doctorate from the University of Birmingham. He was listed at 48 in list of 50 greatest postwar writers.

He has released several albums of original music. He was awarded Best Original Song in the Hancocks 2008, Talkawhile Awards for Folk Music (as voted by members of Talkawhile.co.uk) for his version of Tam Lyn Retold recorded with The Imagined Village. He collected the Award live at The Cambridge Folk Festival on 2 August 2008 and described himself as a "Rasta Folkie".

Pen Rhythm (1980)

The Dread Affair: Collected Poems (1985) Arena

City Psalms (1992) Bloodaxe Books

Inna Liverpool (1992) AK Press

Talking Turkeys (1995) Puffin Books

Propa Propaganda (1996) Bloodaxe Books

Funky Chickens (1997) Puffin

School's Out: Poems Not for School (1997) AK Press

Funky Turkeys (Audiobook) (1999) AB hntj

White Comedy (Unknown)

Wicked World! (2000) Puffin

Too Black, Too Strong (2001) Bloodaxe Books

The Little Book of Vegan Poems (2001) AK Press

Reggae Head (Audiobook) 57 Productions

Face (1999) Bloomsbury (published in children's and adult editions)

Refugee Boy (2001) Bloomsbury

Gangsta Rap (2004) Bloomsbury

Teacher's Dead (2007) Bloomsbury

Children's books

We are Britain (2002) Frances Lincoln

Primary Rhyming Dictionary (2004) Chambers Harrap

J is for Jamaica (2006) Frances Lincoln

My Story (2011), Collins

When I Grow Up (2011), Frances Lincoln

Kung Fu Trip (2011), Bloomsbury

The Life And Rhymes of Benjamin Zephaniah (2018), Simon & Schuster

Playing the Right Tune (1985)

Job Rocking (1987). Published in Black Plays: 2, ed. Yvonne Brewster, Methuen Drama, 1989.

Delirium (1987)

Streetwise (1990)

Mickey Tekka (1991)

Listen to Your Parents (included in Theatre Centre: Plays for Young People - Celebrating 50 Years of Theatre Centre (2003) Aurora Metro, also published by Longman, 2007)

Face: The Play (with Richard Conlon)

Acting roles

Didn't You Kill My Brother? (1987) - Rufus

Farendj (1989) - Moses

Dread Poets' Society (1992) - Andy Wilson

Truth or Dairy (1994) - The Vegan Society (UK)

Crucial Tales (1996) - Richard's father

Making the Connection (2010) - Environment Films / The Vegan Society (UK)

Peaky Blinders (2013-present) - Jeremiah Jesus

Discography

Rasta (1982) Upright (reissued 1989) Workers Playtime (UK Indie #22)

Back to Roots (1995) Acid Jazz

Belly of De Beast (1996) Ariwa

Naked (2005) One Little Indian

Naked & Mixed-Up (2006) One Little Indian (Benjamin Zephaniah Vs. Rodney-P)

Revolutionary Minds (2017) Fane Productions

Singles, EPs

Dub Ranting EP (1982) Radical Wallpaper

"Big Boys Don't Make Girls Cry" 12-inch single (1984) Upright

"Free South Africa" (1986)

"Crisis" 12-inch single (1992) Workers Playtime

Guest appearances

"Empire" (1995) Bomb the Bass with Zephaniah & Sinéad O'Connor

Heading for the Door by Back to Base (2000) MPR Records

Open Wide (2004) Dubioza kolektiv (C) & (P) Gramofon

Rebel by Toddla T (2009) 1965 Records

"Illegal" (2000) from "Himawari" by Swayzak

"Theatricks" by Kinobe(2000)

References

External links

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Benjamin Obadiah Iqbal Zephaniah (born 15 April 1958) is a British writer, dub poet and Rastafarian. He was included in The Times list of Britain's top 50 post-war writers in 2008. Zephaniah was born and raised in the Handsworth district of Birmingham, which he has called the "Jamaican capital of Europe".

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A Japanese writer. His novels, essays, and short stories have been best-sellers in Japan and internationally, with his work translated into 50 languages and having sold millions of copies outside Japan.

He has received numerous awards for his work.

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An American novelist and editor.

Her first novel, The Bluest Eye, was published in 1970.

The critically acclaimed Song of Solomon (1977) brought her national attention and won the National Book Critics Circle Award.

In 1988, Morrison won the Pulitzer Prize for Beloved (1987).

She was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1993.

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An American mathematician. She is known for her contributions to mathematical modelling of the shape of the Earth, and her work on the development of satellite geodesy models, that were later incorporated into the Global Positioning System (GPS).

She was inducted into the United States Air Force Hall of Fame in 2018.

West was awarded the Webby Lifetime Achievement Award for the development of satellite geodesy models.

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Gladys Mae West (née Brown) (born 1930) is an American mathematician known for her contributions to the mathematical modeling of the shape of the Earth, and her work on the development of the satellite geodesy models that were eventually incorporated into the Global Positioning System (GPS). West was inducted into the United States Air Force Hall of Fame in 2018.

West was born as Gladys Mae Brown in Sutherland, Virginia, in Dinwiddie County, a rural county south of Richmond. Her family was an African-American farming family in a community of sharecroppers. Her mother worked at a tobacco factory, and her father was a farmer who also worked for the railroad. West realized early on that she did not want to work in the tobacco fields or factories like the rest of her family, and decided that education would be her way out.

At West's high school, the top two students of each graduating class received full-ride scholarships to Virginia State College (now formally University), a historically black public university. West worked hard and graduated in 1948 with the title of valedictorian. She was initially unsure what college major to pursue at VSU, as she had excelled in all her subjects in high school. She was encouraged to major in science or math because of their difficulty, and West ultimately chose to study mathematics, a subject mostly studied at her college by men. She also became a member of the Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority. West graduated in 1952 with a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. After graduating, she taught math and science for two years in Waverly, Virginia. West then returned to VSU to complete her Master of Mathematics degree, graduating in 1955. Afterwards, she briefly took another teaching position in Martinsville, Virginia.

In 1956, West was hired to work at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren, Virginia, (now called the Naval Surface Warfare Center), where she was the second black woman ever hired and one of only four black employees. West was a programmer in the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division for large-scale computers and a project manager for data-processing systems used in the analysis of satellite data. Concurrently, West earned a second master's degree in public administration from the University of Oklahoma.

In the early 1960s, she participated in an award-winning astronomical study that proved the regularity of Pluto's motion relative to Neptune. Subsequently, West began to analyze data from satellites, putting together altimeter models of the Earth's shape. She became project manager for the Seasat radar altimetry project, the first satellite that could remotely sense oceans. West consistently put in extra hours, cutting her team's processing time in half. She was recommended for a commendation in 1979.

From the mid-1970s through the 1980s, West programmed an IBM computer to deliver increasingly precise calculations to model the shape of the Earth - an ellipsoid with irregularities, known as the geoid. Generating an extremely accurate model required her to employ complex algorithms to account for variations in gravitational, tidal, and other forces that distort Earth's shape. West's data ultimately became the basis for the Global Positioning System (GPS).

In 1986, West published Data Processing System Specifications for the Geosat Satellite Radar Altimeter, a 51-page technical report from The Naval Surface Weapons Center (NSWC). The guide was published to explain how to increase the accuracy of the estimation of geoid heights and vertical deflection, important components of satellite geodesy. This was achieved by processing the data created from the radio altimeter on the Geosat satellite, which went into orbit on March 12, 1984.

West worked at Dahlgren for 42 years, retiring in 1998. After retiring, she completed a PhD in Public Administration from Virginia Tech.

West's vital contributions to GPS technology were rediscovered when a member of West's sorority Alpha Kappa Alpha read a short biography Gladys had submitted for an alumni function.

West was inducted into the United States Air Force Hall of Fame in 2018, one of the highest honors bestowed by Air Force Space Command (AFSPC). The AFSPC press release at the time called her one of "the so-called 'Hidden Figures' part of the team who did computing for the US military in the era before electronic systems" - a reference to the 2016 book by Margot Lee Shetterly, which was adapted into the film Hidden Figures. Capt. Godfrey Weekes, commanding officer at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division in 2018, described the role played by West in the development of Global Positioning System: "She rose through the ranks, worked on the satellite geodesy, and contributed to the accuracy of GPS and the measurement of satellite data. As Gladys West started her career as a mathematician at Dahlgren in 1956, she likely had no idea that her work would impact the world for decades to come." West agreed, saying that she had no idea at the time that her work would affect so many: "When you're working every day, you're not thinking, 'What impact is this going to have on the world?' You're thinking, 'I've got to get this right.'"

West was selected by the BBC as part of their 100 Women of 2018.

As an alumna of Virginia State University Dr. Gladys West was nominated and won the award for "Female Alumna of the Year" at the Historically Black Colleges and Universities Awards sponsored by HBCU Digest in 2018.

She met her husband Ira West at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division, where he also worked as a mathematician. They were two of only four black employees at the time. They were married in 1957. They have three children and seven grandchildren. As of February 2018, West lives in King George County, Virginia.

In 2018, West completed a PhD via a distance-learning program with Virginia Tech.

West continues to prefer using a paper map over a tracking system, saying she still trusts her brain above all.

Gladys B. West, "Smoothing of Geos 3 satellite radar altimeter data", Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 84, Issue B8, July 10, 1979, pp. 4055-4060.

Gladys B. West, SEASAT Satellite Radar Altimetry Data Processing System, Technical report, Naval Surface Weapons Center, Dahlgren, VA, May 1981. Full text: PDF.

Gladys B. West, "Mean Earth ellipsoid determined from SEASAT 1 altimetric observations", Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 87, No. B7, July 10, 1982, pp. 5538-5540.

Gladys B. West (June 1986). "Data Processing System Specifications for the Geosat Satellite Radar Altimeter" (PDF). Naval Surface Weapons Center, Dahlgren VA, Report NSWC TR 86-149.

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Gladys Mae West (née Brown) (born 1930) is an American mathematician known for her contributions to the mathematical modeling of the shape of the Earth, and her work on the development of the satellite geodesy models that were eventually incorporated into the Global Positioning System (GPS).

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An American zoologist, entomologist, educator and comparative psychologist. Known for his studies on the behaviour of bees and ants.

In his research, Turner became the first person to prove that insects can hear and can distinguish pitch. In addition, he first discovered that cockroaches can learn by trial and error and that honeybees can see visual patterns.

Besides his scientific work, Turner was active in the struggle to obtain social and educational services for African Americans in St. Louis, Missouri.

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Charles Henry Turner (February 3, 1867 - February 14, 1923) was an American zoologist, educator, and comparative psychologist, known for his studies on the behavior of insects, particularly bees and ants. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, Turner was the first African American to receive a graduate degree at the University of Cincinnati and most likely the first African American to earn a PhD from the University of Chicago. He spent most of his career as a high school teacher in Sumner High School in St. Louis.

Personal life

Charles Henry Turner was born in Cincinnati, Ohio on February 3, 1867. Notably, his birth came two years after the end of the Civil War. He was born to parents Thomas Turner and Addie Campbell, a church custodian and nurse, respectively. He was married to Leontine Troy (1886) and the couple had three children; Henry Owen Turner (1892-1956), Louise Mae Turner (1892,1894-?), and Darwin Romanes Turner (1894-1983). After the death of his first wife, Leontine Troy in 1895, Turner remarried Lillian Porter Turner sometime between 1907 and 1908. The two remained married until Turner's death in 1923. He died on February 14, 1923 from   acute myocarditis  in   Chicago. His place of interment is   Lincoln Cemetery  in Chicago. He is the paternal grandfather of Boston City Councillor and community organizer Chuck Turner.

Academic career

In 1886, Turner graduated valedictorian of Woodard High School, marking the start of his academic career. He began college at the University of Cincinnati in 1886 and graduated with B.S. degree in biology in 1891. During his undergraduate education, he was mentored by early comparative psychologist and biologist, Clarence L. Herrick. A summary of his undergraduate thesis on the neuroanatomy of bird brains was published in the journal in 1891. Tuner earned his M.S. degree in 1892 from the University of Cincinnati under his undergraduate advisor, Herrick. The same year, Turner became the first African-American to publish an article in Science.

Immediately after earning his M.S., Turner served as an assistant instructor in the biology laboratory at the University of Cincinnati until 1893. Turner began a PhD at Denison University from 1893-1894, but the program was discontinued. He attained a professorship in the Science Department at Clark University, where he also served as the Chair of the Science Department. The Turner-Tanner Hall at Clark University is now named in his honor. Sources fail to determine his length of service, but it is estimated that he was at Clark sometime between 1893 until 1905.

After his time at Clark University, Turner had his first career experience at a high school in 1906 when he obtained a position as the principle of College Hill High School in Cleveland, Tennessee. He then resigned the position in order to pursue a professorship in biology and chemistry at Haines Normal and Industrial Institute in Augusta, Georgia in 1907. While he was teaching, he continued to study insect behavior. During this period of time, Turner pursued his PhD in zoology at the University of Chicago. He spent the 1906-1907 academic year and the summer of 1906 working on his degree before graduating magna cum laude in 1907. He was the third African American person to receive a PhD from the University of Chicago.[disputed ] He was advised by zoologists Charles M. Child, Frank R. Lillie, and Charles O. Whitman.

In 1908, Turner gained a teaching position at Sumner High School, where he remained until his retirement in 1922 due to ill health. It is somewhat contested whether Turner chose to teach in high school or if he was unable to find a permanent position in academia. Between 1893-1908, Turner applied for a position at the Tuskegee Institute. Charles I. Abramson, in his 2003 article on Turner for  American Bee Journal, claims that Turner was unable, rather than unwilling, to get an appointment at the University of Chicago, and that the Tuskegee Institute could not afford his salary.

Turner published 49 papers on invertebrates, including "Habits of Mound-Building Ants", "Experiments on the Color Vision of the Honeybee", "Hunting Habits of an American Sand Wasp", and "Psychological Notes on the Gallery Spider". A large amount of Turner's research was conducted while he was teaching high school classes at Sumner. While at Sumner, he published 41 papers between 1908 and his death. Notably, Turner published three times in the journal Science. In his research, Turner became the first person to prove that insects can hear and can distinguish pitch. In addition, he first discovered that cockroaches can learn by trial and error and that honeybees can see color and patterns.

Turner conducted a large majority of his bee research at O'Fallon Park in North St. Louis, Missouri.

Selected publications include:

Besides his scientific work, Turner was active in the struggle to obtain social and educational services for African Americans in  St. Louis, Missouri. Two years after his death, The Charles Henry Turner Open Air School for Crippled Children was founded. The school was later renamed as Turner Middle School.

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Charles Henry Turner (February 3, 1867 - February 14, 1923) was an American zoologist, educator, and comparative psychologist, known for his studies on the behavior of insects, particularly bees and ants. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, Turner was the first African American to receive a graduate degree at the University of Cincinnati and most likely the first African American to earn a PhD from the University of Chicago.

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An American chemist. She developed the most effective treatment for leprosy during the early 20th century.

She was the first woman and first African American to receive a master's degree from the University of Hawaii, and was also the university's first female and African American chemistry professor.

She died at 24 and her contributions to science were not recognized until many years after her death.

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Alice Augusta Ball (July 24, 1892 - December 31, 1916) was an American chemist who developed the "Ball Method", the most effective treatment for leprosy during the early 20th century. She was the first woman and first African American to receive a master's degree from the University of Hawaii, and was also the university's first female and African American chemistry professor.

Alice Augusta Ball was born on July 24, 1892, in Seattle, Washington, to James Presley and Laura Louise (Howard) Ball. She was one of four children, with two older brothers, William and Robert, and a younger sister, Addie. Her family was middle-class and well off, as Ball's father was a newspaper editor of the Colored Citizen, photographer, and lawyer. Her mother also worked as a photographer. Her grandfather, James Ball Sr., was a famous photographer, and one of the first Black Americans to make use of daguerreotypy, the process of printing photographs onto metal plates. Some researchers have suggested that her parents' and grandfather's love for photography may have played a role in her love for chemistry, as they worked with mercury vapors and iodine sensitized silver plates to develop photos. Despite being prominent members and advocates of the African American community, both of Ball's parents are listed as "White" on her birth certificate. This may have been an attempt to reduce the prejudice and racism their daughter would face and help her "pass" in white society.

Alice Ball and her family moved from Seattle to Honolulu in 1903 in hopes that the warm weather would relieve her grandfather's arthritis. He died shortly after the move and in 1905 they relocated back to Seattle after only a year in Hawaii. After returning to Seattle, Ball attended Seattle High School and achieved top grades in the sciences. She graduated from Seattle High School in 1910.

Ball went on to study chemistry at the University of Washington, earning a bachelor's degree in pharmaceutical chemistry in 1912 and a second bachelor's degree in the science of pharmacy two years later in 1914. Alongside her pharmacy instructor, Williams Dehn, she published a 10-page article, "Benzoylations in Ether Solution", in the Journal of the American Chemical Society. Publishing such an article in a respected scientific journal was an uncommon accomplishment for a woman and especially for a Black woman at this time.

After graduating, Ball was offered many scholarships. She received an offer from the University of California Berkeley, as well as the College of Hawaii (now the University of Hawaii), where she decided to study for a master's degree in chemistry. At the College of Hawaii, her master's thesis involved studying the chemical properties of the Kava plant species. Because of this research and her understanding of the chemical makeup of plants, she was later approached by Dr. Harry T. Hollmann to study chaulmoogra oil and its chemical properties. Chaulmoogra oil had been the best treatment available for leprosy for hundreds of years, and Ball developed a much more effective injectable form. In 1915 she became the first woman and first Black American to graduate with a master's degree from the College of Hawaii. Ball was also the first African American "research chemist and instructor" in the College of Hawaii's chemistry department.

At the University of Hawaii, Ball investigated the chemical makeup and active principle of Piper methysticum (kava) for her master's thesis. Because of this work, she was contacted by Dr. Harry T. Hollmann at Kalihi Hospital in Hawaii, who needed an assistant for his research into the treatment of leprosy.

At the time, leprosy or Hansen's Disease was a highly stigmatized disease with virtually no chance of recovery. People diagnosed with leprosy were exiled to the Hawaiian island of Molokai with the expectation that they would die there. The best treatment available was chaulmoogra oil, from the seeds of the Hydnocarpus wightianus tree from the Indian subcontinent, which had been used medicinally from as early as the 1300s. But the treatment was not very effective, and every method of application had problems. It was too sticky to be effectively used topically, and as an injection the oil's viscous consistency caused it to clump under the skin and form blisters rather than being absorbed. These blisters formed in perfect rows and made it look "as if the patient's skin had been replaced by bubble wrap". Ingesting the oil was not effective either because it had an acrid taste that usually made patients vomit it up.

At age 23, Ball developed a technique to make the oil injectable and absorbable by the body. Her technique involved isolating ester compounds from the oil and chemically modifying them, producing a substance that retained the oil's therapeutic properties and was absorbed by the body when injected. Unfortunately, due to her untimely death, Ball was unable to publish her revolutionary findings. Arthur L. Dean, a chemist and later the president of the University of Hawaii, stole her work, published the findings, and began producing large quantities of the injectable chaulmoogra extract. Dean published the findings without giving Ball credit and named the technique after himself. In 1920, a Hawaii physician reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association that 78 patients had been discharged from Kalihi Hospital by the board of health examiners after treatment with injections of Ball's modified chaulmoogra oil. The isolated ethyl ester remained the preferred treatment for leprosy until sulfonamide drugs were developed in the 1940s.

It was not until years after her death that Hollmann attempted to correct this injustice. He published a paper in 1922 giving credit to Ball, calling the injectable form of the oil the "Ball method." Unfortunately, she still remained forgotten in the scientific record. In the 1970s, Kathryn Takara and Stanley Ali, professors at the University of Hawaii, searched the archives to find Ball's research. After numerous decades they were able to bring her efforts and achievements to light, giving her the credit she earned.

Ball died on December 31, 1916, at age 24. She had become ill during her research and returned to Seattle for treatment a few months before her death. A 1917 Pacific Commercial Advertiser article suggested that the cause may have been chlorine poisoning due to exposure while teaching in the laboratory. It was reported that Ball was giving a demonstration on how to properly use a gas mask in preparation for an attack, as World War I was raging in Europe. But the cause of her death is unknown, as her original death certificate was altered to cite tuberculosis.

The first recognition of Ball's work came six years after her death when, in 1922, she was briefly mentioned in a medical journal, with her method being called the "Ball Method". After the work of many historians at the University of Hawaii including Kathryn Takara and Stanley Ali, the University of Hawaii finally honored Ball in 2000 by dedicating a plaque to her on the school's only chaulmoogra tree behind Bachman Hall. On the same day, the former Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, Mazie Hirono, declared February 29 "Alice Ball Day," which is now celebrated every four years. In 2007 the University Board of Regents honored Ball with a Medal of Distinction, the school's highest honor. In March 2016 Hawaiʻi Magazine placed Ball on its list of the most influential women in Hawaiian history. In 2018 a new park in Seattle's Greenwood neighborhood was named after Ball. In 2019 the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine added her name to the frieze atop its main building, along with Florence Nightingale and Marie Curie, in recognition of their contributions to science and global health research. In February 2020, a short film, The Ball Method will premiere at the Pan African Film Festival. University of Hawaii students have asked whether more should be done to resolve the wrongful actions of former President Dean, including proposals to rename Dean Hall after Ball instead. On November 6, 2020, a satellite named after her ( ÑuSat 9 or "Alice", COSPAR 2020-079A) was launched into space.

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Alice Augusta Ball (July 24, 1892 - December 31, 1916) was an American chemist who developed the "Ball Method", the most effective treatment for leprosy during the early 20th century. She was the first woman and first African American to receive a master's degree from the University of Hawaii, and was also the university's first female and African American chemistry professor.

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In 1893, African-American general surgeon Daniel Hale Williams performed the first successful documented heart surgery on a young black man, James Cornish, who had been stabbed in his chest. Cornish survived and was discharged 51 days later.

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A British Conservative Party politician of Indian Parsi heritage.

He was a member of parliament (MP) representing the constituency of Bethnal Green North East in the Parliament of the United Kingdom between 1895 and 1906, the third British MP of Indian descent, after David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, and fellow Parsi Dadabhai Naoroji.

Bhownaggree was the longest-serving British Asian MP until Keith Vaz (who was first elected in 1987 and stood down in 2019).

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Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān and Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī 

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Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān and Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī 

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A Persian physician, philosopher and alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine.

He was the first to clinically distinguish between smallpox and measles.

Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners, and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West.

Edward Granville Browne considers him as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author".

Additionally, he has been described as the father of paediatrics, and a pioneer of obstetrics and ophthalmology.

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John Cunliffe was one of the children's writers who published Postman Pat in 1981 he also presented Rosie and Jim for Ragdoll Productions and made lots of great programmes

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Tagore won a Nobel Prize for literature - his work is fascinating

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Rabindranath Tagore (born May 7, 1861, Calcutta [now Kolkata], India-died August 7, 1941, Calcutta) Bengali poet, short-story writer, song composer, playwright, essayist, and painter who introduced new prose and verse forms and the use of colloquial language into Bengali literature, thereby freeing it from traditional models based on classical Sanskrit. He was highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the West and vice versa, and he is generally regarded as the outstanding creative artist of early 20th-century India. In 1913 he became the first non-European to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature.

The son of the religious reformer Debendranath Tagore, he early began to write verses, and, after incomplete studies in England in the late 1870s, he returned to India. There he published several books of poetry in the 1880s and completed Manasi (1890), a collection that marks the maturing of his genius. It contains some of his best-known poems, including many in verse forms new to Bengali, as well as some social and political satire that was critical of his fellow Bengalis.

In 1891 Tagore went to East Bengal (now in Bangladesh) to manage his family's estates at Shilaidah and Shazadpur for 10 years. There he often stayed in a houseboat on the Padma River (the main channel of the Ganges River), in close contact with village folk, and his sympathy for them became the keynote of much of his later writing. Most of his finest short stories, which examine "humble lives and their small miseries," date from the 1890s and have a poignancy, laced with gentle irony, that is unique to him (though admirably captured by the director Satyajit Ray in later film adaptations). Tagore came to love the Bengali countryside, most of all the Padma River, an often-repeated image in his verse. During these years he published several poetry collections, notably Sonar Tari (1894; The Golden Boat), and plays, notably Chitrangada (1892; Chitra). Tagore's poems are virtually untranslatable, as are his more than 2,000 songs, which achieved considerable popularity among all classes of Bengali society.

In 1901 Tagore founded an experimental school in rural West Bengal at Shantiniketan ("Abode of Peace"), where he sought to blend the best in the Indian and Western traditions. He settled permanently at the school, which became Visva-Bharati University in 1921. Years of sadness arising from the deaths of his wife and two children between 1902 and 1907 are reflected in his later poetry, which was introduced to the West in Gitanjali (Song Offerings) (1912). This book, containing Tagore's English prose translations of religious poems from several of his Bengali verse collections, including Gitanjali (1910), was hailed by W.B. Yeats and André Gide and won him the Nobel Prize in 1913. Tagore was awarded a knighthood in 1915, but he repudiated it in 1919 as a protest against the Amritsar (Jallianwalla Bagh) Massacre.

From 1912 Tagore spent long periods out of India, lecturing and reading from his work in Europe, the Americas, and East Asia and becoming an eloquent spokesperson for the cause of Indian independence. Tagore's novels in Bengali are less well known than his poems and short stories; they include Gora (1910) and Ghare-Baire (1916), translated into English as Gora and The Home and the World, respectively. In the late 1920s, when he was in his 60s, Tagore took up painting and produced works that won him a place among India's foremost contemporary artists.

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Rabindranath Tagore | Biography, Poems, Short Stories, Nobel Prize, & Facts

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Rabindranath Tagore, the revered Bengali poet and polymath, left an enduring legacy through his profound literary works and became the first non-European Nobel laureate in Literature.

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An Indian-born British-American novelist. His work often combines magic realism with historical fiction.

Rushdie's works have spawned 30 book-length studies and over 700 articles on his writing.

He is frequently mentioned a favourite to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.

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Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie (; born 19 June 1947) is an Indian-born British-American novelist. His work often combines magic realism with historical fiction and primarily deals with connections, disruptions, and migrations between Eastern and Western civilizations, typically set on the Indian subcontinent. Rushdie's second novel, Midnight's Children (1981), won the Booker Prize in 1981 and was deemed to be "the best novel of all winners" on two occasions, marking the 25th and the 40th anniversary of the prize.

After his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses (1988), Rushdie became the subject of several assassination attempts and death threats, including a calling for his death issued by Ruhollah Khomeini, the supreme leader of Iran. Numerous killings and bombings have been carried out by extremists who cite the book as motivation, sparking a debate about censorship and religiously motivated violence. In 2022, a man stabbed Rushdie after rushing onto the stage where the novelist was scheduled to deliver a lecture at an event in Chautauqua, New York.

In 1983, Rushdie was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. He was appointed a Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of France in 1999. Rushdie was knighted in 2007 for his services to literature. In 2008, ranked him 13th on its list of the 50 greatest British writers since 1945. Since 2000, Rushdie has lived in the United States. He was named Distinguished Writer in Residence at the Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute of New York University in 2015. Earlier, he taught at Emory University. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 2012, he published Joseph Anton: A Memoir, an account of his life in the wake of the events following The Satanic Verses. Rushdie was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by magazine in April 2023.

Ahmed Salman Rushdie was born in Bombay on 19 June 1947 during the British Raj, into an Indian Kashmiri Muslim family. He is the son of Anis Ahmed Rushdie, a Cambridge-educated lawyer-turned-businessman, and Negin Bhatt, a teacher. Rushdie's father was dismissed from the Indian Civil Services (ICS) after it emerged that the birth certificate submitted by him had changes to make him appear younger than he was. Rushdie has three sisters. He wrote in his 2012 memoir that his father adopted the name Rushdie in honour of Averroes (Ibn Rushd).

Rushdie grew up in Bombay and was educated at the Cathedral and John Connon School in Fort, South Bombay, before moving to England in 1954 to attend Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, and then King's College, Cambridge, from which he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history.

Rushdie has married five times and divorced four times, and has had at least one other significant relationship. He was first married to Clarissa Luard, literature officer of the Arts Council of England, from 1976 to 1987. The couple had a son, Zafar, born in 1979, who is married to the London-based jazz singer Natalie Rushdie. He left Clarissa Luard in the mid-1980s for the Australian writer Robyn Davidson, to whom he was introduced by their common friend Bruce Chatwin. Rushdie and Davidson never married, and they had split up by the time his divorce from Clarissa came through in 1987. Rushdie's second wife was the American novelist Marianne Wiggins; they were married in 1988 and divorced in 1993. His third wife, from 1997 to 2004, was British editor and author Elizabeth West; they have a son, Milan, born in 1997. In 2004, very shortly after his third divorce, Rushdie married Padma Lakshmi, an Indian-born actress, model, and host of the American reality-television show . Rushdie stated that Lakshmi had asked for a divorce in January 2007, and later that year, in July, the couple filed it. In 2021, Rushdie married American poet and novelist Rachel Eliza Griffiths.

In 1999, Rushdie had an operation to correct ptosis, a problem with the levator palpebrae superioris muscle that causes drooping of the upper eyelid. According to Rushdie, it made it increasingly difficult for him to open his eyes. "If I hadn't had an operation, in a couple of years from now I wouldn't have been able to open my eyes at all", he said.

Since 2000, Rushdie has lived in the United States, mostly near Union Square in Lower Manhattan, New York City. He is a fan of the English football club Tottenham Hotspur.

Rushdie worked as a copywriter for the advertising agency Ogilvy & Mather, where he came up with "irresistibubble" for Aero and "Naughty but Nice" for cream cakes, and for the agency Ayer Barker (until 1982), for whom he wrote the line "That'll do nicely" for American Express. Collaborating with musician Ronnie Bond, Rushdie wrote the words for an advertising record on behalf of the now defunct Burnley Building Society that was recorded at Good Earth Studios, London. The song was called "The Best Dreams" and was sung by George Chandler. It was while at Ogilvy that Rushdie wrote Midnight's Children, before becoming a full-time writer.

Rushdie's first novel, (1975), a part-science fiction tale, was generally ignored by the public and literary critics. His next novel, Midnight's Children (1981), catapulted him to literary notability. This work won the 1981 Booker Prize and, in 1993 and 2008, was awarded the Best of the Bookers as the best novel to have received the prize during its first 25 and 40 years. Midnight's Children follows the life of a child, born at the stroke of midnight as India gained its independence, who is endowed with special powers and a connection to other children born at the dawn of a new and tumultuous age in the history of the Indian sub-continent and the birth of the modern nation of India. The character of Saleem Sinai has been compared to Rushdie. However, the author refuted the idea of having written any of his characters as autobiographical, stating, "People assume that because certain things in the character are drawn from your own experience, it just becomes you. In that sense, I've never felt that I've written an autobiographical character."

After Midnight's Children, Rushdie wrote (1983), in which he depicts the political turmoil in Pakistan, basing his characters on Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. Shame won France's Prix du Meilleur Livre Étranger (Best Foreign Book) and was a close runner-up for the Booker Prize. Both these works of postcolonial literature are characterised by a style of magic realism and the immigrant outlook that Rushdie is very conscious of as a member of the Kashmiri diaspora.[citation needed ]

Rushdie wrote a non-fiction book about Nicaragua in 1987 called The Jaguar Smile. This book has a political focus and is based on his first-hand experiences and research at the scene of Sandinista political experiments. He became interested in Nicaragua after he had been a neighbour of Madame Somoza, wife of the former Nicaraguan dictator, and his son Zafar was born around the time of the Nicaraguan revolution.

The Satanic Verses and Haroun and the Sea of Stories

His most controversial work, The Satanic Verses, was published in 1988 (see section below). It was followed by Haroun and the Sea of Stories in 1990. Written in the shadow of a fatwa, it is about the dangers of story-telling and an allegorical defence of the power of stories over silence.

In addition to novels, Rushdie has published many short stories, including those collected in (1994). The Moor's Last Sigh, a family epic ranging over some 100 years of India's history was published in 1995. The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) is a remaking of the myth of Orpheus that presents an alternative history of modern rock music. The song of the same name by U2 is one of many song lyrics included in the book; hence Rushdie is credited as the lyricist.

Salman Rushdie presenting his book Shalimar the Clown

Following the novel , set mainly in New York and avoiding the previous sprawling narrative style that spans generations, periods and places, Rushdie's 2005 novel Shalimar the Clown, a story about love and betrayal set in Kashmir and Los Angeles, was hailed as a return to form by a number of critics.

In his 2002 non-fiction collection Step Across This Line, he professes his admiration for the Italian writer Italo Calvino and the American writer Thomas Pynchon, among others. His early influences included Jorge Luis Borges, Mikhail Bulgakov, Lewis Carroll, Günter Grass and James Joyce. Rushdie was a personal friend of Angela Carter's and praised her highly in the foreword of her collection Burning your Boats.[citation needed ]

2008 saw the publication of The Enchantress of Florence, one of Rushdie's most challenging works that focuses on the past. It tells the story of a European's visit to Akbar's court, and his revelation that he is a lost relative of the Mughal emperor. The novel was praised in a review in The Guardian as a "sumptuous mixture of history with fable".

His novel Luka and the Fire of Life, a sequel to Haroun and the Sea of Stories, was published in November 2010 to critical acclaim. Earlier that year, he announced that he was writing his memoirs, entitled Joseph Anton: A Memoir, which was published in September 2012.

Later works: Novels and essays 2015-2023

2015 saw the publication of Rushdie's novel Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-Eight Nights, a shift back to his old beloved style of magic realism. This novel is designed in the structure of a Chinese mystery box with different layers. Based on the central conflict of scholar Ibn Rushd (from whom Rushdie's family name derives), Rushdie goes on to explore several themes of transnationalism and cosmopolitanism by depicting a war of the universe which a supernatural world of jinns also accompanies.[citation needed ]

In 2017, The Golden House, a satirical novel set in contemporary America, was published. 2019 saw the publication of Rushdie's fourteenth novel , inspired by Miguel de Cervantes' classic novel Don Quixote.

In 2021 Languages of Truth, a collection of essays written between 2003 and 2020 was published.

Rushdie's fifteenth novel Victory City, described as an epic tale of a woman who breathes a fantastical empire into existence, was published in February 2023. The book is Rushdie's first released work since he was attacked and injured in 2022.

Rushdie has had a string of commercially successful and critically acclaimed novels. His works have been shortlisted for the Booker Prize five times, in 1981 for Midnight's Children, 1983 for Shame, 1988 for The Satanic Verses, 1995 for The Moor's Last Sigh, and in 2019 for Quichotte. In 1981, he was awarded the prize. His 2005 novel Shalimar the Clown received the prestigious Hutch Crossword Book Award, and, in the UK, was a finalist for the Whitbread Book Awards. It was shortlisted for the 2007 International Dublin Literary Award. Rushdie's works have spawned 30 book-length studies and over 700 articles on his writing. He is frequently mentioned a favourite to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Rushdie has mentored younger Indian (and ethnic-Indian) writers, influenced an entire generation of Indo-Anglian writers, and is an influential writer in postcolonial literature in general. He opposed the British government's introduction of the Racial and Religious Hatred Act, something he writes about in his contribution to Free Expression Is No Offence, a collection of essays by several writers, published by Penguin in November 2005.

Salman Rushdie having a discussion with Emory University students

Rushdie was the President of PEN American Center from 2004 to 2006 and founder of the PEN World Voices Festival. In 2007, he began a five-year term as Distinguished Writer in Residence at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, where he has also deposited his archives. In May 2008, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 2014, he taught a seminar on British Literature and served as the 2015 keynote speaker In September 2015, he joined the New York University Journalism Faculty as a Distinguished Writer in Residence.

Rushdie is a member of the advisory board of The Lunchbox Fund, a non-profit organisation that provides daily meals to students of township schools in Soweto of South Africa. He is a member of the advisory board of the Secular Coalition for America, an advocacy group representing the interests of atheistic and humanistic Americans in Washington, D.C., and a patron of Humanists UK (formerly the British Humanist Association). He is a laureate of the International Academy of Humanism. In November 2010 he became a founding patron of Ralston College, a new liberal arts college that has adopted as its motto a Latin translation of a phrase ("free speech is life itself") from an address he gave at Columbia University in 1991 to mark the 200th anniversary of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.

Rushdie, right, with writers Catherine Lacey and Siri Hustvedt at the 2014 Brooklyn Book Festival

Though he enjoys writing, Rushdie says he would have become an actor if his writing career had not been successful. From early childhood, he dreamed of appearing in Hollywood films (which he later realised in his frequent cameo appearances).

Rushdie includes fictional television and movie characters in some of his writings. He had a cameo appearance in the film Bridget Jones's Diary based on the book of the same name, which is itself full of literary in-jokes. On 12 May 2006, Rushdie was a guest host on The Charlie Rose Show, where he interviewed Indo-Canadian filmmaker Deepa Mehta, whose 2005 film, , faced violent protests. He appears in the role of Helen Hunt's obstetrician-gynecologist in the film adaptation (Hunt's directorial debut) of Elinor Lipman's novel Then She Found Me. In September 2008, and again in March 2009, he appeared as a panellist on the HBO programme Real Time with Bill Maher. Rushdie has said that he was approached for a cameo in Talladega Nights: "They had this idea, just one shot in which three very, very unlikely people were seen as NASCAR drivers. And I think they approached Julian Schnabel, Lou Reed, and me. We were all supposed to be wearing the uniforms and the helmet, walking in slow motion with the heat haze." In the end their schedules did not allow for it.

Rushdie collaborated on the screenplay for the cinematic adaptation of his novel Midnight's Children with director Deepa Mehta. The film was also called Midnight's Children. Seema Biswas, Shabana Azmi, Nandita Das, and Irrfan Khan participated in the film. Production began in September 2010; the film was released in 2012.

Rushdie announced in June 2011 that he had written the first draft of a script for a new television series for the US cable network Showtime, a project on which he will also serve as an executive producer. The new series, to be called The Next People, will be, according to Rushdie, "a sort of paranoid science-fiction series, people disappearing and being replaced by other people." The idea of a television series was suggested by his US agents, said Rushdie, who felt that television would allow him more creative control than feature film. The Next People is being made by the British film production company Working Title, the firm behind projects including Four Weddings and a Funeral and Shaun of the Dead.

In 2017, Rushdie appeared as himself in episode 3 of season 9 of Curb Your Enthusiasm, sharing scenes with Larry David to offer advice on how Larry should deal with the fatwa that has been ordered against him.

The publication of The Satanic Verses by Viking Penguin in September 1988 caused immediate controversy in the Islamic world because of what was seen by some to be an irreverent depiction of Muhammad. The title refers to a disputed Muslim tradition that is related in the book. According to this tradition, Muhammad ( Mahound in the book) added verses () to the Qur'an accepting three Arabian pagan goddesses who used to be worshipped in Mecca as divine beings. According to the legend, Muhammad later revoked the verses, saying the devil tempted him to utter these lines to appease the Meccans (hence the "Satanic" verses). However, the narrator reveals to the reader that these disputed verses were actually from the mouth of the Archangel Gabriel. The book was banned in many countries with large Muslim communities (13 in total: Iran, India, Bangladesh, Sudan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Thailand, Tanzania, Indonesia, Singapore, Venezuela, and Pakistan).

In response to the protests, on 22 January 1989, Rushdie published a column in The Observer that called Muhammad "one of the great geniuses of world history," but noted that Islamic doctrine holds Muhammad to be human, and in no way perfect. He held that the novel is not "an anti-religious novel. It is, however, an attempt to write about migration, its stresses and transformations."

On 14 February 1989-Valentine's Day, and also the day of his close friend Bruce Chatwin's funeral-a ordering Rushdie's execution was proclaimed on Radio Tehran by Ayatollah Khomeini, the Supreme leader of Iran at the time, calling the book " blasphemous against Islam". Chapter IV of the book depicts the character of an Imam in exile who returns to incite revolt from the people of his country with no regard for their safety. According to Khomeini's son, his father never read the book. A bounty was offered for Rushdie's death, and he was thus forced to live under police protection for several years. On 7 March 1989, the United Kingdom and Iran broke diplomatic relations over the Rushdie controversy.

When, on BBC Radio 4, he was asked for a response to the threat, Rushdie said, "Frankly, I wish I had written a more critical book," and "I'm very sad that it should have happened. It's not true that this book is a blasphemy against Islam. I doubt very much that Khomeini or anyone else in Iran has read the book or more than selected extracts out of context." Later, he wrote that he was "proud, then and always", of that statement; while he did not feel his book was especially critical of Islam, "a religion whose leaders behaved in this way could probably use a little criticism."

The publication of the book and the fatwā sparked violence around the world, with bookstores firebombed. Muslim communities in several nations in the West held public rallies, burning copies of the book. Several people associated with translating or publishing the book were attacked, seriously injured, and even killed. Many more people died in riots in some countries. Despite the danger posed by the fatwā, Rushdie made a public appearance at London's Wembley Stadium on 11 August 1993, during a concert by U2. In 2010, U2 bassist Adam Clayton recalled that "lead vocalist Bono had been calling Salman Rushdie from the stage every night on the Zoo TV tour. When we played Wembley, Salman showed up in person and the stadium erupted. You [could] tell from [drummer] Larry Mullen, Jr.'s face that we weren't expecting it. Salman was a regular visitor after that. He had a backstage pass and he used it as often as possible. For a man who was supposed to be in hiding, it was remarkably easy to see him around the place."

On 24 September 1998, as a precondition to the restoration of diplomatic relations with the UK, the Iranian government, then headed by Mohammad Khatami, gave a public commitment that it would "neither support nor hinder assassination operations on Rushdie."

Hardliners in Iran have continued to reaffirm the death sentence. In early 2005, Khomeini's fatwā was reaffirmed by Iran's current leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, in a message to Muslim pilgrims making the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. Additionally, the Revolutionary Guards declared that the death sentence on him is still valid.

Rushdie has reported that he still receives a "sort of Valentine's card" from Iran each year on 14 February letting him know the country has not forgotten the vow to kill him and has jokingly referred it as "my unfunny Valentine" in a reference to the song " My Funny Valentine". He said, "It's reached the point where it's a piece of rhetoric rather than a real threat." Despite the threats on Rushdie personally, he said that his family has never been threatened, and that his mother, who lived in Pakistan during the later years of her life, even received outpourings of support. Rushdie himself has been prevented from entering Pakistan, however.

A former bodyguard to Rushdie, Ron Evans, planned to publish a book recounting the behaviour of the author during the time he was in hiding. Evans said Rushdie tried to profit financially from the fatwa and was suicidal, but Rushdie dismissed the book as a "bunch of lies" and took legal action against Evans, his co-author and their publisher. On 26 August 2008, Rushdie received an apology at the High Court in London from all three parties. A memoir of his years of hiding, Joseph Anton, was released on 18 September 2012. Joseph Anton was Rushdie's secret alias.

In February 1997, Ayatollah Hasan Sane'i, leader of the bonyad panzdah-e khordad (Fifteenth of Khordad Foundation), reported that the blood money offered by the foundation for the assassination of Rushdie would be increased from $2 million to $2.5 million. Then a semi-official religious foundation in Iran increased the reward it had offered for the killing of Rushdie from $2.8 million to $3.3 million.

In November 2015, former Indian minister P. Chidambaram acknowledged that banning The Satanic Verses was wrong. In 1998, Iran's former president Mohammad Khatami proclaimed the fatwa "finished"; but it has never been officially lifted, and in fact has been reiterated several times by Ali Khamenei and other religious officials. Yet more money was added to the bounty in February 2016.

On 3 August 1989, while Mustafa Mahmoud Mazeh was priming a book bomb loaded with RDX explosives in a hotel in Paddington, Central London, the bomb exploded prematurely, destroying two floors of the hotel and killing Mazeh. A previously unknown Lebanese group, the Organization of the Mujahidin of Islam, said he died preparing an attack "on the apostate Rushdie". There is a shrine in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahra cemetery for Mustafa Mahmoud Mazeh that says he was "Martyred in London, 3 August 1989. The first martyr to die on a mission to kill Salman Rushdie." Mazeh's mother was invited to relocate to Iran, and the Islamic World Movement of Martyrs' Commemoration built his shrine in the cemetery that holds thousands of Iranian soldiers slain in the Iran-Iraq War.

During the 2006 Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah declared that "If there had been a Muslim to carry out Imam Khomeini's fatwā against the renegade Salman Rushdie, this rabble who insult our Prophet Mohammed in Denmark, Norway and France would not have dared to do so. I am sure there are millions of Muslims who are ready to give their lives to defend our prophet's honour and we have to be ready to do anything for that."

International Guerillas (1990)

In 1990, soon after the publication of The Satanic Verses, a Pakistani film entitled International Gorillay ( International Guerillas) was released that depicted Rushdie as a "James Bond-style villain" plotting to cause the downfall of Pakistan by opening a chain of casinos and discos in the country; he is ultimately killed at the end of the movie. The film was popular with Pakistani audiences, and it "presents Rushdie as a Rambo-like figure pursued by four Pakistani guerrillas". The British Board of Film Classification refused to allow it a certificate, as "it was felt that the portrayal of Rushdie might qualify as criminal libel, causing a breach of the peace as opposed to merely tarnishing his reputation." This effectively prevented the release of the film in the UK. Two months later, however, Rushdie himself wrote to the board, saying that while he thought the film "a distorted, incompetent piece of trash", he would not sue if it were released. He later said, "If that film had been banned, it would have become the hottest video in town: everyone would have seen it". While the film was a great hit in Pakistan, it went virtually unnoticed elsewhere.

In 2010, Anwar al-Awlaki published an Al-Qaeda hit list in Inspire magazine, including Rushdie along with other figures claimed to have insulted Islam, including Ayaan Hirsi Ali, cartoonist Lars Vilks, and three Jyllands-Posten staff members: Kurt Westergaard, Carsten Juste, and Flemming Rose. The list was later expanded to include Stéphane "Charb" Charbonnier, who was murdered in a terror attack on Charlie Hebdo in Paris, along with 11 other people. After the attack, Al-Qaeda called for more killings.

Rushdie expressed his support for Charlie Hebdo, saying "I stand with Charlie Hebdo, as we all must, to defend the art of satire, which has always been a force for liberty and against tyranny, dishonesty and stupidity ... religious totalitarianism has caused a deadly mutation in the heart of Islam and we see the tragic consequences in Paris today." In response to the attack, Rushdie commented on what he perceived as victim-blaming in the media, stating: "You can dislike Charlie Hebdo.... But the fact that you dislike them has nothing to do with their right to speak. The fact you dislike them certainly doesn't in any way excuse their murder."

Rushdie was due to appear at the Jaipur Literature Festival in January 2012 in Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. However, he later cancelled his event appearance, and a further tour of India at the time, citing a possible threat to his life as the primary reason. Several days after, he indicated that state police agencies had lied, in order to keep him away, when they informed him that paid assassins were being sent to Jaipur to kill him. Police contended that they were afraid Rushdie would read from the banned The Satanic Verses, and that the threat was real, considering imminent protests by Muslim organizations.

Meanwhile, Indian authors Ruchir Joshi, Jeet Thayil, Hari Kunzru and Amitava Kumar abruptly left the festival, and Jaipur, after reading excerpts from Rushdie's banned novel at the festival. The four were urged to leave by organizers as there was a real possibility they would be arrested.

A proposed video link session between Rushdie and the Jaipur Literature Festival was also cancelled at the last minute after the government pressured the festival to stop it. Rushdie returned to India to address a conference in New Delhi on 16 March 2012.

On 12 August 2022, while about to start a lecture at the Chautauqua Institution in Chautauqua, New York, Rushdie was attacked by a man who rushed onto the stage and stabbed him repeatedly, including in the neck and abdomen. The attacker was pulled away before being taken into custody by a state trooper; Rushdie was airlifted to UPMC Hamot, a tertiary trauma centre in Erie, Pennsylvania, where he underwent surgery before being put on a ventilator. Security measures at UPMC Hamot were increased due to the potential threat of further attempts on his life. This included 24-hour protection with a security officer outside his room and searches being performed upon entry into the hospital. The suspect was identified as 24-year-old Hadi Matar of Fairview, New Jersey. Later in the day, Rushdie's agent, Andrew Wylie, confirmed that Rushdie had received stab injuries to the liver and hand, and that he might lose an eye. A day later, Rushdie was taken off the ventilator and was able to speak.

On 23 October 2022, Wylie reported that Rushdie had lost sight in one eye and the use of one hand but survived the murder attempt.

Awards, honours, and recognition

Awards and honours include:

Rushdie was knighted for services to literature in the Queen's Birthday Honours on 16 June 2007. He remarked: "I am thrilled and humbled to receive this great honour, and am very grateful that my work has been recognised in this way." In response to his knighthood, many nations with Muslim majorities protested. Parliamentarians of several of these countries condemned the action, and Iran and Pakistan called in their British envoys to protest formally. Controversial condemnation issued by Pakistan's Religious Affairs Minister Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq was in turn rebuffed by former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. Several called publicly for his death. Some non-Muslims expressed disappointment at Rushdie's knighthood, claiming that the writer did not merit such an honour and there were several other writers who deserved the knighthood more than Rushdie.

Rushdie came from a liberal Muslim family, but he is now an atheist. In a 2006 interview with PBS, Rushdie called himself a "hardline atheist".

In 1989, in an interview following the fatwa, Rushdie said that he was in a sense a lapsed Muslim, though "shaped by Muslim culture more than any other," and a student of Islam. In another interview the same year, he said, "My point of view is that of a secular human being. I do not believe in supernatural entities, whether Christian, Jewish, Muslim or Hindu."

In December 1990, Rushdie issued a statement reaffirming his Muslim faith, distancing himself from statements made by characters in Satanic Verses that cast aspersion on Islam or Prophet Mohammad, and opposing the release of the paperback editing of the novel. Later, in 1992, he cited the release of the statement as perhaps his lowest point, regretting its language, which he said he had not written.

Rushdie advocates the application of higher criticism, pioneered during the late 19th century. In a guest opinion piece printed in The Washington Post and in mid-August 2005, Rushdie called for a reform in Islam.

What is needed is a move beyond tradition, nothing less than a reform movement to bring the core concepts of Islam into the modern age, a Muslim Reformation to combat not only the jihadist ideologues but also the dusty, stifling seminaries of the traditionalists, throwing open the windows to let in much-needed fresh air. ... It is high time, for starters, that Muslims were able to study the revelation of their religion as an event inside history, not supernaturally above it. ... Broad-mindedness is related to tolerance; open-mindedness is the sibling of peace.

-  Salman Rushdie, "Muslims unite! A new Reformation will bring your faith into the modern era"

We need all of us, whatever our background, to constantly examine the stories inside which and with which we live. We all live in stories, so called grand narratives. Nation is a story. Family is a story. Religion is a story. Community is a story. We all live within and with these narratives. And it seems to me that a definition of any living vibrant society is that you constantly question those stories. That you constantly argue about the stories. In fact the arguing never stops. The argument itself is freedom. It's not that you come to a conclusion about it. And through that argument you change your mind sometimes.... And that's how societies grow. When you can't retell for yourself the stories of your life then you live in a prison.... Somebody else controls the story.... Now it seems to me that we have to say that a problem in contemporary Islam is the inability to re-examine the ground narrative of the religion.... The fact that in Islam it is very difficult to do this, makes it difficult to think new thoughts.

Rushdie is an advocate of religious satire. He condemned the Charlie Hebdo shooting and defended comedic criticism of religions in a comment originally posted on English PEN where he called religions a medieval form of unreason. Rushdie called the attack a consequence of "religious totalitarianism", which according to him had caused "a deadly mutation in the heart of Islam". He said:

Religion, a medieval form of unreason, when combined with modern weaponry becomes a real threat to our freedoms. This religious totalitarianism has caused a deadly mutation in the heart of Islam and we see the tragic consequences in Paris today. I stand with Charlie Hebdo, as we all must, to defend the art of satire, which has always been a force for liberty and against tyranny, dishonesty and stupidity. 'Respect for religion' has become a code phrase meaning 'fear of religion.' Religions, like all other ideas, deserve criticism, satire, and, yes, our fearless disrespect.

When asked about reading and writing as a human right, Rushdie states, "the larger stories, the grand narratives that we live in, which are things like nation, and family, and clan, and so on. Those stories are considered to be treated reverentially. They need to be part of the way in which we conduct the discourse of our lives and to prevent people from doing something very damaging to human nature." Though Rushdie believes the freedoms of literature to be universal, the bulk of his fictions portrays the struggles of the marginally underrepresented. This can be seen in his portrayal of the role of women in his novel . In this novel, Rushdie, "suggests that it is women who suffer most from the injustices of the Pakistani social order." His support of feminism can also be seen in a 2015 interview with magazine's .

Paul Auster and Rushdie greeting Israeli President Shimon Peres with Caro Llewellyn in 2008.

In 2006, Rushdie stated that he supported comments by Jack Straw, then- Leader of the House of Commons from Labour, who criticized the wearing of the niqab (a veil that covers all of the face except the eyes). Rushdie stated that his three sisters would never wear the veil. He said, "I think the battle against the veil has been a long and continuing battle against the limitation of women, so in that sense I'm completely on Straw's side."

Rushdie and Bernie Sanders in 2004

Rushdie supported the 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, leading leftist historian Tariq Ali to label Rushdie and other "warrior writers" as "the belligerati". He was supportive of the US-led campaign to remove the Taliban in Afghanistan, which began in 2001 but was a vocal critic of the 2003 war in Iraq. He has stated that while there was a "case to be made for the removal of Saddam Hussein", US unilateral military intervention was unjustifiable. Marxist critic Terry Eagleton, a former admirer of Rushdie's work, criticized him, saying he "cheered on the Pentagon's criminal ventures in Iraq and Afghanistan." Eagleton subsequently apologized for having misrepresented Rushdie's views.

Rushdie supported the election of Democrat Barack Obama for the American presidency and has often criticized the Republican Party. He was involved in the Occupy Movement, both as a presence at Occupy Boston and as a founding member of Occupy Writers. Rushdie is a supporter of gun control, blaming a shooting at a Colorado cinema in July 2012 on the American right to keep and bear arms. He acquired American citizenship in 2016 and voted for Hillary Clinton in that year's election.

In the wake of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in March 2006-which many considered an echo of the death threats and that followed publication of The Satanic Verses in 1989-Rushdie signed the manifesto Together Facing the New Totalitarianism, a statement warning of the dangers of religious extremism. The Manifesto was published in the left-leaning French weekly Charlie Hebdo in March 2006.

When Amnesty International suspended human rights activist Gita Sahgal for saying to the press that she thought the organization should distance itself from Moazzam Begg and his organization, Rushdie said:

Amnesty...has done its reputation incalculable damage by allying itself with Moazzam Begg and his group Cageprisoners, and holding them up as human rights advocates. It looks very much as if Amnesty's leadership is suffering from a kind of moral bankruptcy, and has lost the ability to distinguish right from wrong. It has greatly compounded its error by suspending the redoubtable Gita Sahgal for the crime of going public with her concerns. Gita Sahgal is a woman of immense integrity and distinction.... It is people like Gita Sahgal who are the true voices of the human rights movement; Amnesty and Begg have revealed, by their statements and actions, that they deserve our contempt.

In July 2020, Rushdie was one of the 153 signers of the "Harper's Letter" (also known as " A Letter on Justice and Open Debate") that expressed concern that "the free exchange of information and ideas, the lifeblood of a liberal society, is daily becoming more constricted."

Rushdie has been critical of Pakistan's former Prime Minister Imran Khan, after Khan took personal jabs at him in a 2012 interview where Khan called Rushdie "unbalanced", saying he has the "mindset of a small man", claiming they had "never met" and he would never "want to meet him ever", despite the two being spotted together in public numerous times.

Rushdie has expressed his preference for India over Pakistan on numerous occasions in writing and on live television interviews. In one such interview in 2003, Rushdie claimed "Pakistan sucks" after being asked about why he felt more like an outsider there than in India or England. He cited India's diversity, openness, and "richness of life experience" as his preference over Pakistan's "airlessness", resulting from lack of personal freedom, widespread public corruption, and inter-ethnic tension.

In Indian politics, Rushdie has criticized the Bharatiya Janata Party and its chairperson, current Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

In a 2006 interview about his novel Shalimar the Clown, Rushdie laments the division of Kashmir into zones of Indian and Pakistani administration as having cut his family down the middle. In August 2019, he criticized the revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir, tweeting: "Even from seven thousand miles away it's clear that what's happening in Kashmir is an atrocity. Not much to celebrate this August 15th." He has previously referred to crackdowns in Indian-administered Kashmir as pretexts for the rise of jihadism in the region:

The phrase of "crackdown" that the Indian army uses really is a euphemism of mass destruction. And rape. And brutalisation. That happens all the time. It's still happening now. ... The decision to treat all Kashmiris as if they're potential terrorists is what has unleashed this, the kind of "holocaust" against the Kashmiri people. And we know ourselves, from most recent events in Europe, how important it is to resist treating all Muslims as if they're terrorists, but the Indian army has taken the decision to do the opposite of that, to actually decide that everybody is a potential combatant to treat them in that way. And the level of brutality is quite spectacular. And, frankly, without that the jihadists would have had very little response from the Kashmiri people who were not really traditionally interested in radical Islam. So now they're caught between the devil and the deep blue sea, and that's the tragedy of the place. ... And really what I was trying to do was say exactly that the attraction of the jihad in Kashmir arose out of the activities of the Indian army. ...

1. Pointon, Graham (ed.): ^ BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names, second edition. Oxford Paperbacks, 1990.

2. ^ Taseer, Aatish (2 August 2019). "'That the world that you knew, and that in a way made you - that world vanishes. I don't think I'm alone in that,' says Salman Rushdie". openthemagazine.com. Open. Archived from the original on 5 August 2019.

3. "^ Rushdie to Receive Top Literary Award Archived 5 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine." Chicago Tribune. 7 January 1999. Retrieved 26 March 2012.

4. "^ Birthday Honours List - United Kingdom." The London Gazette 58358(1):B1. 16 June 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2012. Archived 16 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine

5. ^ Literary Encyclopedia: "Salman Rushdie" Archived 12 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 January 2008

6. ^ Liukkonen, Petri. "Salman Rushdie". Books and Writers. Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 13 January 2008.

7. ^ Salman Rushdie Discusses Creativity and Digital Scholarship with Erika Farr on YouTube

8. ^ Descended from the gentry family LUARD, formerly of Byborough. See Burke's Landed Gentry 18th edn. vol. 1 (1965), p. 465, col. 2.

9. ^ Free BMD website. Birth registered Q3 1979 Camden.

10. Bruce Chatwin, letter to Ninette Dutton, 1 November 1984, in ^ Under the Sun: The Letters of Bruce Chatwin, ed. Elizabeth Chatwin and Nicholas Shakespeare, p. 395

11. ^ Rushdie, Salman (22 September 2012). "'You saw an illusion and you destroyed your family for it.'". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022.

12. ^ Anthony, Andrew (6 April 2008). "The Bookers' favourite". The Guardian. By this he means the end of his marriage. In January of 2007, Lakshmi asked for a divorce.

13. ^ Atad, Corey (14 August 2022). "Padma Lakshmi Is 'Relieved' That Ex-Husband Salman Rushdie Is Recovering After Stabbing Attack". ET Canada. They filed for divorce in 2007.

14. ^ Martyris, Nina (20 July 2008). "One more bouquet for Saleem Sinai". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 12 January 2009. Saleem is not Salman (although he marries a Padma) and Saleem's grandfather Dr Aadam Aziz is not him either, but there is a touching prescience at work here. In the opening pages of Midnight's Children, Dr Aziz while bending down on his prayer mat, bumps his nose on a hard tussock of earth. His nose bleeds and his eyes water and he decides then and there that never again will he bow before God or man. "This decision, however, made a hole in him, a vacancy in a vital inner chamber, leaving him vulnerable to women and history." Battered by a fatwa and one femme fatale too many, Salman would have some understanding of this.

15. Meer, Ameena (1989). "Interview: Salman Rushdie". . 27 (Spring). Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.

16. ^ Brian Finney (1998). "Demonizing Discourse in Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses". California State University, Long Beach. Archived from the original on 29 August 2000.

17. ^ Rohter, Larry (7 May 2012). "Rushdie Brings PEN Festival to Close". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 June 2012.

18. ^ "Salman Rushdie: 'The curse of an interesting life'". The Talks. 27 March 2013. Archived from the original on 1 April 2013.

19. ^ "Salman Rushdie on Inspiring the New Season of 'Curb Your Enthusiasm'". The Hollywood Reporter. 4 October 2017. Archived from the original on 26 January 2022.

20. ^ Buchta, Wilfried (2000). Who rules Iran? (PDF). The Washington Institute and The Konrad Adenauer. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2019.

21. ^ Tamney, Joseph Bernard (2002). The Resilience of Conservative Religion: The Case of Popular, Conservative Protestant Congregations. Cambridge, UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

22. ^ Stewart, Scott (22 July 2010). "Fanning the Flames of Jihad". Security Weekly. Stratfor. Archived from the original on 6 July 2013. Inspire also features a "hit list" that includes the names of people like Westergaard who were involved in the cartoon controversy as well as other targets such as Dutch politician Geert Wilders, who produced the controversial film Fitna in 2008

23. ^ Ward, Victoria (7 January 2015). "Murdered Charlie Hebdo cartoonist was on al Qaeda wanted list". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.

24. ^ Thompson, Carolyn; Italie, Hillel (14 August 2022). "Agent: Rushdie off ventilator and talking, day after attack". AP News.

25. ^ Altares, Guillermo (22 October 2022). "Andrew Wylie, 'The Jackal' of books: 'Amazon is like ISIS; it takes no prisoners'". EL PAÍS English Edition.

26. ^ Davis, Janel (16 February 2015). "The Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Author Salman Rushdie to deliver Emory commencement May 11". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution.

27. ^ Epstein, Greg (20 April 2007). "HNN #18: Salman Rushdie & Cultural Humanism". American Humanist Association and the Humanist Chaplaincy of Harvard University. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015.

28. ^ Pierce, Andrew. "Salman Rushdie is knighted by the Queen". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.

29. "Sir Rubbish: Does Rushdie Deserve a Knighthood", ^ Times Higher Educational Supplement, 20 June 2007.

30. ^ "Protests spread to Malaysia over knighthood for Salman Rushdie". The New York Times. 20 June 2007. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011.

31. ^ Deszcz, Justyna (April 2004). "Salman Rushdie's attempt at a feminist fairytale reconfiguration in Shame". Folklore. 115 (1): 27-44. doi:10.1080/0015587042000192510. S2CID 145667781. ProQuest 2152779627.

32. ^ The Cut (17 November 2015). "15 Male Celebrities Answer 'Are You a Feminist?'". The Cut. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022.

33. ^ Salman Rushdie on Pakistan Sucks!. Biermann69. 27 December 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022 - via YouTube.

34. ^ Flood, Alison (14 November 2019). "Rushdie and Atwood join calls to restore citizenship to critic of Modi". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 22 December 2019.

35. ^ Rushdie, Salman (16 October 1999). "Imagine There Is No Heaven (extract)". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021.

36. ^ Rushdie, Salman (28 February 2009). "A fine pickle | Salman Rushdie on celluloid adaptations of novels". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 September 2021.

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Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie (; born 19 June 1947) is an Indian-born British-American novelist. His work often combines magic realism with historical fiction and primarily deals with connections, disruptions, and migrations between Eastern and Western civilizations, typically set on the Indian subcontinent.

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A nuclear physicist.

Known for his research in gamma spectroscopy and the experimental development of the linear accelerator.

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Dr. Samar Mubarakmand ( Urdu: ثمر مبارک مند; b. 17 September 1942; ) is a Pakistani nuclear physicist known for his research in gamma spectroscopy and experimental development of the linear accelerator.

His career is noted as being Pakistan's premium diagnostics scientist on nuclear weapons and eventually led as a test director for nuclear weapons testing in Ras Koh Range in Balochistan in Pakistan in 1998.

Prior to that, he was the lead scientist on Pakistani military's Hatf Program, which he oversaw the development of Shaheen and the Babur programs, as Chairman of the National Engineering and Scientific Commission (Nescom) from 2001 until 2007. His career in the government continued when he was appointed as a science adviser in the federal Government of Pakistan to assist the Thar coalfield project.

Samar Mubarakmand was born in Rawalpindi on 17 September 1942 to a Punjabi family from Hoshiarpur, East Punjab. He gained his education in Lahore and matriculated from St. Anthony's High School in 1956. After passing the university entrance exams, he enrolled at Government College University (GCU) where he studied physics under Tahir Hussain. In 1960, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science (BSc) in physics with a concentration in experimental physics and a minor in mathematics. During his college years, Mubarakmand was an avid swimmer and represented GCU at the National Games of Pakistan.

He conducted research in experimental physics under Hussain and built an experimental apparatus for his master's thesis. His thesis contained detailed work on gamma ray spectrometry and performed an experiment that was witnessed by nuclear physicist Denys Wilkinson as part of his master's program. Wilkinson spoke highly of his work and invited Mubarakmand to visit Oxford University in the United Kingdom to resume studies in experimental physics.

In 1962, Mubarakmand gained a Master of Science (MSc) in physics after publishing his thesis, " Construction of a gamma-ray spectrometer," under Hussain. In 1962, he joined the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) and gained a scholarship to study at Oxford University. Recommended by Wilkinson, he was admitted there and joined the group led by Wilkinson. At Oxford Mubarakmand participated in preparing a 22 million volt particle accelerator and was part of the team that commissioned it.

During his time at Oxford, Mubarakmand learned about linear accelerators, and after returning to Pakistan he built one. Apart from studying, Mubarakamand played cricket and fast bowled for the Oxford University Cricket Club. In 1966, Mubarakmand completed his doctoral thesis under Wilkinson and was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) in experimental particle physics.

After returning to Pakistan, Mubarakmand rejoined PAEC, and also joined the faculty of GCU as an assistant professor of physics in 1966. From 1974 to 1977, he taught physics at GCU and was an instrumental engaging research [clarify ] during his tenure as professor.

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC)

Upon returning to Pakistan, Mubarakmand did fundamental work on neutron spectroscopy but later moved on to the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH) to do post-doctoral research and joined the physics department led by Naeem Ahmad Khan in 1966. In 1967, he joined the 'Nuclear Physics Group' (NPG) formed by Naeem Ahmad that consisted of Bashiruddin Mahmood and Hafeez Qureshi, a mechanical engineer.

At PAEC, Mubarakmand additionally worked towards applications involving chemical engineering where he built his reputation among his senior scientists. The NPG worked towards engineering problems involving reactor physics and methods involving gas centrifuges, but the group did not last long together when Qureshi went to join the Radiation and Isotope Applications Division (RIAD) in 1971.

In January 1972, Mubarakmand was assigned to the Nuclear Physics Division (NPD), led by Ishfaq Ahmad, where he immersed himself in work on the physics calculations of implosion method nuclear weapons. After India announced the surprise ' Smiling Buddha' nuclear test in 1974, PAEC accelerated the program by establishing the Fast Neutron Physics Group (FNPG) on the advice of Abdus Salam. Munir Ahmad Khan made Mubarakmand its first director due to his expertise in chemical engineering and experimental physics. The FNPG generated work calculating the neutron temperature, neutron initiator, and helping design the neutron reflector.

My eyes were set on the mountain in which the test was to be conducted. I experienced a halt in my heartbeat on seeing nothing happening after 32 seconds. But all of a sudden it was a big jolt! We had triumphed....!

-  Samar Mubarakmand's describing the blast yield in 1998., Cited source

During the same time, he collaborated with Hafeez Qureshi to assist in designing the tamper and further helped conclude the calculation of the neutron energy's distributive ranges and the power produced by the neutrons, after the detonation process. In 1973, Mubarakmand commenced the work on calculations involving the ' relativity of simultaneity'- a key concept involving investigating detonation of the weapon from several points at the same time. However, the work was passed to the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) as it felt that the calculations would be better off, [clarify ] as it involved complex ideas of theoretical physics and Albert Einstein's Special and General relativity.

In 1978, Mubarakmand built a linear particle accelerator at PINSTECH to conclude solutions in the neutron generator. He later witnessed the establishment of domestically developed supercomputer facilities at PINSTECH to help conduct the subcritical testing. Due to his foremost experience in experimental physics, Mubarakmand was appointed director of the Diagnostic Group- a secretive division at PAEC that was charged with conducting experimental tests of atomic weapons and responsible for the countdown of the detonation process. A comprehensive work of civil engineering that took place for potential tests sites was completed in a span of five to six years. A milestone was reached on 11 March 1983 when Mubarakmand led the testing teams to supervise the secretive Kirana-I, their first 'cold' test. Although the countdown and experiment was supervised by Mubarakmand, the blast effect was eventually determined by the Theoretical Physics Group.

In 1987, Mubarakmand was posted at the secretive Directorate for Technical Development (DTD)- a secret directorate that developed the explosive lenses and triggering mechanism for the fission weapon. He collaborated with Hafeez Qureshi and Zaman Sheikh. He once described them: "These ( Engineering) people at DTD were really smart. They were trained very thoroughly in the development of a weapon's necessary materials at very low cost." After a 3-dimensional geological survey was completed in 1978, Mubarakmand first visited the Chagai Hills in 1981 with Ishfaq Ahmad and other scientists from divisions. In 1998, he was appointed as Member (Technical) at PAEC, and guided the Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif on experimental physics and test preparations. Mubarakmand assisted the government in evaluating the Pokhran-II tests conducted by India in 1998 and supervised test preparations at the Chagai. At the National Security Council's Cabinet Committee on National Security, Mubarakmand backed Abdul Qadeer Khan's strong advocacy for conducting the tests, immediately calling for the decision to test. On 19-20 May 1998, Mubarakmand led some 140 experimental physicists to oversee the preparations in Chagai, Balochistan, Pakistan where he personally supervised the complete assembly of all five nuclear devices. Mubarakmand walked a total of 5 km back and forth in the hot tunnels checking and re-checking the devices and cables which would be forever buried under the concrete. On 28 May 1998, Mubarakmand led the countdown of the tests, codename Chagai-I. Samar Mubarakmand was called by PM Nawaz to Prime Minister House just after India conducted Pokhran II and PM Nawaz asked him the status of preparedness of Pakistan and (Mubarakmand) assured Prime Minister Nawaz that scientists were ready and Pakistan could go for its first nuclear test.

On 30 May 1998, Ishfaq Ahmad cleared[clarification needed ] with the Prime Minister, and Mubarakmand led the very small team of academic scientists that supervised the country's plutonium fission weapon - codename Chagai-II.

In 2005, Mubarakmand eulogised his memories in an interview with Hamid Mir's Capital Talk television show and said:

I visited the first weapon-testing laboratories (WTL) at ( Chagai District) for the first time in 1981.... When the science experiments were to be conducted, our science teams went there on 20th May, and again on 28th May, in the early morning, the WTL iron-steel tunnels were (electronically) plugged in and the preparation for the tests' experiments were complete, and on 28th May, around 15:15hrs, was the time selected for testings. So, at that time, at around 14:45hrs, some of our high profiled guests arrived to witness the (science) experiments that were soon to be tests, and Qadeer Khan was also one of them.... It was the first visit of his life to any of Chagai's Weapon-testing laboratories. (Abdul Qadeer) came at the invitation of the Chairman of the PAEC, Ishfaq Ahmad, and (Abdul Qadeer) arrived 15 minutes prior to the (science) experiments that were to be conducted...

-  Samar Mubarakmand, commenting on Abdul Qadeer Khan's role in atomic bomb project,

Recalling Munir Ahmad Khan and PAEC's role and its relation to the atomic bomb project priority dispute, Mubarakmand later said that:

As many as nineteen steps were involved in the making of a nuclear weapon ranging from exploration of uranium to the finished device and its trigger mechanism.The technological and manpower infrastructure for eighteen out of these nineteen steps were provided by PAEC under the leadership of Munir Ahmad Khan who led it for nearly two decades from 1972 to 1991. Today all the major key scientific organizations linked to the country's security like PAEC, the Kahuta Research Labs and the strategic production complex were run and operated by Pakistani professionals produced by the policies of PAEC both under him and Usmani of producing indigenous trained manpower. Pakistan's nuclear capability was confirmed the day in 1983 when PAEC carried out cold nuclear tests under the guidance and stewardship of Munir Ahmad Khan. The tests however, were not publicly announced because of the international environment of stiff sanctions against countries, which sought to acquire nuclear capability....

-  Samar Mubarakmand, Eulogizing Munir Khan's and PAEC's role on the development of the atomic bomb project,

In 1990s, Mubarakmand took special initiatives in the advancement of the space program and led a team of engineers to successfully develop the missile. He was the founding director of the National Defence Complex (NDC) bureau that initiated the work on the Shaheen-I and gathered support for the program. Necessary funding for the program was secured by the military. Mubarakmand oversaw the development of the solid-fuel rocket booster. Initiated in 1987 by the Pakistan Ministry of Defence in response to India's Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, Pakistan's spin-off missile program was aggressively pursued by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 1993. The Shaheen-I missile was successfully test fired in 1999 by a team of engineers led by Mubarakmand. Key strategic weapon systems, such as the and missiles, were also built by his team.

In 2008, Mubarakmand joined the Planning Commission of Pakistan where he strongly advocated for peaceful usage of their space program. In 2009, he revealed the work on Paksat-1R, the nation's first geostationary satellite that was launched in 2011.

The satellite was described as being able to monitor agricultural programs, minerals programs and weather conditions and quoted that there were sufficient funds for the defence, nuclear and space programs. The satellite was launched in 2011 from the Xichang Satellite Launch Centre in China. His relations with Abdul Qadeer Khan often remained tense over several scientific issues. He sees Mubarakmand as "no authority over materials as he is an expert on electromagnetism."

In 2013, Mubarakmand assisted the Provincial Government of Balochistan in mineral extraction. He lobbied heavily for the implementation of the Thar coal project initiated by the Provincial Government of Sindh despite strong public criticism by Abdul Qadeer Khan, which described it as "intellectual dishonesty". In 2015, a breakthrough in the Thar coal project was reported by the media. According to Dr Samar, a massive coal reserve in Thar can provide affordable power for the next 600 years. When speaking to a large crowd at Cadet College Fateh Jang, he said that he had developed a solution to the growing power outage and was now waiting for the government to put it into action. [1]

The Tethyan Cooper Company (TCC) has approached the High Court of Justice in the British Virgin Islands for the enforcement of the $5.97 billion award against Pakistan by the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in the Reko Diq case in Dec-20.

A senior official revealed that the "misstatement" of scientist, Dr Samar Mubarakmand before the Supreme Court tribunal, in 2011, was one of the main reasons behind the Supreme Court Decision On 7 January 2013, when a three-member bench of the apex court, headed by then Chief Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry, declared Chejva "illegal, void" and non-binding, causing ICSID slapping the heavy penalty on Pakistan. Dr Samar had claimed that the Reko Diq gold mines would fetch the country around $2.5 billion annually. He had also maintained Reko Diq and other gold reserves in the country will bring in $131 billion to the national exchequer. The tribunal relied on his statement.

Mubarakmand has been conferred with state honors for his services to the country by the Government of Pakistan. He is the recipient of the: Sitara-e-Imtiaz (1993); Hilal-e-Imtiaz (1998); and the Nishan-e-Imtiaz (2003), which is the highest civil honor of Pakistan. In addition, he is a Fellow of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (PAS), inducted by Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad in 2000.

"A Science Oddyssey: Pakistans Nuclear Emergence", Samar Mubarakmand, Khalil Qureshi, Masoor Beg, Masud Ahmad.

Aspects of a-emission from the bombardment of ⁵⁸ Ni with 14.7 MeV neutrons, by Naeem Ahmad Khan, Samar Mubarakmand and Masud Ahmed, journal of Nuclear physics, PINSTECH.

Cross-section measurements with a neutron generator by Samar Mubarakmand, Masud Ahmad, M. Anwar and M. S. Chaudhry.

Some characteristic differences between the etch pits due to ⁸⁶ Rn and ²³² Th α particles in CA80-15 and LR-115 cellulose nitrate track detectors, by Hameed Ahmad Khan, M. Afzal, P. Chaudhary, Samar Mubarakmand, F. I. Nagi and A.Waheed, journal of Isotopic Radiation, PINSTECH (1977).

Application of glass solid state nuclear track detectors in the measurement of the particle fission cross-section of uranium, by Samar Mubarakmand, K. Rashid, P. Chaudhry and Hameed Ahmad Khan, Methods of Nuclear Instrumentation. (1977)

Etching of glass solid state nuclear track detectors in aqueous solutions of (⁴ NH)² HF, NaOH and KOH, by Hameed Ahmad Khan, R. A. Akbar, A. Waheed, P. Chaudhry and Samar Mubarakmand, journal of Isotopic Radiation, PINSTECH (1978).

*Khan, Feroz Hassan (2012). Eating grass the making of the Pakistani bomb. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-0804784801.

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Dr. Samar Mubarakmand ( Urdu: ثمر مبارک مند; b. 17 September 1942; ) is a Pakistani nuclear physicist known for his research in gamma spectroscopy and experimental development of the linear accelerator. His career is noted as being Pakistan's premium diagnostics scientist on nuclear weapons and eventually led as a test director for nuclear weapons testing in Ras Koh Range in Balochistan in Pakistan in 1998.

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An American fantasy novelist. She wrote The Poppy War, The Dragon Republic, The Burning God, Babel, or the Necessity of Violence and Yellowface.

Kuang holds graduate degrees in Sinology from Magdalene College, Cambridge, and University College, Oxford, and is currently studying at Yale University.

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She was the first African-American to receive a Ph.D. from Columbia University. She was the first African-American woman in the United States to earn a Ph.D. in Chemistry.

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Marie Maynard Daly (April 16, 1921 - October 28, 2003) was an American biochemist. She was the first African-American to receive a Ph.D. from Columbia University and the first African-American woman in the United States to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry. Daly made important contributions in four areas of research: the chemistry of histones, protein synthesis, the relationships between cholesterol and hypertension, and creatine's uptake by muscle cells.

Daly attended Hunter College High School, a laboratory high school for girls run by Hunter College faculty, where she was also encouraged to pursue chemistry. She then enrolled in Queens College, a small, fairly new school in Flushing, New York. She lived at home to save money and graduated magna cum laude from Queens College with her bachelor's degree in chemistry in 1942. Upon graduation, she was named a Queens College Scholar, an honor that is awarded to the top 2.5% of the graduating class.

Labor shortages and the need for scientists to support the war effort enabled Daly to garner fellowships to study at New York University and Columbia University for her master's and Ph.D. degrees, respectively.

Daly worked as a laboratory assistant at Queens College while studying at New York University for her master's degree in chemistry, which she completed in 1943. She became a chemistry tutor at Queens College and enrolled in the doctoral program at Columbia University, where she was supervised by Mary Letitia Caldwell, for a Ph.D. thesis titled, "A Study of the Products Formed By the Action of Pancreatic Amylase on Corn Starch" and received her Ph.D. in chemistry in 1947. She was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. from Columbia University and the first African American woman to receive a chemistry Ph.D. in the United States.

Daly worked as a physical science instructor at Howard University, from 1947 to 1948 while simultaneously conducting research under the direction of Herman Branson. After being awarded an American Cancer Society grant to support her postdoctoral research, she joined Alfred E. Mirsky's group at the Rockefeller Institute, which studied the cell nucleus and its constituents. This was the start of a seven-year research program at the Rockefeller Institute of Medicine, where Daly examined how proteins are constructed in the body. At the time, the structure and function of DNA were not yet understood.

Daly began working in the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University in 1955. In collaboration with Quentin B. Deming, she studied arterial metabolism. She continued this work as an assistant professor of biochemistry and of medicine at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University, where she and Deming moved in 1960. From 1958 to 1963, she also served as an investigator for the American Heart Association.

During her final years at Albert Einstein College, per Daly's efforts to increase minority enrollment in professional and graduate schools, she helped run the Martin Luther King -Robert F. Kennedy program to help prepare black students for admission. In 1971 she was promoted to associate professor.

In 1975, Daly was one of 30 minority women scientists to attend a conference examining the challenges facing minority women in STEM fields. The conference was held by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. This resulted in the publication of the report, The Double Bind: The Price of Being a Minority Woman in Science (1976) which made recommendations for recruiting and retaining minority women scientists.

Daly was a member of the board of governors of the New York Academy of Sciences for two years. She was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Cancer Society. Daly was designated as a career scientist by the Health Research Council of the City of New York.

Daly retired in 1986 from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and in 1988 established a scholarship for African American chemistry and physics majors at Queens College in memory of her father. In 1999, she was recognized by the National Technical Association as one of the top 50 women in Science, Engineering and Technology.

Daly was particularly interested in nuclear proteins. She developed methods for the fractionation of nuclear material and the determination of its composition. It was essential to separate cellular material into all of its components, without destroying or losing any of them.

She studied histones, proteins found in cell nuclei, and was able to show the amino acid composition of various histone fractions. Her studies of histones with Mirsky provided evidence for lysine-rich histones, in contrast to the arginine-rich histones described by Albrecht Kossel. Histones have since been shown to be important in gene expression. Daly's work on histones is now considered fundamental.

Daly developed methods for separating out the nuclei of tissues and measuring the base composition of purines and pyrimidines in desoxypentose nucleic acids. She concluded, among other things, that "no bases other than adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine were present in appreciable amounts."

She investigated protein synthesis, including the role of cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein in protein synthesis. Using radiolabeled amino acid glycine, she was able to measure how protein metabolism changed under feeding and fasting conditions in mice. This allowed her to monitor the activity of the cytoplasm as the radiolabeled glycine was taken up into the cell nucleus.

In 1953, Watson and Crick described the structure of DNA. Accepting the Nobel Prize for this work in 1962, Watson cited one of Daly's papers on "The role of ribonucleoprotein in protein synthesis" as contributing to his work. After 1953, the cell nucleus research field was flooded with funding opportunities.

Daly and her colleagues did some of the earliest work relating diet to the health of the cardiac and circulatory systems. They investigated the impact of cholesterol, sugar, and other nutrients. She was the first to establish that hypertension was a precursor to atherosclerosis, and the first to identify a relationship between cholesterol and clogged arteries, an important discovery in understanding how heart attacks occur.

She was especially interested in how hypertension affects the circulatory system. She showed that high cholesterol intake in diet led to clogged arteries, and that hypertension accelerated this effect. She studied the effects of diet on hypertension, and found that both cholesterol and sugar were related to hypertension. Investigating aging, she suggested that smooth muscle hypertrophy due to aging might have a causative role in hypertension and atherosclerosis. Daly was also an early investigator into the effects of cigarette smoke on the lungs and on hypertension.

In the 1970s Daly began studying the uptake of creatine by muscle cells, an important research topic in the energy recycling systems of muscle. Her "Uptake of Creatine by Cultured Cells" (1980) described the conditions under which muscle tissues best absorbed creatine.

There is limited information about her personal life and motivation for science. Daly's father, Ivan C. Daly, had immigrated from the British West Indies, found work as a postal clerk and eventually married Helen Page of Washington, D.C. They lived in New York City, and Daly was born and raised in Corona, Queens. She often visited her maternal grandparents in Washington, where she read about scientists and their achievements in her grandfather's extensive library. She was especially impressed by Paul de Kruif's The Microbe Hunters, a work which influenced her decision to become a scientist.

Daly's interest in science was also influenced by her father, who had attended Cornell University with the intention of becoming a chemist, but had been unable to complete his education due to a lack of funds. Daly would thus complete her father's ambition by majoring in chemistry. Years later, she started a Queens College scholarship fund in his honor to assist minority students majoring in chemistry or physics.

Daly married and took the name Marie Maynard Daly Clark. Her husband died before her and they did not have any children. She died on October 28, 2003.

On February 26, 2016, the founding principal of the new elementary school P.S.360Q, Mr. R. Emmanuel-Cooke, announced that the school would be named "The Dr. Marie M. Daly Academy of Excellence" in honor of the Queens resident. Additionally Einstein College also created an annual memorial lecture called The Marie M. Daly Memorial Celebration that is sponsored by the division of Biomedical Sciences and the Einstein Minority Scientist Association. Every year guest speakers are invited to give a lecture highlighting diversity and contribution of minorities to science.

Daly, Marie M.; Mirsky, A.E. (June 1949). "Chromatography of Purines and Pyrimidines on Starch Columns". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 179 (2): 981-982. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)51291-1. PMID 18150028.

Daly, Marie M.; Mirsky, A.E. (November 1952). "Formation of Protein in the Pancreas". Journal of General Physiology. 36 (2): 243-254. doi:10.1085/jgp.36.2.243. PMC . PMID 13011280.

Allfrey, V.; Daly, M.M.; Mirsky, A.E. (November 20, 1953). "Synthesis of protein in the pancreas. II. The role of ribonucleoprotein in protein synthesis". Journal of General Physiology. 37 (2): 157-175. doi:10.1085/jgp.37.2.157. PMC . PMID 13109153.

Mirsky, A.E.; Allfrey, V.G.; Daly, M.M. (September 1954). "The Uptake of N¹⁵-Labelled Glycine by Liver Proteins". Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. 2 (5): 376-377. doi:10.1177/2.5.376. PMID 13192326. S2CID 40223958.

Daly, M.M.; Mirsky, A.E. (January 1955). "Histones With High Lysine Content". Journal of General Physiology. 38 (3): 405-413. doi:10.1085/jgp.38.3.405. PMC . PMID 13221780.

Adel, Harold; Daly, Marie M.; Deming, Quentin B.; Brun, Lili; Raeff, Victoria (1962). "Effect of Hypertension on Cholesterol Synthesis in Rats" (PDF). Journal of Clinical Investigation (Papers Presented / Proceedings of the Fifty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Society for Clinical Investigation, April 30, 1962. 41 (6): 1340.

Adel, H.N.; Deming, Q.B.; Daly, M.M.; Raeff, V.M.; Brun, L.M. (October 1965). "The Effect of Experimental Hypertension on Cholesterol Synthesis in the Rat". Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Medicine. 66 (4): 571-581. PMID 5843085.

Wolinsky, Harvey; Daly, Marie M. (November 1970). "A Method for the Isolation of Intima-Media Samples from Arteries". Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 135 (2): 364-368. doi:10.3181/00379727-135-35052. PMID 4921030. S2CID 46610507.

Daly, M.M. (May 1971). "Biosynthesis of squalene and sterols by rat aorta" (PDF). Journal of Lipid Research. 12 (3): 367-375. doi:10.1016/S0022-2275(20)39518-3. PMID 5579265.

Daly, Marie M. (September 1972). "Effects of Hypertension on the Lipid Composition of Rat Aortic Intima-Media". Circulation Research. 31 (3): 410-416. doi:10.1161/01.res.31.3.410. PMID 5057020. S2CID 12008214.

Park, Sung Suh; Kikkawa, Yutaka; Goldring, Irene P.; Daly, Marie M.; Zelefsky, Melvin; Shim, Chang; Spierer, Morris; Morita, Toyohiko (June 1, 1977). "An Animal Model of Cigarette Smoking in Beagle Dogs Correlative Evaluation of Effects on Pulmonary Function, Defense, and Morphology". American Review of Respiratory Disease. 115 (6): 971-979. doi:10.1164/arrd.1977.115.6.971 (inactive 31 December 2022). PMID 262108.

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Marie Maynard Daly (April 16, 1921 - October 28, 2003) was an American biochemist. She was the first African-American to receive a Ph.D. from Columbia University and the first African-American woman in the United States to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry.

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One of the first African American women chemists at the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA.

She was an expert in spectrophotometric analysis of pharmaceutical molecules.

In 1963, Levant Hayden was appointed chief of the spectrophotometer research branch in the Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry.

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An Indian mathematician and astronomer who is considered as the founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the Late Middle Ages.

Madhava made pioneering contributions to the study of infinite series, calculus, trigonometry, geometry, and algebra.

He was the first to use infinite series approximations for a range of trigonometric functions, which has been called the "decisive step onward from the finite procedures of ancient mathematics to treat their limit-passage to infinity".

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A chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA, RNA, viruses, coal, and graphite.

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Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July 1920 - 16 April 1958) was a British chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), viruses, coal, and graphite. Although her works on coal and viruses were appreciated in her lifetime, her contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA were largely unrecognized during her life, for which she has been variously referred to as the "wronged heroine", the "dark lady of DNA", the "forgotten heroine", a "feminist icon", and the " Sylvia Plath of molecular biology".

She graduated in 1941 with a degree in natural sciences from Newnham College, Cambridge, and then enrolled for a PhD in physical chemistry under Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, the 1920 Chair of Physical Chemistry at the University of Cambridge. Disappointed by Norrish's lack of enthusiasm, she took up a research position under the British Coal Utilisation Research Association (BCURA) in 1942. The research on coal helped her earn a PhD from Cambridge in 1945. Moving to Paris in 1947 as a chercheur (postdoctoral researcher) under Jacques Mering at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'État, she became an accomplished X-ray crystallographer. After joining King's College London in 1951 as a research associate, she discovered the key properties of DNA, which eventually facilitated the correct description of the double helix structure of DNA. Owing to disagreement with her director, John Randall, and her colleague Maurice Wilkins, she was compelled to move to Birkbeck College in 1953.

Franklin is best known for her work on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA while at King's College London, particularly Photo 51, taken by her student Raymond Gosling, which led to the discovery of the DNA double helix for which Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Watson suggested that Franklin would have ideally been awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with Wilkins but, although there was not yet a rule against posthumous awards, the Nobel Committee generally did not make posthumous nominations.

Working under John Desmond Bernal, Franklin led pioneering work at Birkbeck on the molecular structures of viruses. On the day before she was to unveil the structure of tobacco mosaic virus at an international fair in Brussels, she died of ovarian cancer at the age of 37 in 1958. Her team member Aaron Klug continued her research, winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982.

Franklin was born on 25 July 1920 in 50 Chepstow Villas, Notting Hill, London, into an affluent and influential British Jewish family.

Franklin's father was Ellis Arthur Franklin (1894-1964), a politically liberal London merchant banker who taught at the city's Working Men's College, and her mother was Muriel Frances Waley (1894-1976). Rosalind was the elder daughter and the second child in the family of five children. David (1919-1986) was the eldest brother; Colin (1923-2020), Roland (born 1926), and Jenifer (born 1929) were her younger siblings.

Franklin's paternal great-uncle was Herbert Samuel (later Viscount Samuel), who was the Home Secretary in 1916 and the first practising Jew to serve in the British Cabinet. Her aunt, Helen Caroline Franklin, known in the family as Mamie, was married to Norman de Mattos Bentwich, who was the Attorney General in the British Mandate of Palestine. Helen was active in trade union organisation and the women's suffrage movement and was later a member of the London County Council. Franklin's uncle, Hugh Franklin, was another prominent figure in the suffrage movement, although his actions therein embarrassed the Franklin family. Rosalind's middle name, "Elsie", was in memory of Hugh's first wife, who died in the 1918 flu pandemic. Her family was actively involved with the Working Men's College, where her father taught the subjects of electricity, magnetism, and the history of the Great War in the evenings, later becoming the vice principal.

Franklin's parents helped settle Jewish refugees from Europe who had escaped the Nazis, particularly those from the Kindertransport. They took in two Jewish children to their home, and one of them, a nine-year-old Austrian, Evi Eisenstädter, shared Jenifer's room. (Evi's father Hans Mathias Eisenstädter had been imprisoned in Buchenwald, and after liberation, the family adopted the surname "Ellis".)

From early childhood, Franklin showed exceptional scholastic abilities. At age six, she joined her brother Roland at Norland Place School, a private day school in West London. At that time, her aunt Mamie (Helen Bentwich), described her to her husband: "Rosalind is alarmingly clever - she spends all her time doing arithmetic for pleasure, and invariably gets her sums right." She also developed an early interest in cricket and hockey. At age nine, she entered a boarding school, Lindores School for Young Ladies in Sussex. The school was near the seaside, and the family wanted a good environment for her delicate health.

She was 11 when she went to St Paul's Girls' School in Hammersmith, west London, one of the few girls' schools in London that taught physics and chemistry. At St Paul's she excelled in science, Latin, and sports. She also learned German, and became fluent in French, a language she would later find useful. She topped her classes, and won annual awards. Her only educational weakness was in music, for which the school music director, the composer Gustav Holst, once called upon her mother to enquire whether she might have suffered from hearing problems or tonsillitis. With six distinctions, she passed her matriculation in 1938, winning a scholarship for university, the School Leaving Exhibition of £30 a year for three years, and £5 from her grandfather. Her father asked her to give the scholarship to a deserving refugee student.

Franklin went to Newnham College, Cambridge, in 1938 and studied chemistry within the Natural Sciences Tripos. There she met the spectroscopist Bill Price, who worked with her as a laboratory demonstrator and who later became one of her senior colleagues at King's College London. In 1941, she was awarded second-class honours from her final exams. The distinction was accepted as a bachelor's degree in qualifications for employment. Cambridge began awarding titular BA and MA degrees to women from 1947, and the previous women graduates retroactively received these. In her last year at Cambridge, she met a French refugee Adrienne Weill, a former student of Marie Curie, who had a huge influence on her life and career and who helped her to improve her conversational French.

Franklin was awarded a research fellowship at Newnham College, with which she joined the physical chemistry laboratory of the University of Cambridge to work under Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, who later won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In her one year of work there, she did not have much success. As described by his biographer, Norrish was "obstinate and almost perverse in argument, overbearing and sensitive to criticism". He could not decide upon the assignment of work for her. At that time he was succumbing to heavy drinking. Franklin wrote that he made her despise him completely. Resigning from Norrish's Lab, she fulfilled the requirements of the National Service Acts by working as an assistant research officer at the British Coal Utilisation Research Association (BCURA) in 1942. The BCURA was located on the Coombe Springs Estate near Kingston upon Thames near the southwestern boundary of London. Norrish acted as advisor to the military at BCURA. John G. Bennett was the director. Marcello Pirani and Victor Goldschmidt, both refugees from the Nazis, were consultants and lectured at BCURA while Franklin worked there. During her BCURA research, she initially stayed at Adrienne Weill's boarding house in Cambridge until her cousin, Irene Franklin, proposed that they share living quarters at a vacated house in Putney that belonged to her uncle. With Irene, she volunteered as an Air Raid Warden and regularly made patrols to see the welfare of people during air raids.

She studied the porosity of coal using helium to determine its density. Through this, she discovered the relationship between the fine constrictions in the pores of coals and the permeability of the porous space. By concluding that substances were expelled in order of molecular size as temperature increased, she helped classify coals and accurately predict their performance for fuel purposes and for production of wartime devices such as gas masks. This work was the basis of her PhD thesis The physical chemistry of solid organic colloids with special reference to coal for which the University of Cambridge awarded her a PhD in 1945. It was also the basis of several papers.

With World War II ending in 1945, Franklin asked Adrienne Weill for help and to let her know of job openings for "a physical chemist who knows very little physical chemistry, but quite a lot about the holes in coal." At a conference in the autumn of 1946, Weill introduced her to Marcel Mathieu, a director of the Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), the network of institutes that comprises the major part of the scientific research laboratories supported by the French government. This led to her appointment with Jacques Mering at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'État in Paris. She joined the labo (as referred to by the staff) of Mering on 14 February 1947 as one of the fifteen chercheurs (researchers).

Mering was an X-ray crystallographer who applied X-ray diffraction to the study of rayon and other amorphous substances, in contrast to the thousands of regular crystals that had been studied by this method for many years. He taught her the practical aspects of applying X-ray crystallography to amorphous substances. This presented new challenges in the conduct of experiments and the interpretation of results. Franklin applied them to further problems related to coal and to other carbonaceous materials, in particular the changes to the arrangement of atoms when these are converted to graphite. She published several further papers on this work which has become part of the mainstream of the physics and chemistry of coal and carbon. She coined the terms graphitising and non-graphitising carbon. The coal work was covered in a 1993 monograph, and in the regularly-published textbook Chemistry and Physics of Carbon. Mering continued the study of carbon in various forms, using X-ray diffraction and other methods.

King's College London

In 1950, Franklin was granted a three-year Turner & Newall Fellowship to work at King's College London. In January 1951, she started working as a research associate in the Medical Research Council's (MRC) Biophysics Unit, directed by John Randall. She was originally appointed to work on X-ray diffraction of proteins and lipids in solution, but Randall redirected her work to DNA fibres because of new developments in the field, and she was to be the only experienced experimental diffraction researcher at King's at the time. Randall made this reassignment, even before Franklin started working at King's, because of the pioneering work by DNA researcher Maurice Wilkins, and he reassigned Raymond Gosling, the graduate student who had been working with Wilkins, to be her assistant.

In 1950, Swiss chemist Rudolf Signer in Berne prepared a highly purified DNA sample from calf thymus. He freely distributed the DNA sample, later referred to as the Signer DNA, in early May 1950 at the meeting of the Faraday Society in London, and Wilkins was one of the recipients. Even using crude equipment, Wilkins and Gosling had obtained a good-quality diffraction picture of the DNA sample which sparked further interest in this molecule. But Randall had not indicated to them that he had asked Franklin to take over both the DNA diffraction work and guidance of Gosling's thesis. It was while Wilkins was away on holiday that Randall, in a letter in December 1950, assured Franklin that "as far as the experimental X-ray effort there would be for the moment only yourself and Gosling." Randall's lack of communication about this reassignment significantly contributed to the well documented friction that developed between Wilkins and Franklin. When Wilkins returned, he handed over the Signer DNA and Gosling to Franklin.

Franklin, now working with Gosling, started to apply her expertise in X-ray diffraction techniques to the structure of DNA. She used a new fine-focus X-ray tube and microcamera ordered by Wilkins, but which she refined, adjusted and focused carefully. Drawing upon her physical chemistry background, a critical innovation she applied was making the camera chamber that could be controlled for its humidity using different saturated salt solutions. When Wilkins enquired about this improved technique, she replied in terms which offended him as she had "an air of cool superiority".

On the structure of the crystalline DNA, Franklin first recorded the analysis in her notebook, which reads: "Evidence for spiral [meaning helical] structure. Straight chain untwisted is highly improbable. Absence of reflections on meridian in χtalline [crystalline] form suggests spiral structure." An immediate discovery from this was that the phosphate group lies outside of the main DNA chain; she however could not make out whether there could be two or three chains. She presented their data at a lecture in November 1951, in King's College London. In her lecture notes, she wrote the following:

The results suggest a helical structure (which must be very closely packed) containing 2, 3 or 4 co-axial nucleic acid chains per helical unit, and having the phosphate groups near the outside.

Franklin then named " A" and "B" respectively for the "crystalline" and "wet" forms. (The biological functions of A-DNA were discovered only 60 years later.) Because of the intense personality conflict developing between Franklin and Wilkins, Randall divided the work on DNA. Franklin chose the data rich "A" form while Wilkins selected the "B" form.

By the end of 1951 it became generally accepted at King's that the B-DNA was a helix, but after she had recorded an asymmetrical image in May 1952, Franklin became unconvinced that the A-DNA was a helix. In July 1952, as a practical joke on Wilkins (who frequently expressed his view that both forms of DNA were helical), Franklin and Gosling produced a funeral notice regretting the 'death' of helical A-DNA, which runs:

It is with great regret that we have to announce the death, on Friday 18th July 1952 of DNA helix (crystalline). Death followed a protracted illness which an intensive course of Besselised [referring to Bessel function that was used to analyse the X-ray diffraction patterns] injections had failed to relieve. A memorial service will be held next Monday or Tuesday. It is hoped that Dr M H F Wilkins will speak in memory of the late helix. [Signed Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling.]

During 1952, they worked at applying the Patterson function to the X-ray pictures of DNA they had produced. This was a long and labour-intensive approach but would yield significant insight into the structure of the molecule. Franklin was fully committed to experimental data and was sternly against theoretical or model buildings, as she said, "We are not going to speculate, we are going to wait, we are going to let the spots on this photograph tell us what the [DNA] structure is." The X-ray diffraction pictures, including the landmark taken by Gosling at this time, have been called by John Desmond Bernal as "amongst the most beautiful X-ray photographs of any substance ever taken".

By January 1953, Franklin had reconciled her conflicting data, concluding that both DNA forms had two helices, and had started to write a series of three draft manuscripts, two of which included a double helical DNA backbone (see below). Her two A-DNA manuscripts reached Acta Crystallographica in Copenhagen on 6 March 1953, one day before Crick and Watson had completed their model on B-DNA. She must have mailed them while the Cambridge team was building their model, and certainly had written them before she knew of their work. On 8 July 1953 she modified one of these "in proof" Acta articles, "in light of recent work" by the King's and Cambridge research teams.

The third draft paper was on the B-DNA, dated 17 March 1953, which was discovered years later amongst her papers, by Franklin's Birkbeck colleague, Aaron Klug. He then published in 1974 an evaluation of the draft's close correlation with the third of the original trio of 25 April 1953 Nature DNA articles. Klug designed this paper to complement the first article he had written in 1968 defending Franklin's significant contribution to DNA structure. He had written this first article in response to the incomplete picture of Franklin's work depicted in James Watson's 1968 memoir, The Double Helix.

As vividly described by Watson, he travelled to King's on 30 January 1953 carrying a preprint of Linus Pauling's incorrect proposal for DNA structure. Since Wilkins was not in his office, Watson went to Franklin's lab with his urgent message that they should all collaborate before Pauling discovered his error. The unimpressed Franklin became angry when Watson suggested she did not know how to interpret her own data. Watson hastily retreated, backing into Wilkins who had been attracted by the commotion. Wilkins commiserated with his harried friend and then showed Watson Franklin's DNA X-ray image. Watson, in turn, showed Wilkins a prepublication manuscript by Pauling and Robert Corey, which contained a DNA structure remarkably like their first incorrect model.

In February 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick of the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge University had started to build a molecular model of the B-DNA using data similar to that available to both teams at King's. Based on Franklin's lecture in November 1951 that DNA was helical with either two or three stands, they constructed a triple helix model, which was immediately proven to be flawed. Franklin's research was completed by February 1953, ahead of her move to Birkbeck, and her data was critical. Model building had been applied successfully in the elucidation of the structure of the alpha helix by Linus Pauling in 1951, but Franklin was opposed to prematurely building theoretical models, until sufficient data were obtained to properly guide the model building. She took the view that building a model was to be undertaken only after enough of the structure was known. Her conviction was justified by the fact that Pauling and Corey also came up in the late 1952 (published in February 1953) with an erroneous triple helix model.

Ever cautious, she wanted to eliminate misleading possibilities. Photographs of her Birkbeck work table show that she routinely used small molecular models, although certainly not ones on the grand scale successfully used at Cambridge for DNA. In the middle of February 1953, Crick's thesis advisor, Max Perutz, gave Crick a copy of a report written for a Medical Research Council biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952, containing many of Franklin's crystallographic calculations.

Watson and Crick finished building their model on 7 March 1953, one day before they received a letter from Wilkins stating that Franklin was finally leaving and they could put "all hands to the pump". This was also one day after Franklin's two A-DNA papers had reached Acta Crystallographica. Wilkins came to see the model the following week, according to Franklin's biographer Brenda Maddox, on 12 March, and allegedly informed Gosling on his return to King's.

One of the most critical and overlooked moments in DNA research was how and when Franklin realised and conceded that B-DNA was a double helical molecule. When Klug first examined Franklin's documents after her death, he initially came to an impression that Franklin was not convinced of the double helical nature until the knowledge of the Cambridge model. But he later discovered the original draft of the manuscript (dated 17 March 1953) from which it became clear that Franklin had already resolved the correct structure. The news of Watson-Crick model reached King's the next day, 18 March, suggesting that Franklin would have learned of it much later since she had moved to Birkbeck. Further scrutiny of her notebook revealed that Franklin had already thought of the helical structure for B-DNA in February 1953 but was not sure of the number of strands, as she wrote: "Evidence for 2-chain (or 1-chain helix)." Her conclusion on the helical nature was evident, though she failed to understand the complete organisation of the DNA strands as the possibility two strands running in opposite directions did not occur to her.

Towards the end of February she began to work out the indications of double strands, as she noted: "Structure B does not fit single helical theory, even for low layer-lines." It soon dawned to her that the B-DNA and A-DNA were structurally similar, and perceived A-DNA as an "unwound version" of B-DNA. She and Gosling wrote a five-paged manuscript on 17 March titled "A Note on Molecular Configuration of Sodium Thymonucleate." After the Watson-Crick model was known, there appeared to be only one (hand-written) modification after the typeset at the end of the text which states that their data was consistent with the model, and appeared as such in the trio of 25 April 1953 articles; the other modification being a deletion of "A Note on" from the title.

Crick and Watson then published their model in Nature on 25 April 1953, in an article describing the double-helical structure of DNA with only a footnote acknowledging "having been stimulated by a general knowledge of Franklin and Wilkins' 'unpublished' contribution." Actually, although it was the bare minimum, they had just enough specific knowledge of Franklin and Gosling's data upon which to base their model. As a result of a deal struck by the two laboratory directors, articles by Wilkins and Franklin, which included their X-ray diffraction data, were modified and then published second and third in the same issue of Nature, seemingly only in support of the Crick and Watson theoretical paper which proposed a model for the B-DNA. Most of the scientific community hesitated several years before accepting the double helix proposal. At first mainly geneticists embraced the model because of its obvious genetic implications.

Franklin left King's College London in mid-March 1953 for Birkbeck College, in a move that had been planned for some time and that she described (in a letter to Adrienne Weill in Paris) as "moving from a palace to the slums ... but pleasanter all the same". She was recruited by physics department chair John Desmond Bernal, a crystallographer who was a communist, known for promoting female crystallographers. Her new laboratories were housed in 21 Torrington Square, one of a pair of dilapidated and cramped Georgian houses containing several different departments; Franklin frequently took Bernal to task over the careless attitudes of some of the other laboratory staff, notably after workers in the pharmacy department flooded her first-floor laboratory with water on one occasion.

Despite the parting words of Bernal to stop her interest in nucleic acids, she helped Gosling to finish his thesis, although she was no longer his official supervisor. Together they published the first evidence of double helix in the A form of DNA in the 25 July issue of Nature. At the end of 1954, Bernal secured funding for Franklin from the Agricultural Research Council (ARC), which enabled her to work as a senior scientist supervising her own research group. John Finch, a physics student from King's College London, subsequently joined Franklin's group, followed by Kenneth Holmes, a Cambridge graduate, in July 1955. Despite the ARC funding, Franklin wrote to Bernal that the existing facilities remained highly unsuited for conducting research "...my desk and lab are on the fourth floor, my X-ray tube in the basement, and I am responsible for the work of four people distributed over the basement, first and second floors on two different staircases."

Franklin continued to explore another major nucleic acid, RNA, a molecule equally central to life as DNA. She again used X-ray crystallography to study the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), an RNA virus. Her meeting with Aaron Klug in early 1954 led to a longstanding and successful collaboration. Klug had just then earned his PhD from Trinity College, Cambridge, and joined Birkbeck in late 1953. In 1955 Franklin published her first major works on TMV in Nature, in which she described that all TMV virus particles were of the same length. This was in direct contradiction to the ideas of the eminent virologist Norman Pirie, though her observation ultimately proved correct.

Franklin assigned the study of the complete structure of TMV to her PhD student Holmes. They soon discovered (published in 1956) that the covering of TMV was protein molecules arranged in helices. Her colleague Klug worked on spherical viruses with his student Finch, with Franklin coordinating and overseeing the work. As a team, from 1956 they started publishing seminal works on TMV, cucumber virus 4 and turnip yellow mosaic virus.

Franklin also had a research assistant, James Watt, subsidised by the National Coal Board and was now the leader of the ARC group at Birkbeck. The Birkbeck team members continued working on RNA viruses affecting several plants, including potato, turnip, tomato and pea. In 1955 the team was joined by an American post-doctoral student Donald Caspar. He worked on the precise location of RNA molecules in TMV. In 1956 he and Franklin published individual but complementary papers in the 10 March issue of Nature, in which they showed that the RNA in TMV is wound along the inner surface of the hollow virus. Caspar was not an enthusiastic writer, and Franklin had to write the entire manuscript for him.

Her research grant from ARC expired at the end of 1957, and she was never given the full salary proposed by Birkbeck. After Bernal requested ARC chairman Lord Rothschild, she was given a one-year extension ending in March 1958.

Expo 58, the first major international fair after World War II, was to be held in Brussels in 1958. Franklin was invited to make a five-foot high model of TMV, which she started in 1957. Her materials included table tennis balls and plastic bicycle handlebar grips. The Brussels world's fair, with an exhibit of her virus model at the International Science Pavilion, opened on 17 April, one day after she died.

In 1956, Franklin visited the University of California, Berkeley, where colleagues suggested her group research the polio virus. In 1957 she applied for a grant from the United States Public Health Service of the National Institutes of Health, which approved £10,000 (equivalent to £256,495 in 2021) for three years, the largest fund ever received at Birkbeck. In her grant application, Franklin mentioned her new interest in animal virus research. She obtained Bernal's consent in July 1957, though serious concerns were raised after she disclosed her intentions to research live, instead of killed, polio virus at Birkbeck. Eventually, Bernal arranged for the virus to be safely stored at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine during the group's research. With her group, Franklin then commenced deciphering the structure of the polio virus while it was in a crystalline state. She attempted to mount the virus crystals in capillary tubes for X-ray studies, but was forced to end her work due to her rapidly failing health.

After Franklin's death, Klug succeeded her as group leader, and he, Finch and Holmes continued researching the structure of the polio virus. They eventually succeeded in obtaining extremely detailed X-ray images of the virus. In June 1959, Klug and Finch published the group's findings, revealing the polio virus to have icosahedral symmetry, and in the same paper suggested the possibility for all spherical viruses to possess the same symmetry, as it permitted the greatest possible number (60) of identical structural units. The team moved to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, in 1962, and the old Torrington Square laboratories were demolished four years later, in May 1966.

Franklin was best described as an agnostic. Her lack of religious faith apparently did not stem from anyone's influence, rather from her own line of thinking. She developed her scepticism as a young child. Her mother recalled that she refused to believe in the existence of God, and remarked, "Well, anyhow, how do you know He isn't She?" She later made her position clear, now based on her scientific experience, and wrote to her father in 1940:

[S]cience and everyday life cannot and should not be separated. Science, for me, gives a partial explanation of life ... I do not accept your definition of faith i.e. belief in life after death ... Your faith rests on the future of yourself and others as individuals, mine in the future and fate of our successors. It seems to me that yours is the more selfish ... [as to] the question of a creator. A creator of what? ... I see no reason to believe that a creator of protoplasm or primeval matter, if such there be, has any reason to be interested in our insignificant race in a tiny corner of the universe.

However, she did not abandon Jewish traditions. As the only Jewish student at Lindores School, she had Hebrew lessons on her own while her friends went to church. She joined the Jewish Society while in her first term at Cambridge, out of respect of her grandfather's request. Franklin confided to her sister that she was "always consciously a Jew".

Franklin loved travelling abroad, particularly trekking. She first "qualified" at Christmas 1929 for a vacation at Menton, France, where her grandfather went to escape the English winter. Her family frequently spent vacations in Wales or Cornwall. A trip to France in 1938 gave her a lasting love for France and its language. She considered the French lifestyle at that time as "vastly superior to that of English". In contrast, she described English people as having "vacant stupid faces and childlike complacency". Her family was almost stuck in Norway in 1939, as World War II was declared on their way home. In another instance, she trekked the French Alps with Jean Kerslake in 1946, which almost cost her her life. She slipped off a slope, and was barely rescued. But she wrote to her mother, "I am quite sure I could wander happily in France forever. I love the people, the country and the food."

She made several professional trips to the United States, and was particularly jovial among her American friends and constantly displayed her sense of humour. William Ginoza of the University of California, Los Angeles, later recalled that she was the opposite of Watson's description of her, and as Maddox comments, Americans enjoyed her "sunny side".

In his book The Double Helix, Watson provides his first-person account of the search for and discovery of DNA. He paints a sympathetic but sometimes critical portrait of Franklin. He praises her intellect and scientific acumen, but portrays her as difficult to work with and careless with her appearance. After introducing her in the book as "Rosalind", he writes that he and his male colleagues usually referred to her as "Rosy", the name people at King's College London used behind her back. She did not want to be called by that name because she had a great-aunt Rosy. In the family, she was called "Ros". To others, she was simply "Rosalind". She made it clear to an American visiting friend, Dorothea Raacke, while sitting with her at Crick's table in The Eagle pub in Cambridge: Raacke asked her how she was to be called and she replied "I'm afraid it will have to be Rosalind", adding "Most definitely not Rosy."

She often expressed her political views. She initially blamed Winston Churchill for inciting the war, but later admired him for his speeches. She actively supported Professor John Ryle as an independent candidate for parliament in the 1940 Cambridge University by-election, but he was unsuccessful.

She did not seem to have an intimate relationship with anyone, and always kept her deepest personal feelings to herself. After her younger days, she avoided close friendship with the opposite sex. In her later years, Evi Ellis, who had shared her bedroom when a child refugee and who was then married to Ernst Wohlgemuth and had moved to Notting Hill from Chicago, tried matchmaking her with Ralph Miliband but failed. Franklin once told Evi that her flatmate asked her for a drink, but she did not understand the intention. She was quite infatuated by her French mentor Mering, who had a wife and a mistress. Mering also admitted that he was captivated by her "intelligence and beauty". According to Anne Sayre, Franklin did confess her feeling for Mering when she was undergoing a second surgery, but Maddox reported that the family denied this. Mering wept when he visited her later, and destroyed all her letters after her death.

Her closest personal affair was probably with her once post-doctoral student Donald Caspar. In 1956, she visited him at his home in Colorado after her tour to University of California, Berkeley, and she was known to remark later that Caspar was one "she might have loved, might have married". In her letter to Sayre, she described him as "an ideal match".

Illness, death, and burial

In mid-1956, while on a work-related trip to the United States, Franklin first began to suspect a health problem. While in New York she found difficulty in zipping her skirt; her stomach had bulged. Back in London she consulted Mair Livingstone, who asked her, "You're not pregnant?" to which she retorted, "I wish I were." Her case was marked "URGENT". An operation on 4 September of the same year revealed two tumours in her abdomen. After this period and other periods of hospitalisation, Franklin spent time convalescing with various friends and family members. These included Anne Sayre, Francis Crick, his wife Odile, with whom Franklin had formed a strong friendship, and finally with the Roland and Nina Franklin family where Rosalind's nieces and nephews bolstered her spirits.

Franklin chose not to stay with her parents because her mother's uncontrollable grief and crying upset her too much. Even while undergoing cancer treatment, Franklin continued to work, and her group continued to produce results - seven papers in 1956 and six more in 1957. At the end of 1957, Franklin again fell ill and she was admitted to the Royal Marsden Hospital. On 2 December, she made her will. She named her three brothers as executors and made her colleague Aaron Klug the principal beneficiary, who would receive £3,000 and her Austin car. Of her other friends, Mair Livingstone would get £2,000, Anne Piper £1,000, and her nurse Miss Griffith £250. The remainder of the estate was to be used for charities.

She returned to work in January 1958, and was also given a promotion to Research Associate in Biophysics on 25 February. She fell ill again on 30 March, and she died on 16 April 1958, in Chelsea, London, of bronchopneumonia, secondary carcinomatosis, and ovarian cancer. Exposure to X-ray radiation is sometimes considered to be a possible factor in her illness. Other members of her family have died of cancer, and the incidence of gynaecological cancer is known to be disproportionately high among Ashkenazi Jews. Her death certificate states: A Research Scientist, Spinster, Daughter of Ellis Arthur Franklin, a Banker. She was interred on 17 April 1958 in the family plot at Willesden United Synagogue Cemetery at Beaconsfield Road in London Borough of Brent. The inscription on her tombstone reads:

IN MEMORY OF
ROSALIND ELSIE FRANKLIN
מ' רחל בת ר' יהודה [Rochel/Rachel daughter of Yehuda, her father's Hebrew name]
DEARLY LOVED ELDER DAUGHTER OF
ELLIS AND MURIEL FRANKLIN
25 TH JULY 1920 - 16 TH APRIL 1958
SCIENTIST
HER RESEARCH AND DISCOVERIES ON
VIRUSES REMAIN OF LASTING BENEFIT
TO MANKIND
ת נ צ ב ה [Hebrew initials for "her soul shall be bound in the bundle of life"]

Anne Sayre, Franklin's friend and one of her biographers, says in her 1975 book, Rosalind Franklin and DNA: "In 1951 ... King's College London as an institution, was not distinguished for the welcome that it offered to women ... Rosalind ... was unused to [a religious and social institution of female seclusion] ... there was one other female on the laboratory staff". The molecular biologist Andrzej Stasiak notes: "Sayre's book became widely cited in feminist circles for exposing rampant sexism in science." Farooq Hussain says: "there were seven women in the biophysics department ... Jean Hanson became an FRS, Dame Honor B. Fell, Director of Strangeways Laboratory, supervised the biologists". Maddox states: " Randall ... did have many women on his staff ... they found him ... sympathetic and helpful."

Sayre asserts that "while the male staff at King's lunched in a large, comfortable, rather clubby dining room" the female staff of all ranks "lunched in the student's hall or away from the premises". However, Elkin claims that most of the MRC group (including Franklin) typically ate lunch together in the mixed dining room discussed below. And Maddox says, of Randall: "He liked to see his flock, men and women, come together for morning coffee, and at lunch in the joint dining room, where he ate with them nearly every day." Francis Crick also commented that "her colleagues treated men and women scientists alike".

Sayre also discusses at length Franklin's struggle in pursuing science, particularly her father's concern about women in academic professions. This account had led to accusations of sexism in regard to Ellis Franklin's attitude to his daughter. A good deal of information explicitly claims that he strongly opposed her entering Newnham College. The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) biography of Franklin goes further, stating that he refused to pay her fees, and that an aunt stepped in to do that for her. Her sister, Jenifer Glynn, has stated that those stories are myths, and that her parents fully supported Franklin's entire career.

Sexism is said to pervade the memoir of one peer, James Watson, in his book The Double Helix, published 10 years after Franklin's death and after Watson had returned from Cambridge to Harvard. His Cambridge colleague, Peter Pauling, wrote in a letter, "Morris [ sic] Wilkins is supposed to be doing this work; Miss Franklin is evidently a fool." Crick acknowledges later, "I'm afraid we always used to adopt - let's say, a patronizing attitude towards her."

Glynn accuses Sayre of erroneously making her sister a feminist heroine, and sees Watson's The Double Helix as the root of what she calls the "Rosalind Industry". She conjectures that the stories of alleged sexism would "have embarrassed her [Rosalind Franklin] almost as much as Watson's account would have upset her", and declared that "she [Rosalind] was never a feminist." Klug and Crick have also concurred that Franklin was definitely not a feminist.

Franklin's letter to her parents in January 1939 is often taken as reflecting her own prejudiced attitude, and the claim that she was "not immune to the sexism rampant in these circles". In the letter, she remarked that one lecturer was "very good, though female". Maddox maintains that was a circumstantial comment rather than an example of gender bias, and that it was a expression of admiration because, at the time, woman teachers of science were a rarity. In fact, Maddox says, Franklin laughed at men who were embarrassed by the appointment of the first female professor, Dorothy Garrod.

Contribution to the model/structure of DNA

Rosalind Franklin's first important contributions to the model popularised by Crick and Watson was her lecture at the seminar in November 1951, where she presented to those present, among them Watson, the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, her position being that the phosphate units are located in the external part of the molecule. She also specified the amount of water to be found in the molecule in accordance with other parts of it, data that have considerable importance for the stability of the molecule. Franklin was the first to discover and formulate these facts, which in fact constituted the basis for all later attempts to build a model of the molecule. However, Watson, at the time ignorant of the chemistry, failed to comprehend the crucial information, and this led to the construction of a wrong three-helical model.

The other contribution included an X-ray photograph of B-DNA (called ) taken by Franklin's student Gosling that was briefly shown to Watson by Wilkins in January 1953, and a report written for an MRC biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952 which was shown by Perutz at the Cavendish Laboratory to both Crick and Watson. This MRC report contained data from the King's group, including some of Franklin's and Gosling's work, and was given to Crick - who was working on his thesis on haemoglobin structure - by his thesis supervisor Perutz, a member of the visiting committee.

Sayre's biography of Franklin contains a story alleging that the photograph 51 in question was shown to Watson by Wilkins without Franklin's permission, and that this constituted a case of bad science ethics. Others dispute this story, asserting that Wilkins had been given photograph 51 by Franklin's PhD student Gosling because she was leaving King's to work at Birkbeck, and there was allegedly nothing untoward in this transfer of data to Wilkins because Director Randall had insisted that all DNA work belonged exclusively to King's and had instructed Franklin in a letter to even stop working on it and submit her data. Also, it was implied by Horace Freeland Judson, that Maurice Wilkins had taken the photograph out of Franklin's drawer, but this is also said to be incorrect.

Likewise, Perutz saw "no harm" in showing an MRC report containing the conclusions of Franklin and Gosling's X-ray data analysis to Crick, since it had not been marked as confidential, although "The report was not expected to reach outside eyes". Indeed, after the publication of Watson's The Double Helix exposed Perutz's act, he received so many letters questioning his judgment that he felt the need to both answer them all and to post a general statement in excusing himself on the basis of being "inexperienced and casual in administrative matters".

Upon the completion of their model, Crick and Watson had invited Wilkins to be a co-author of their paper describing the structure. Wilkins turned down this offer, as he had taken no part in building the model. He later expressed regret that greater discussion of co-authorship had not taken place as this might have helped to clarify the contribution the work at King's had made to the discovery. There is no doubt that Franklin's experimental data were used by Crick and Watson to build their model of DNA in 1953. Some, including Maddox, have explained this citation omission by suggesting that it may be a question of circumstance, because it would have been very difficult to cite the unpublished work from the MRC report they had seen.

Indeed, a clear timely acknowledgment would have been awkward, given the unorthodox manner in which data were transferred from King's to Cambridge. However, methods were available. Watson and Crick could have cited the MRC report as a personal communication or else cited the Acta articles in press, or most easily, the third Nature paper that they knew was in press. One of the most important accomplishments of Maddox's widely acclaimed biography is that Maddox made a well-received case for inadequate acknowledgement. "Such acknowledgement as they gave her was very muted and always coupled with the name of Wilkins".

Fifteen years after the fact, the first clear recitation of Franklin's contribution appeared as it permeated Watson's account, The Double Helix, although it was buried under descriptions of Watson's (often quite negative) regard towards Franklin during the period of their work on DNA. This attitude is epitomized in the confrontation between Watson and Franklin over a preprint of Pauling's mistaken DNA manuscript. Watson's words impelled Sayre to write her rebuttal, in which the entire chapter nine, "Winner Take All" has the structure of a legal brief dissecting and analyzing the topic of acknowledgement.

Sayre's early analysis was often ignored because of perceived feminist overtones in her book. Watson and Crick did not cite the X-ray diffraction work of Wilkins and Franklin in their original paper, though they admit having "been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin and their co-workers at King's College London". In fact, Watson and Crick cited no experimental data at all in support of their model. Franklin and Gosling's publication of the DNA X-ray image, in the same issue of Nature, served as the principal evidence:

Thus our general ideas are not inconsistent with the model proposed by Watson and Crick in the preceding communication.

Franklin was never nominated for a Nobel Prize. Her work was a crucial part in the discovery of DNA's structure, which along with subsequent related work led to Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins being awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962. She had died in 1958, and during her lifetime the DNA structure was not considered to be fully proven. It took Wilkins and his colleagues about seven years to collect enough data to prove and refine the proposed DNA structure. Moreover, its biological significance, as proposed by Watson and Crick, was not established. General acceptance for the DNA double helix and its function did not start until late in the 1950s, leading to Nobel nominations in 1960, 1961, and 1962 for Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and in 1962 for Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The first breakthrough was from Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl in 1958, who experimentally showed the DNA replication of a bacterium Escherichia coli. In what is now known as the Meselson-Stahl experiment, DNA was found to replicate into two double-stranded helices, with each helix having one of the original DNA strands. This DNA replication was firmly established by 1961 after further demonstration in other species, and of the stepwise chemical reaction. According to the 1961 Crick-Monod letter, this experimental proof, along with Wilkins having initiated the DNA diffraction work, were the reasons why Crick felt that Wilkins should be included in the DNA Nobel Prize.

In 1962 the Nobel Prize was subsequently awarded to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins. Nobel rules now prohibit posthumous nominations (though this statute was not formally in effect until 1974) or splitting of Prizes more than three ways. The award was for their body of work on nucleic acids and not exclusively for the discovery of the structure of DNA. By the time of the award Wilkins had been working on the structure of DNA for more than 10 years, and had done much to confirm the Watson-Crick model. Crick had been working on the genetic code at Cambridge and Watson had worked on RNA for some years. Watson has suggested that ideally Wilkins and Franklin would have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Pauling, who received the Nobel Peace Prize that year, believed and earlier warned the Nobel Committee in 1960 that "it might well be premature to make an award of a Prize to Watson and Crick, because of existing uncertainty about the detailed structure of nucleic acid. I myself feel that it is likely that the general nature of the Watson-Crick structure is correct, but that there is doubt about details." He was partly right as an alternative of Watson-Crick base pairing, called the Hoogsteen base pairing that can form triple DNA strand, was discovered by Karst Hoogsteen in 1963.

1992, English Heritage placed a blue plaque commemorating Franklin on the building in Drayton Gardens, London, where she lived until her death.

1995, Newnham College, Cambridge opened a graduate residence named Rosalind Franklin Building, and put a bust of her in its garden.

1997, a newly discovered asteroid was named 9241 Rosfranklin.

1999, the Institute of Physics at Portland Place, London, renamed its theatre as Franklin Lecture Theatre.

2002, the University of Groningen, supported by the European Union, launched the Rosalind Franklin Fellowship to encourage women researchers to become full university professors.

2003, the Royal Society established the Rosalind Franklin Award (officially the Royal Society Rosalind Franklin Award and Lecture) for an outstanding contribution to any area of natural science, engineering or technology. The award consists of a silver-coated medal and a grant of £30,000.

2004, Finch University of Health Sciences/The Chicago Medical School, located in North Chicago, Illinois, USA changed its name to the Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science. It also adopted a new motto "Life in Discovery", and Photo 51 as its logo.

2004, the Gruber Foundation started the Rosalind Franklin Young Investigator Award for two female geneticists from all over the world. It carries an annual fund of $25,000, each award is for three years, and selection is made by a joint committee appointed by the Genetics Society of America and the American Society of Human Genetics.

2005, the DNA sculpture (donated by James Watson) outside Clare College, Cambridge's Memorial Court incorporates the words "The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins."

2006, the Rosalind Franklin Society was established in New York by Mary Ann Liebert. The Society aims to recognise, foster, and advance the important contributions of women in the life sciences and affiliated disciplines.

2008, Columbia University awarded an honorary Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize to Franklin, "for her seminal contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA".

2008, the Institute of Physics established a biennial award the Rosalind Franklin Medal and Prize.

2012, the bioinformatics education software platform was named in honour of Franklin.

2013, Google honoured Rosalind Franklin with a doodle, showing her gazing at a double helix structure of DNA with an X-ray of Photo 51 beyond it.

2013, a plaque was placed on the wall of The Eagle pub in Cambridge commemorating Franklin's contribution to the discovery of the structure of DNA, on the sixtieth anniversary of Crick and Watson's announcement in the pub.

2014, the Rosalind Franklin STEM Elementary was opened in Pasco, Washington, the first science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) elementary school in the district.

2014, the University of Wolverhampton opened its new laboratory building named the Rosalind Franklin Science Building.

2015, Newnham College Boat Club, Cambridge, launched a new racing VIII, naming it the Rosalind Franklin.

2015, the Rosalind Franklin Appathon was launched by University College London as a national app competition for women in STEMM (science, technology, engineering, maths and medicine).

2015, a high performance computing and cloud facility in London was named Rosalind.

2016, the Rosalind Franklin Prize and Tech Day was held on 23 February in London, organised by University College London, i-sense, UCL Enterprise, the London Centre for Nanotechnology and the UCL Athena SWAN Charter.

2017, DSM opened the Rosalind Franklin Biotechnology Center in Delft, the Netherlands.

2017, Historic England gave a heritage listing, at Grade II, to Franklin's tomb at Willesden Jewish Cemetery on the grounds of it being of "special architectural or historic interest". Historic England said that "the tomb commemorates the life and achievements of Rosalind Franklin, a scientist of exceptional distinction, whose pioneering work helped lay the foundations of molecular biology; Franklin's X-ray observation of DNA contributed to the discovery of its helical structure."

2018, the Rosalind Franklin Institute, an autonomous medical research centre under the join venture of 10 universities and funded by the United Kingdom Research and Innovation, was launched at the Harwell Science and Innovation Campus on 6 June, and was officially opened on 29 September 2021.

2019, the European Space Agency (ESA) named its ExoMars rover Rosalind Franklin.

2020, Franklin was selected for the Time 100 Women of the Year, for 1953.

2020, the UK Royal Mint released a 50-pence coin in honour of the hundredth anniversary of Franklin's birth on 25 July. It features a stylized version of Photo 51.

2020, South Norfolk Council renamed a road on the Norwich Research Park in her honour in July 2020. The road is home to the Quadram Institute and the University of East Anglia's Bob Champion Research and Education Building.

2020, Aston Medical School instituted an annual competition for medical students named the Rosalind Franklin Essay Prize, funded by its alumni and Rosalind's nephew, Daniel Franklin, executive and diplomatic editor of The Economist.

2021, the Rosalind Franklin laboratory was opened in the Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, on 13 July as the largest laboratory for COVID-19 testing under the UK Health Security Agency and National Health Service Test and Trace network, and supported by the University of Warwick.

2022, the new bacterial genus, Franklinella, in the family Comamonadaceae, was described in her honour.

Franklin's part in the discovery of the nature of DNA was shown in the 1987 TV Movie , starring Juliet Stevenson as Franklin, and with Tim Pigott-Smith as Crick, Alan Howard as Wilkins and Jeff Goldblum as Watson. This movie portrayed Franklin as somewhat stern, but also alleged that Watson and Crick did use a lot of her work to do theirs.

A 56-minute documentary of the life and scientific contributions of Franklin, DNA - Secret of Photo 51, was broadcast in 2003 on PBS Nova. Narrated by Barbara Flynn, the program features interviews with Wilkins, Gosling, Klug, Maddox, including Franklin's friends Vittorio Luzzati, Caspar, Anne Piper, and Sue Richley. The UK version produced by BBC is titled Rosalind Franklin: DNA's Dark Lady.

The first episode of another PBS documentary serial, DNA, was aired on 4 January 2004. The episode titled The Secret of Life centres much around the contributions of Franklin. Narrated by Jeff Goldblum, it features Watson, Wilkins, Gosling and Peter Pauling (son of Linus Pauling).

A play entitled Rosalind: A Question of Life was written by Deborah Gearing to mark the work of Franklin, and was first performed on 1 November 2005 at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre, and published by Oberon Books in 2006.

Another play, Photograph 51 by Anna Ziegler, published in 2011, has been produced at several places in the US and in late 2015 was put on at the Noel Coward Theatre, London, with Nicole Kidman playing Franklin. Ziegler's version of the 1951-53 'race' for the structure of DNA sometimes emphasizes the pivotal role of Franklin's research and her personality. Although sometimes altering history for dramatic effect, the play nevertheless illuminates many of the key issues of how science was and is conducted.

False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch is a play about the life of Marie Curie in which Franklin is portrayed as frustrated and angry at the lack of recognition for her scientific contributions. Hostility between the two is also depicted in season 3 of Harvey Girls Forever.

Franklin is fictionalised in Marie Benedict's novel Her Hidden Genius, released in January 2022.

Franklin was noted as "the chemist that actually discovered DNA" in episode three of the 2019 Netflix series Daybreak.[citation needed ]

Rosalind Franklin's most notable publications are listed below. The last two were published posthumously.

D. H. Bangham & Rosalind E.Franklin (1946), "Thermal expansion of coals and carbonised coals" (PDF), Transactions of the Faraday Society, 48: 289-295, doi:10.1039/TF946420B289, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022from The Rosalind Franklin Papers, in "Profiles in Science", at National Library of Medicine

R. E. Franklin (1949), "Note sur la structure colloïdale des houilles carboniseés", Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France, 16 (1-2): D53-D54Citation count 0

R. E. Franklin (1950), "On the structure of carbon" (PDF), Journal de Chimie Physique et de Physico-Chimie Biologique, 47 (5-6): 573-575, Bibcode:1950JCP....47..573F, doi:10.1051/jcp/1950470573, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022Per National Library of Medicine above. Citation count 16. Note: this journal ceased publication in 1999

R. E. Franklin (1950), "A rapid approximate method for correcting the low-angle scattering measurements for the influence of the finite height of the X-ray beam", Acta Crystallographica, 3 (2): 158-159, doi:10.1107/S0365110X50000343Citation count 15

R. E. Franklin (1950), "The interpretation of diffuse X-ray diagrams of carbon", Acta Crystallographica, 3 (2): 107-121, doi:10.1107/S0365110X50000264Citation count 245. (In this article, Franklin cites Moffitt)

R. E. Franklin (1950), "Influence of the bonding electrons on the scattering of X-rays by carbon", , 165 (4185): 71-72, Bibcode:1950Natur.165...71F, doi:10.1038/165071a0, PMID 15403103, S2CID 4210740citation count 11

R. E. Franklin (1951), "Les carbones graphitisables et non-graphitisables", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences, Presented by G. Rimbaud, session of 3 January 1951, 232 (3): 232-234Citation count 7

R. E. Franklin (1951), "The structure of graphitic carbons" (PDF), Acta Crystallographica, 4 (3): 253-261, doi:10.1107/S0365110X51000842, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022Citation count 398

G. E. Bacon & R.E. Franklin (1951), "The alpha dimension of graphite", Acta Crystallographica, 4 (6): 561-562, doi:10.1107/s0365110x51001793Citation count 8

R. E. Franklin (1951), "Crystallite growth in graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons", Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 209 (1097): 196-218, Bibcode:1951RSPSA.209..196F, doi:10.1098/rspa.1951.0197, S2CID 4126286Citation count 513. Downloadable free from doi site, or alternatively from The Rosalind Franklin Papers collection at National Library of Medicine

R. E. Franklin (1953), "Graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons, their formation, structure and properties", Angewandte Chemie, 65 (13): 353, doi:10.1002/ange.19530651311Citation count 0

R. E. Franklin (1953), "The role of water in the structure of graphitic acid", Journal de Chimie Physique et de Physico-Chimie Biologique, 50: C26, doi:10.1051/jcp/195350s1c026

R. E. Franklin (1953), "Graphitizing and nongraphihastizing carbon compounds. Formation, structure and characteristics", Brenstoff-Chemie, 34: 359-361

R. E. Franklin & R. G. Gosling (25 April 1953), "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate" (PDF), Nature, 171 (4356): 740-741, Bibcode:1953Natur.171..740F, doi:10.1038/171740a0, PMID 13054694, S2CID 4268222Reprint also available at Resonance Classics

Franklin, R. E.; Gosling, R. G. (1953). "The structure of sodium thymonucleate fibres. I. The influence of water content". Acta Crystallographica. 6 (8): 673-677. doi:10.1107/S0365110X53001939.

Franklin, R. E.; Gosling, R. G. (1953). "The structure of sodium thymonucleate fibres. II. The cylindrically symmetrical Patterson function". Acta Crystallographica. 6 (8): 678-685. doi:10.1107/S0365110X53001940.

R.E. Franklin & M. Mering (1954), "La structure de l'acide graphitique", Acta Crystallographica, 7 (10): 661, doi:10.1107/s0365110x54002137

Rosalind Franklin & K. C. Holmes. (1956), "The Helical Arrangement of the Protein Sub-Units in Tobacco Mosaic Virus" (PDF), Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 21 (2): 405-406, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(56)90043-9, PMID 13363941, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022Article access per National Library of Medicine above

Rosalind E. Franklina & A. Klug (1956), "The nature of the helical groove on the tobacco mosaic virus particle X-ray diffraction studies", Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 19 (3): 403-416, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(56)90463-2, PMID 13315300

Klug, Aaron, J. T. Finch, and Rosalind Franklin (1957), "The Structure of Turnip Yellow Mosaic Virus: X-Ray Diffraction Studies" (PDF), Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 25 (2): 242-252, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(57)90465-1, PMID 13471561, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022Per National Library of Medicine above

Klug, Aaron, Rosalind Franklin, and S. P. F. Humphreys-Owen (1959), "The Crystal Structure of Tipula Iridescent Virus as Determined by Bragg Reflection of Visible Light" (PDF), Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 32 (1): 203-219, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(59)90570-0, PMID 13628733, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022Per National Library of Medicine

Franklin, Rosalind, Donald L. D. Caspar, and Aaron Klug (1959), "Chapter XL: The Structure of Viruses as Determined by X-Ray Diffraction" (PDF), Plant Pathology: Problems and Progress, 1908-1958, University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 447-461, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022Per National Library of Medicine

1. ^ Jensen, Robin E.; Parks, Melissa M.; Mann, Benjamin W.; Maison, Kourtney; Krall, Madison A. (2019). "Mapping Nature 's scientist: The posthumous demarcation of Rosalind Franklin's crystallographic data" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Speech. 105 (3): 297-318. doi:10.1080/00335630.2019.1629000. S2CID 197721627. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

2. Franklin, Rosalind (1946). The physical chemistry of solid organic colloids, with special reference to the structure of coal and related materials (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. OCLC 879396430. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.599181.

3. ^ Dixon, R. N.; D. M. Agar; R. E. Burge (1997). "William Charles Price. 1 April 1909−−10 March 1993". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 43: 438. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1997.0023. JSTOR 770344.

4. ^ Rosalind Franklin, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory's Dolan DNA Learning Center, ID 1649, [2] Archived 3 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine.

5. ^ Harris, P.J.F. (March 2001). "Rosalind Franklin's work on coal, carbon, and graphite" (PDF). Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 26 (3): 204-210. doi:10.1179/030801801679467. S2CID 269381. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

6. ^ Meili, Matthias (2003). "Signer's Gift - Rudolf Signer and DNA". CHIMIA International Journal for Chemistry. 57 (11): 735-740. doi:10.2533/000942903777678623.

7. "Professor Raymond Gosling, DNA scientist - obituary". The Daily Telegraph. 22 May 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2019.

8. ^ Wood, Bayden R. (2016). "The importance of hydration and DNA conformation in interpreting infrared spectra of cells and tissues". Chemical Society Reviews. 45 (7): 1980-98. doi:10.1039/C5CS00511F. PMID 26403652. S2CID 24571043.

9. ^ Pauling, L.; Corey, R. B. (1953). "A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 39 (2): 84-97. Bibcode:1953PNAS...39...84P. doi:10.1073/pnas.39.2.84. PMC . PMID 16578429.

10. Watson, J. D., Crick, F. H. (April 1953). "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid" (PDF). Nature. 171 (4356): 737-738. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..737W. doi:10.1038/171737a0. PMID 13054692. S2CID 4253007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

11. ^ Wilkins, M. H., A. R. Stokes, H. R. Wilson (April 1953). "Molecular structure of deoxypentose nucleic acids" (PDF). Nature. 171 (4356): 738-740. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..738W. doi:10.1038/171738a0. PMID 13054693. S2CID 4280080. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

12. ^ Franklin, RE; Gosling, RG (1953). "Evidence for 2-chain helix in crystalline structure of sodium deoxyribonucleate". Nature. 172 (4369): 156-157. Bibcode:1953Natur.172..156F. doi:10.1038/172156a0. PMID 13072614. S2CID 4169572.

13. ^ Devos, Rika (2011). "Expo 58: the catalyst for Belgium's Welfare State Government complex?" (PDF). Planning Perspectives. 26 (4): 649-659. doi:10.1080/02665433.2011.599934. hdl:1854/LU-1013792. S2CID 144066750. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

14. UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from

15. Along with genetic predisposition; opinion of CSU's Lynne Osman Elkin; see also March 2003 ^ Physics Today

16. ^ Harding, Sandra (2006). "Sexist criticism of Watson's memoir". Science and Social Inequality: Feminist and Postcolonial Issues. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-252-07304-5.

17. ^ Wertheimer, Michael; Clamar, Aphrodite; Siderits, Mary Anne (2007). "The Case of the Purloined Picture: Rosalind Franklin and the Keystone of the Double Helix". In Gavin, Eileen A.; Clamar, Aphrodite; Siderits, Mary Anne (eds.). Women of Vision: Their Psychology, Circumstances, and Successes. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-0-8261-0253-9.

18. ^ Swaby, Rachel (2015). Headstrong 52 women who changed science - and the world. New York: Broadway Books. pp. 108-112. ISBN 978-0-553-44679-1.

19. Perutz's papers are in the Archive of the J. Craig Venter institute and Science Foundation in Rockville Maryland, which were purchased as part of the Jeremy Norman Archive of Molecular Biology; quoted in Ferry, Georgina, 2007. Max Perutz and the Secret of Life. Published in the UK by Chatto & Windus (^ ISBN 0-7011-7695-4), and in the USA by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

20. ^ Science, 27 June 1969, pp. 207-212, also reprinted in the Norton critical edition of The Double Helix, edited by Gunther Stent.

21. ^ Beard, Mary (2001). "Down among the Women (Nobel Laureates)". The Kenyon Review. Harvard University Press. 23 (2): 239-247. JSTOR 4338226.

22. ^ Meselson, Matthew; Stahl, Franklin W. (1958). "The replication of DNA in Escherichia coli". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 44 (7): 671-682. Bibcode:1958PNAS...44..671M. doi:10.1073/pnas.44.7.671. PMC . PMID 16590258.

23. ^ Nakada, D; Ryan, FJ (1961). "Replication of deoxyribonucleic acid in non-dividing bacteria". Nature. 189 (4762): 398-399. Bibcode:1961Natur.189..398N. doi:10.1038/189398a0. PMID 13727575. S2CID 4158551.

24. ^ Cavalleiri, LF; Rosenberg, BH (1961). "The replication of DNA III. Changes in the number of strands in E. coli DNA during its replication cycle". Biophysical Journal. 1 (4): 337-351. Bibcode:1961BpJ.....1..337C. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(61)86893-8. PMC . PMID 13691706.

25. ^ Hoogsteen K (1963). "The crystal and molecular structure of a hydrogen-bonded complex between 1-methylthymine and 9-methyladenine". Acta Crystallographica. 16 (9): 907-916. doi:10.1107/S0365110X63002437.

26. ^ Arnott, S.; Kibble, T.W.B.; Shallice, T. (2006). "Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins. 15 December 1916 - 5 October 2004: Elected FRS 1959". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 52: 455-478. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2006.0031. PMID 18551798.

27. ^ "€ 6.6 million EU grant for Rosalind Franklin Fellowship". University of Groningen. 2 August 2013.

28. ^ Staff (18 December 2013). "Mary Ann Liebert to Receive Award for Stem Cell Education at World Stem Cell Summit in San Diego". Biotech Week. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016 - via HighBeam Research.

29. ^ "Lord Robert Winston opens Rosalind Franklin Building at Nottingham Trent Uni". Nottingham Post. 16 October 2012. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014.

30. ^ "Rosalind Franklin University unveils bronze statue of its namesake". Daily Herald. Arlington Heights, Ill. 29 May 2014.

31. ^ Place, Clarissa (12 October 2020). "'Abhorrent' road name to be changed to honour work of female scientist". Eastern Daily Press. Norwich.

32. ^ Nathan Southern (2014). "NOVA: DNA - Secret of Photo 51 (2003)". Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014.

33. ^ Curie, Marie. "Folding Girls". Harvey Girls Forever. Event occurs at 9m. Rosalind Franklin isn't fit to rack my test tube.

Bryson, Bill (2004). A Short History of Nearly Everything. London: Black Swan. ISBN 0-552-99704-8.

Crick, F.; Watson, J. (1953), "Molecular structure of nucleic acids" (PDF), Nature, 171 (4356): 737-738, Bibcode:1953Natur.171..737W, doi:10.1038/171737a0, PMID 13054692, S2CID 4253007, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

Crick, Francis (1988). What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-09137-7. what mad pursuit.

Elkin, L. O., Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix Physics Today March 2003, pp. 42-48.

Franklin, R. E. (January 1950), "Influence of the bonding electrons on the scattering of X-rays by carbon", , 165 (4185): 71-72, Bibcode:1950Natur.165...71F, doi:10.1038/165071a0, PMID 15403103, S2CID 4210740.

Franklin, R. E. (1955), "Structure of tobacco mosaic virus", Nature, 175 (4452): 379-381, Bibcode:1955Natur.175..379F, doi:10.1038/175379a0, PMID 14356181, S2CID 1109700

Franklin, R. E. (1956), "Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus: Location of the Ribonucleic Acid in the Tobacco Mosaic Virus Particle", Nature, 177 (4516): 928-30, Bibcode:1956Natur.177..928F, doi:10.1038/177928b0, S2CID 4167638.

Holt, J. (2002) "Photo Finish: Rosalind Franklin and the great DNA race" The New Yorker October

Maddox, Brenda (2003). Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-655211-0.

Watson, James D. (1980) [1968], The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA, Norton, ISBN 0-393-01245-X

Watson, J. Letter to , 164, p. 1539, 27 (1969).

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Gibbons, Michelle G (2012). "Reassessing Discovery: Rosalind Franklin, Scientific Visualization, and the Structure of DNA". Philosophy of Science. 79: 63-80. doi:10.1086/663241. S2CID 42283328.

Glynn, Jenifer (22 February 1996). "Rosalind Franklin, 1920-1958". In Shils, Edward; Blacker, Carmen (eds.). Cambridge Women: Twelve Portraits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 267-282. ISBN 0-521-48287-9. OCLC 1159781718.

Klug, Aaron (2004). "R.E. Franklin". In Matthew, H.C.G.; Harrison, Brian (eds.). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: From the Earliest Times to the Year 2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-861411-X.

Klug, Aaron (2004). "The discovery of the DNA Double Helix". In Krude, Torsten (ed.). DNA: Changing Science and Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5-27. ISBN 0-521-82378-1.

Olby, R. (January 2003). "Quiet debut for the double helix". Nature. 421 (6921): 402-405. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..402O. doi:10.1038/nature01397. PMID 12540907.

Wilkins, Maurice (2005). The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280667-3. OCLC 252699170. Archived from the original on 6 May 2022.

"The Rosalind Franklin Society". Archived from the original on 5 December 2016.

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Recordings by Aaron Klug at Web of Stories:

Franklin, Stephen (24 April 2003). "My aunt, the DNA pioneer". .

Elkin, Lynne Osman (March 2003). "Rosalind Franklin and the double helix". Physics Today. 56 (3): 42-48. Bibcode:2003PhT....56c..42E. doi:10.1063/1.1570771.

Piper, Anne (April 1998). "Light on a dark lady". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 23 (4): 151-154. doi:10.1016/S0968-0004(98)01194-3. PMID 9584620.

(Subscription or "Franklin, Rosalind Elsie (1920-1958), crystallographer". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/37413. UK public library membership required.) by Sir Aaron Klug

"Clue to chemistry of heredity found" (PDF). The New York Times. 13 June 1953. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. The first American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the structure of DNA.

Elkin, Lynne. "Rosalind Elsie Franklin 1920-1958". Jewish Women's Encyclopedia.

Website for television program first broadcast in 2003

"The Rosalind Franklin Papers". Profiles in Science. U.S. National Library of Medicine.

"The Papers of Rosalind Franklin". Archivesearch. Documents from the Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge. Also available at "The Rosalind Franklin papers". Wellcome Library.

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Thomas, T. Dennis (November 2008). "The role of activated charcoal in plant tissue culture" (PDF). Biotechnology Advances. 26 (6): 618-631. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.08.003. PMID 18786626. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

Cobb, Matthew (23 June 2015). "Sexism in science: did Watson and Crick really steal Rosalind Franklin's data?". The Guardian.

Conlon, Anne Marie (3 August 2020). "Rosalind Franklin". New Scientist.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July 1920 - 16 April 1958) was a British chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), viruses, coal, and graphite.

# data[].attributes.body
A mathematician and aerospace engineer at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). She became NASA's first black female engineer.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mary Winston Jackson (April 9, 1921 - February 11, 2005) was an African American mathematician and aerospace engineer at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which in 1958 was succeeded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). She worked at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, for most of her career.

# data[].attributes.body
A mathematician whose calculations of orbital mechanics as a NASA employee were critical to the success of the first and subsequent U.S. crewed spaceflights.

# data[].attributes.body
An engineer and former Soviet cosmonaut. She was the first woman in space.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova (born 6 March 1937) is a Russian engineer, member of the State Duma, and former Soviet cosmonaut. She was the first woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963. She orbited the Earth 48 times, spent almost three days in space, is the only woman to have been on a solo space mission and is the last surviving Vostok programme cosmonaut. She was the youngest woman to fly in space until 2023 when Anastatia Mayers flew on Galactic 02 at the age of 18. Since Mayers flew a suborbital mission, Tereshkova remains the youngest woman to fly in Earth orbit.

Before her selection for the Soviet space programme, Tereshkova was a textile factory worker and an amateur skydiver. She joined the Air Force as part of the Cosmonaut Corps and was commissioned as an officer after completing her training. After the dissolution of the first group of female cosmonauts in 1969, Tereshkova remained in the space programme as a cosmonaut instructor. She later graduated from the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy and re-qualified for spaceflight, but never went to space again. She retired from the Air Force in 1997 having attained the rank of major general.

Tereshkova was a prominent member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, holding various political offices including being a member of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 1974 to 1989. She remained politically active following the collapse of the Soviet Union but twice lost elections to the national State Duma in 1995 and 2003. Tereshkova was later elected in 2008 to her regional parliament, the Yaroslavl Oblast Duma. In 2011, she was elected to the national State Duma as a member of the ruling United Russia party and was re-elected in 2016 and 2021.

She has the federal state civilian service rank of 1st class Active State Councillor of the Russian Federation. In 2022, she voted for the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which led to numerous Western sanctions against her.

Valentina Tereshkova was born on 6 March 1937 in the Bolshoye Maslennikovo, a village on the Volga River 270 kilometres (170 mi) northeast of Moscow and part of the Yaroslavl Oblast in central Russia. Her parents had migrated from Belarus. Her father, Vladimir Tereshkov, was a former tractor driver and a sergeant in command of a tank in the Soviet Army. He died in the Finnish Winter War when Tereshkova was two years of age. He and her mother Elena Fyodorovna Tereshkova had three children. After her father's death, her mother moved the family to Yaroslavl, seeking better employment opportunity, and became employed at the Krasny Perekop cotton mill.

Tereshkova was first enrolled in school at age 8 and graduated at 16. She began working at a tire factory, and later at a textile mill, but continued her education by taking correspondence courses and graduated from the Light Industry Technical School in 1960. Tereshkova also became interested from a young age in parachuting, and trained in skydiving at the local Aeroclub, making her first jump at age 22, on 21 May 1959. While still employed as a textile worker, she trained as a competitive parachutist, keeping this a secret from her family. Tereshkova also joined the local Komsomol (Communist Youth League) in Yaroslavl, serving as the secretary of the organisation in 1960 and 1961. She became a member of the Communist Party in 1962.

Tereshkova in January 1963

Tereshkova had not expressed any particular desire to go into space before being recruited, Rather, her experience at skydiving contributed to her selection as a cosmonaut. After the flight of Yuri Gagarin in 1961, Nikolai Kamanin, director of cosmonaut training, read in the American media that female pilots were training to be astronauts. In his diary, he wrote, "We cannot allow that the first woman in space will be American. This would be an insult to the patriotic feelings of Soviet women." Approval was granted to place five female cosmonauts in the next group, which would begin training in 1963. To increase the odds of sending a Soviet woman into space first, the women cosmonauts began their training before the men. The rules required that the potential cosmonaut be a parachutist under 30 years of age, less than 170 cm (5 ft 7 in) in height, no more than 70 kg (154 lb) in weight. By January 1962, the All-Union Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army, Air Force and Navy ( DOSAAF) had selected 400 candidates for consideration. After the initial screening, 58 of those candidates met the requirements, which Kamanin reduced to 23. On 16 February 1962, Tereshkova was selected, along with four other candidates, to join the female cosmonaut corps.

Since they had no military experience, they started with the rank of private in the Soviet Air Forces. Training included isolation tests, centrifuge tests, thermo-chamber tests, decompression chamber testing, and pilot training in MiG-15UTI jet fighters. Tereshkova underwent water recovery training at sea, as part of which several motorboats were used to agitate the water, in order to simulate the rough conditions of space travel. She also began studying at the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy and graduated a few years after her flight. The group spent several months in basic training and, after they finished their training and passed an examination, Kamanin offered them the option to be commissioned as regular Air Force officers. With advice from the male cosmonauts, they chose to accept Kamanin's offer, as it would make it harder for the programme to get rid of them after the first flight. All five women became junior lieutenants in the Air Force in December 1962. Tatyana Kuznetsova became ineligible for the first flight due to illness, and Zhanna Yorkina was performing poorly in training, leaving Tereshkova, Irina Solovyova, and Valentina Ponomaryova as the leading candidates.

Tereshkova and Valery Bykovsky a few weeks before their mission

Originally, a joint mission profile was developed that would involve launching two women into space, on solo Vostok flights, on consecutive days in March or April 1963. It was intended that Tereshkova would launch first, in Vostok 5, while Ponomaryova would follow her into orbit in Vostok 6. However, this flight plan was altered in March 1963. Vostok 5 would now carry a male cosmonaut, Valery Bykovsky, flying alongside a woman aboard Vostok 6, both to be launched in June 1963. The State Space Commission, at their meeting on 21 May, nominated Tereshkova to pilot Vostok 6. Kamanin called her "Gagarin in a skirt." Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was happy with the propaganda potential of her selection, since she was the daughter of a collective farm worker who had died in the Winter War; he confirmed her selection. Solovyova was appointed as her first backup. Tereshkova was promoted to lieutenant before her flight and to captain mid-flight.

Vostok 6 capsule on temporary display in the Science Museum, London in 2016

After the successful launch of Vostok 5 on 14 June, Tereshkova began final preparations for her own flight. On the morning of 16 June 1963, Tereshkova and her backup Solovyova were both dressed in spacesuits and taken to the launch pad by bus. Following the tradition set by Gagarin, Tereshkova also urinated on the bus tire, becoming the first woman to do so. After completing her communication- and life-support checks, she was sealed inside the Vostok. After a two-hour countdown, Vostok 6 launched faultlessly, and Tereshkova became the first woman in space; she remains the only woman to have flown into space solo, and, at 26 years of age, the youngest. Her call sign on this flight was Chaika (Russian: Чайка, 'Seagull'); in commemoration, this name was later bestowed on an asteroid, 1671 Chaika. After her launch, she radioed down:

It is I, Seagull! Everything is fine. I see the horizon; it's a sky blue with a dark strip. How beautiful the Earth is ... everything is going well.

Vostok 6 was the final Vostok flight and was launched two days after Vostok 5 which carried Bykovsky into a five-day mission. The two vessels spent three days in orbital planes 30° apart and, during Tereshkova's first orbit, approached each other to within 5 km (3.1 mi). Although they were able to communicate by radio, neither could be sure if they saw each other. Cameras placed inside both the spacecraft transmitted live footage that was broadcast on Soviet state television. Tereshkova also maintained a flight log and took photographs of the horizon, which were later used to identify aerosol layers within the atmosphere.

In this single flight, she logged more flight time than the combined times of all American astronauts who had flown before that date. Her mission was used to continue the medical studies on humans in spaceflight and offered comparative data about the effects of space travel on women. Although Tereshkova experienced nausea and physical discomfort for much of the flight, she orbited the earth 48 times and spent 2 days, 22 hours, and 50 minutes in space.

As planned in all Vostok missions, Tereshkova ejected from the capsule during its descent at about four miles above the Earth and made a parachute landing 620 km (385 mi) north-east of Karaganda, Kazakhstan at 8:20 am UTC on 19 June. Bykovsky landed three hours after her.

Tereshkova later disclosed that she encountered challenges in managing her parachute due to violent gusts of wind. However, she landed safely but received a bruise on her nose, then she had dinner with some local villagers in the Altai Krai who helped her to get out of her spacesuit.

Yuri Gagarin, Pavel Popovich, Tereshkova, and Nikita Khrushchev at Lenin's Mausoleum on 22 June 1963

According to the Russian newspaper , one million flowers were brought in to celebrate the success of the dual flights and greet the cosmonauts in Moscow. On 22 June 1963, Khrushchev greeted Bykovsky dressed in his uniform who saluted while Khrushchev hugged and kissed Tereshkova who was dressed in civilian attire. In front of the thousands in attendance, the Premier also announced that both the cosmonauts were awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union medal. All three made speeches from atop Lenin's Tomb on the Red Square; Tereshkova said, "my father perished defending our country and my mother brought up her three children. We know the bitterness of that war. We don't need war," referring to the anniversary of the German invasion of Russia that began 22 years ago that day. Sometime after her mission, she was reportedly asked how the Soviet Union should thank her for her service to the country; Tereshkova requested that the government search for and publish the location of where her father was killed in action. This was done, and a monument was erected at the site in the Lemetti, Karelia-now on the Russian side of the border. The evening of 22 June, a reception was held in the Kremlin in which both Bykovsky and Tereshkova were awarded the Order of Lenin.

Tereshkova visiting the Lvov confectionery, Ukrainian SSR, 1967

Less than a week after her return from space, Moscow hosted the International Women's Congress on 24 June where Tereshkova and Bykovsky were greeted by a gathering of about 2,000 women from 119 countries. Of all the Russian cosmonauts, Tereshkova received the most requests to visit foreign nations. Her trips in particular required pre-approval from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defense, and the KGB and were ultimately authorized by the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, the highest political bureau in the Soviet Union.

All the Vostok cosmonauts toured extensively, but Tereshkova most of all; she made 42 trips abroad between 1963 and 1970. On 1 October 1963, Tereshkova arrived in Havana, Cuba, and met Fidel Castro. She toured the country which at the time was dealing with effects of Hurricane Flora. The following month she presented a silver cup, which went to the team from the Soviet Union who won gold in all five boat classes, at the women's 1963 European Rowing Championships held in Khimki near Moscow. By February 1964, Tereshkova was pregnant when she visited Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom who was also pregnant at the time. Except for a few-months break that year, Tereshkova went on a continuous and exhausting world tour, returning to her public duties only two months after the birth of her daughter.

After her spaceflight, Tereshkova became a national and international role model. She received "congratulatory telegrams and letters... from around the world." These telegrams express the impact that Tereshkova had on other countries, outside the Soviet Union. Women were particularly excited about her flight. For example, in New Delhi, Tereshkova was a "feminist standard bearer bringing a message of hope for 'enslaved' Indian womanhood."

Tereshkova was a well-known representative of the Soviet Union abroad. She became a member of the World Peace Council in 1966 and a member of the Yaroslavl Soviet in 1967. She was also the Soviet representative to the UN Conference for the International Women's Year in Mexico City in 1975. She led the Soviet delegation to the World Conference on Women in Copenhagen and was "interested in socialist internationalism and women's roles in guaranteeing world peace". Tereshkova was also chosen for several political positions; she was a member of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union (1966-1974), a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (1969-1991), and a member of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (1974-1989). She was appointed vice president of the International Woman's Democratic Federation and president of the Soviet-Algerian Friendship Society.

Tereshkova with American communist Angela Davis in 1973, East Berlin, East Germany

Although she desired to continue pursuing a career as a cosmonaut and engineer, her superiors had a different plan for her in politics. Following Gagarin's death, the Soviet space program was not willing to risk losing another hero. Against her wishes, she was appointed as the leader of the Committee for Soviet Women in 1968. A few months after she graduated with honours from the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy in October 1969, the team of women cosmonauts was disbanded and a woman would not go to space again until Svetlana Savitskaya in 1982.

By 1976, Tereshkova was a colonel in the Soviet Air Forces. In April 1977, she earned a doctorate in aeronautical engineering and underwent the medical examinations to qualify for spaceflight when selection of a new class of women cosmonauts was announced in 1978. Although she did not go to space again, she remained an instructor at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center.

Tereshkova with South Korean President Moon Jae-in in the Russian State Duma, 2018

She remained politically active following the collapse of the Soviet Union but lost elections to the national State Duma during 1995. In the year 1995, Tereshkova was promoted to an honorary rank of major general. On 28 April 1997, she left the Russian Air Force due to reaching the age of compulsory retirement at 60 years old. In 2003, Tereshkova ran again for a seat in the State Duma. In 2007, Tereshkova was invited to Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's residence in Novo-Ogaryovo for the celebration of her 70th birthday. While there she said that she would like to fly to Mars, even if it meant that it was a one-way trip. She was later elected during 2008 to her regional parliament, the Yaroslavl Oblast Duma.

On 4 December 2011, Tereshkova was elected to the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian legislature, as a representative of the Yaroslavl Oblast and a member of the United Russia party. In the 6th State Duma, together with Yelena Mizulina, Irina Yarovaya and Andrey Skoch, she was a member of the inter-factional committee for the protection of Christian values. In this capacity, she supported the introduction of amendments to the preamble of Constitution of Russia, to add that "Orthodoxy is the basis of Russia's national and cultural identity". These views stand in opposition to atheist views Tereshka espoused during the Soviet era that were aligned with the official Communist Party line at the time, such as calling religion "a big evil".

On 18 September 2016, Tereshkova was re-elected to the 7th State Duma. She serves as deputy chairperson of the Committee on the Federal Structure and Local Government.

During the drafting process for the 2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia, she proposed to lift the term limits for president Putin.

In response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Office of Foreign Assets Control of the United States Department of the Treasury added Tereshkova to the Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List on 30 September 2022, which results in her assets being frozen and U.S. persons being prohibited from dealing with her. In December 2022, the European Union (EU) had placed sanctions on various Russian media personalities and politicians including Tereshkova, which involves freezing assets and banning them from entering EU member states.

Tereshkova and Andriyan Nikolayev's wedding ceremony, 3 November 1963

Valentina married cosmonaut Andriyan Nikolayev on 3 November 1963 at the Moscow Wedding Palace with Khrushchev presiding at the wedding party together with top government and space programme leaders. The marriage was encouraged by the Soviet space authorities as a "fairy-tale message to the country". General Kamanin, head of the space programme, described it as "probably useful for politics and science". On 8 June 1964, nearly one year after her space flight, she gave birth to their daughter Elena Andrianovna Nikolaeva-Tereshkova, the first person whose parents had both travelled into space.

Later in their marriage, the couple grew apart and refused to even stand next to each other in photographs. Tereshkova told the biographer Antonella Kerr that the marriage ended in 1977; she and Nikolayev divorced in 1982 and Tereshkova married Yuli Shaposhnikov, a surgeon she had met during her medical examinations to re-qualify as a cosmonaut. They remained married until Shaposhnikov's death in 1999.

Tereshkova in uniform in 1969

Tereshkova among delegates at the 24th Congress of the CPSU, 1971

Order of Gagarin (2023)

Certificates of appreciation from the Government of the Russian Federation;

3 March 1997, - for the contribution to the development of space, the strengthening of international scientific and cultural ties and years of diligent work

12 June 2003, - for large contribution to the development of crewed space flight

16 June 2008, - for long-term fruitful state and public activities, considerable personal contribution to the development of crewed space flight and in connection with the 45th anniversary of spaceflight

1963 Russian postage stamp

Soviet-era matryoshka doll celebrating Tereshkova

Numerous objects and places were named after Tereshkova in the USSR and Russia.

Novopromyshna Square in Tver was renamed Tereshkova Square in 1963.

In 1967, Gregory Postnikov created a sculpture of Tereshkova for Cosmonaut Alley in Moscow. There is a monument in Bayevsky District of Altai Territory, Siberia, close to her landing place of 53°N, 80°E. In August 1970, Tereshkova was among the first group of living people to have a lunar crater named after them. Tereshkova crater is located on the far side of the Moon.

None of the other four in Tereshkova's early group flew and, in October 1969, the pioneering female cosmonaut group was dissolved. Even though there were plans for further flights by women, it took 19 years until the second woman, Svetlana Savitskaya, flew into space.

In 1997, London-based electronic pop group Komputer released a song entitled "Valentina" which gives a more-or-less direct account of her career as a cosmonaut. It was released as a single and appears on their album The World of Tomorrow. The 2000 album Vostok 6 by Kurt Swinghammer is a concept album about Tereshkova. The 2015 album The Race for Space by Public Service Broadcasting also has a song featuring the Smoke Fairies entitled "Valentina". In the same year, Findlay Napier's album VIP: Very Interesting Persons included a song "Valentina", written in her honour by Napier and Boo Hewerdine. In 2015, a short film entitled Valentina's Dream was released by Meat Bingo Productions. The film stars Rebecca Front as Tereshkova and is based on an interview by the former cosmonaut where she expressed a desire to journey to Mars.

The Cosmos Museum was opened 25 January 1975 near Yaroslavl. Among its exhibits is a replica of her childhood home. The city library was named after her in 2013. The school she attended as a child was renamed for her. A planetarium in Yaroslavl was built and named for her in 2011. The International Women of the Year association named her as the "greatest woman achiever of the 20th century". Tereshkova was a torchbearer of the 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay in Saint Petersburg and the 2014 Winter Olympics torch relay in Sochi.

Streets in Ukraine that bore Tereshkova's name have been renamed due to her support of Russia's military actions against Ukraine and in accordance with the country's 2015 decommunisation law. A proposal was also brought forward in 2015 to move a monument to Tereshkova in Lviv, Ukraine to the Territory of Communist Terror Memorial Museum. Monuments of communist leaders are removed from the public and placed in the museum as part of decommunization efforts. In January 2021, 24 Ukrainian streets were still named after Tereshkova; including a street in Busk, located in the same province as Lviv. As of 2023, these streets have acquired new names, and there are no more objects named after Tereshkova in Ukraine. The monument to Tereshkova in Lviv was dismantled in November 2023 and transferred to the Museum of Totalitarian Regimes.

Abramov, Anatoly Petrovich (2022). I Look Back and Have No Regrets. "New format" Barnaul. ISBN 978-5-00202-034-8.

Eidelman, Tamara (May-June 2003). "The Extraordinary Destiny of an 'Ordinary' Woman". Russian Life. Vol. 46, no. 3. p. 19.

Eidelman, Tamara (May-June 2008). "The First Woman in Space". Russian Life. Vol. 51, no. 3. pp. 19-21.

Gauthier, Daniel (July-August 1991). "Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova". Ad Astra. Vol. 3, no. 6. p. 29.

Griswold, Robert (Summer 2012). "'Russian Blonde in Space': Soviet Women in the American Imagination, 1950-1965". Journal of Social History. 45 (4): 881-907. doi:10.1093/jsh/shr147. S2CID 143881424.

Lopota, C. A., ed. (2014). "S. P. Korolev". Encyclopedia of Life and Creativity. RSC Energia. S. P. Korolev978-5-906674-04-3.

Lothian, Antonella (1993). Valentina: The First Woman in Space. The Pentland Press. ISBN 978-1-85821-064-3.

O'Neil, Bill (14 August 1993). "Whatever Became of Valentina Tereshkova?". New Scientist. Vol. 139, no. 1886. p. 21.

Ostashev, A. I. (2010). Sergey Pavlovich Korolyov: The Genius of the 20th Century. M. of Public Educational Institution of Higher Professional Training MGUL. ISBN 978-5-8135-0510-2.

Sharpe, Mitchell R. (1975). "It Is I, Sea Gull": Valentina Tereshkova, First Woman in Space. Crowell. ISBN 978-0-690-00646-9.

Vselennoĭ, Bereg (2014). Bank of the Universe. Kiev: Phoenix. ISBN 978-966-136-169-9.

Woodmansee, Laira (Summer 2005). "Two Who Dared". Ad Astra. Vol. 17, no. 2. p. 48.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova (born 6 March 1937) is a Russian engineer, member of the State Duma, and former Soviet cosmonaut. She was the first woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963.

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A British mathematician and writer.

Known for her work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine.

The world’s first computer programmer.

She was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron and reformer Anne Isabella Milbanke.

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Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace ( Byron; 10 December 1815 - 27 November 1852) was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation.

Ada Byron was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron and reformer Anne Isabella Milbanke. All Lovelace's half-siblings, Lord Byron's other children, were born out of wedlock to other women. Byron separated from his wife a month after Ada was born and left England forever. He died in Greece when Ada was eight. Her mother was anxious about her upbringing and promoted Ada's interest in mathematics and logic in an effort to prevent her from developing her father's perceived insanity. Despite this, Ada remained interested in him, naming her two sons Byron and Gordon. Upon her death, she was buried next to him at her request. Although often ill in her childhood, Ada pursued her studies assiduously. She married William King in 1835. King was made Earl of Lovelace in 1838, Ada thereby becoming Countess of Lovelace.

Her educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as Andrew Crosse, Charles Babbage, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone and Michael Faraday, and the author Charles Dickens, contacts which she used to further her education. Ada described her approach as "poetical science" and herself as an "Analyst (& Metaphysician)".

When she was eighteen, her mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow British mathematician Charles Babbage, who is known as "the father of computers". She was in particular interested in Babbage's work on the Analytical Engine. Lovelace first met him on 5 June 1833, when she and her mother attended one of Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées with their mutual friend, and Ada's private tutor, Mary Somerville.

Between 1842 and 1843, Ada translated an article by the military engineer Luigi Menabrea (later Prime Minister of Italy) about the Analytical Engine, supplementing it with an elaborate set of seven notes, simply called "Notes".

Lovelace's notes are important in the early history of computers, especially since the seventh one contained what many consider to be the first computer program-that is, an algorithm designed to be carried out by a machine. Other historians reject this perspective and point out that Babbage's personal notes from 1837 to 1840 contain the first programs for the engine. She also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching, while many others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those capabilities. Her mindset of "poetical science" led her to ask questions about the Analytical Engine (as shown in her notes) examining how individuals and society relate to technology as a collaborative tool.

Lord Byron expected his child to be a "glorious boy" and was disappointed when Lady Byron gave birth to a girl. The child was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called "Ada" by Byron himself. On 16 January 1816, at Lord Byron's command, Lady Byron left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory, taking their five-week-old daughter with her. Although English law at the time granted full custody of children to the father in cases of separation, Lord Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights, but did request that his sister keep him informed of Ada's welfare.

Ada Byron, aged four

On 21 April, Lord Byron signed the deed of separation, although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later. Aside from an acrimonious separation, Lady Byron continued throughout her life to make allegations about her husband's immoral behaviour. This set of events made Lovelace infamous in Victorian society. Ada did not have a relationship with her father. He died in 1824 when she was eight years old. Her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life. Lovelace was not shown the family portrait of her father until her 20th birthday.

Lovelace did not have a close relationship with her mother. She was often left in the care of her maternal grandmother Judith, Hon. Lady Milbanke, who doted on her. However, because of societal attitudes of the time-which favoured the husband in any separation, with the welfare of any child acting as mitigation-Lady Byron had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society. This included writing anxious letters to Lady Milbanke about her daughter's welfare, with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern. In one letter to Lady Milbanke, she referred to her daughter as "it": "I talk to it for your satisfaction, not my own, and shall be very glad when you have it under your own." Lady Byron had her teenage daughter watched by close friends for any sign of moral deviation. Lovelace dubbed these observers the "Furies" and later complained they exaggerated and invented stories about her.

Ada Byron, aged seventeen, 1832

Lovelace was often ill, beginning in early childhood. At the age of eight, she experienced headaches that obscured her vision. In June 1829, she was paralyzed after a bout of measles. She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, something which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831, she was able to walk with crutches. Despite the illnesses, she developed her mathematical and technological skills.

When Ada was twelve years old, this future "Lady Fairy", as Charles Babbage affectionately called her, decided she wanted to fly. Ada Byron went about the project methodically, thoughtfully, with imagination and passion. Her first step, in February 1828, was to construct wings. She investigated different material and sizes. She considered various materials for the wings: paper, oilsilk, wires, and feathers. She examined the anatomy of birds to determine the right proportion between the wings and the body. She decided to write a book, Flyology, illustrating, with plates, some of her findings. She decided what equipment she would need; for example, a compass, to "cut across the country by the most direct road", so that she could surmount mountains, rivers, and valleys. Her final step was to integrate steam with the "art of flying".

Ada Byron had an affair with a tutor in early 1833. She tried to elope with him after she was caught, but the tutor's relatives recognised her and contacted her mother. Lady Byron and her friends covered the incident up to prevent a public scandal. Lovelace never met her younger half-sister, Allegra, the daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont. Allegra died in 1822 at the age of five. Lovelace did have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh, the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh, who purposely avoided Lovelace as much as possible when introduced at court.

Adult years

Watercolour portrait of Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, c. 1840, possibly by Alfred Edward Chalon

Lovelace became close friends with her tutor Mary Somerville, who introduced her to Charles Babbage in 1833. She had a strong respect and affection for Somerville, and they corresponded for many years. Other acquaintances included the scientists Andrew Crosse, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday and the author Charles Dickens. She was presented at Court at the age of seventeen "and became a popular belle of the season" in part because of her "brilliant mind". By 1834 Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people, and was described by most people as being dainty, although John Hobhouse, Byron's friend, described her as "a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly the mouth". This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably due to her mother's influence, which led her to dislike all of her father's friends. This first impression was not to last, and they later became friends.

On 8 July 1835, she married William, 8th Baron King, becoming Lady King. They had three homes: Ockham Park, Surrey; a Scottish estate on Loch Torridon in Ross-shire; and a house in London. They spent their honeymoon at Worthy Manor in Ashley Combe near Porlock Weir, Somerset. The Manor had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by King in preparation for their honeymoon. It later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time. From 1845, the family's main house was Horsley Towers, built in the Tudorbethan fashion by the architect of the Houses of Parliament, Charles Barry,[page needed ] and later greatly enlarged to Lovelace's own designs.

They had three children: Byron (born 1836); Anne Isabella (called Annabella, born 1837); and Ralph Gordon (born 1839). Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Lady King experienced "a tedious and suffering illness, which took months to cure". Ada was a descendant of the extinct Barons Lovelace and in 1838, her husband was made Earl of Lovelace and Viscount Ockham, meaning Ada became the Countess of Lovelace. In 1843-44, Ada's mother assigned William Benjamin Carpenter to teach Ada's children and to act as a "moral" instructor for Ada. He quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated affections, claiming that his marriage meant he would never act in an "unbecoming" manner. When it became clear that Carpenter was trying to start an affair, Ada cut it off.

In 1841, Lovelace and Medora Leigh (the daughter of Lord Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by Ada's mother that Ada's father was also Medora's father. On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: "I am not in the least astonished. In fact, you merely confirm what I have for years and years felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected." She did not blame the incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead blamed Augusta Leigh: "I fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was." In the 1840s, Ada flirted with scandals: firstly, from a relaxed approach to extra-marital relationships with men, leading to rumours of affairs; and secondly, from her love of gambling. She apparently lost more than £3,000 on the horses during the later 1840s. The gambling led to her forming a syndicate with male friends, and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets. This went disastrously wrong, leaving her thousands of pounds in debt to the syndicate, forcing her to admit it all to her husband. She had a shadowy relationship with Andrew Crosse's son John from 1844 onwards. John Crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of a legal agreement. She bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her. During her final illness, she would panic at the idea of the younger Crosse being kept from visiting her.

From 1832, when she was seventeen, her mathematical abilities began to emerge, and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life. Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Byron was one of the reasons that Ada was taught mathematics from an early age. She was privately educated in mathematics and science by William Frend, William King, and Mary Somerville, the noted 19th-century researcher and scientific author. In the 1840s, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan extended her "much help in her mathematical studies" including study of advanced calculus topics including the " numbers of Bernoulli" (that formed her celebrated algorithm for Babbage's Analytical Engine). In a letter to Lady Byron, De Morgan suggested that Ada's skill in mathematics might lead her to become "an original mathematical investigator, perhaps of first-rate eminence".

Lovelace often questioned basic assumptions through integrating poetry and science. Whilst studying differential calculus, she wrote to De Morgan:

I may remark that the curious transformations many formulae can undergo, the unsuspected and to a beginner apparently impossible identity of forms exceedingly dissimilar at first sight, is I think one of the chief difficulties in the early part of mathematical studies. I am often reminded of certain sprites and fairies one reads of, who are at one's elbows in one shape now, and the next minute in a form most dissimilar.

Sonnet titled The Rainbow in Lovelace's own hand (Somerville College)

Painting of Lovelace seated at a piano, by Henry Phillips (1852). Although in great pain at the time, she agreed to sit for the painting as her father, Lord Byron, had been painted by Phillips' father, Thomas Phillips.

Lovelace died at the age of 36 on 27 November 1852, from uterine cancer. The illness lasted several months, in which time Annabella took command over whom Ada saw, and excluded all of her friends and confidants. Under her mother's influence, Ada had a religious transformation and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making Annabella her executor. She lost contact with her husband after confessing something to him on 30 August which caused him to abandon her bedside. It is not known what she told him. She was buried, at her request, next to her father at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire.

Throughout her life, Lovelace was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day, including phrenology and mesmerism. After her work with Babbage, Lovelace continued to work on other projects. In 1844, she commented to a friend Woronzow Greig about her desire to create a mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings ("a calculus of the nervous system"). She never achieved this, however. In part, her interest in the brain came from a long-running pre-occupation, inherited from her mother, about her "potential" madness. As part of her research into this project, she visited the electrical engineer Andrew Crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments. In the same year, she wrote a review of a paper by Baron Karl von Reichenbach, Researches on Magnetism, but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft. In 1851, the year before her cancer struck, she wrote to her mother mentioning "certain productions" she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music.

Portrait of Ada by the British painter Margaret Sarah Carpenter (1836)

Lovelace first met Charles Babbage in June 1833, through their mutual friend Mary Somerville. Later that month, Babbage invited Lovelace to see the prototype for his difference engine. She became fascinated with the machine and used her relationship with Somerville to visit Babbage as often as she could. Babbage was impressed by Lovelace's intellect and analytic skills. He called her "The Enchantress of Number". In 1843, he wrote to her:

Forget this world and all its troubles and if possible its multitudinous Charlatans-every thing in short but the Enchantress of Number.

During a nine-month period in 1842-43, Lovelace translated the Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea's article on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended a set of notes. Explaining the Analytical Engine's function was a difficult task; many other scientists did not grasp the concept and the British establishment had shown little interest in it. Lovelace's notes even had to explain how the Analytical Engine differed from the original Difference Engine. Her work was well received at the time; the scientist Michael Faraday described himself as a supporter of her writing.

The notes are around three times longer than the article itself and include (in ), in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine, which might have run correctly had it ever been built (only Babbage's Difference Engine has been built, completed in London in 2002). Based on this work, Lovelace is now considered by many to be the first computer programmer and her method has been called the world's first computer program. Others dispute this because some of Charles Babbage's earlier writings could be considered computer programs.

also contains Lovelace's dismissal of artificial intelligence. She wrote that "The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths." This objection has been the subject of much debate and rebuttal, for example by Alan Turing in his paper " Computing Machinery and Intelligence". Most modern computer scientists argue that this view is outdated and that computer software can develop in ways that cannot necessarily be anticipated by programmers.

Lovelace and Babbage had a minor falling out when the papers were published, when he tried to leave his own statement (criticising the government's treatment of his Engine) as an unsigned preface, which could have been mistakenly interpreted as a joint declaration. When Taylor's Scientific Memoirs ruled that the statement should be signed, Babbage wrote to Lovelace asking her to withdraw the paper. This was the first that she knew he was leaving it unsigned, and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper. The historian Benjamin Woolley theorised that "His actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought Ada's involvement, and so happily indulged her ... because of her 'celebrated name'." Their friendship recovered, and they continued to correspond. On 12 August 1851, when she was dying of cancer, Lovelace wrote to him asking him to be her executor, though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority. Part of the terrace at Worthy Manor was known as Philosopher's Walk; it was there that Lovelace and Babbage were reputed to have walked while discussing mathematical principles.

First published computer program

In 1840, Babbage was invited to give a seminar at the University of Turin about his Analytical Engine. Luigi Menabrea, a young Italian engineer and the future Prime Minister of Italy, transcribed Babbage's lecture into French, and this transcript was subsequently published in the Bibliothèque universelle de Genève in October 1842. Babbage's friend Charles Wheatstone commissioned Ada Lovelace to translate Menabrea's paper into English. She then augmented the paper with notes, which were added to the translation. Ada Lovelace spent the better part of a year doing this, assisted with input from Babbage. These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in the September 1843 edition of Taylor's Scientific Memoirs under the initialism AAL.

Ada Lovelace's notes were labelled alphabetically from A to G. In Note G, she describes an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers. It is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and Ada Lovelace has often been cited as the first computer programmer for this reason. The engine was never completed and so her program was never tested.

In 1953, more than a century after her death, Ada Lovelace's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished as an appendix to B. V. Bowden's Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines. The engine has now been recognised as an early model for a computer and her notes as a description of a computer and software.

Insight into potential of computing devices

In her notes, Ada Lovelace emphasised the difference between the Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity. She realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching. In her notes, she wrote:

[The Analytical Engine] might act upon other things besides number, were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be expressed by those of the abstract science of operations, and which should be also susceptible of adaptations to the action of the operating notation and mechanism of the engine...Supposing, for instance, that the fundamental relations of pitched sounds in the science of harmony and of musical composition were susceptible of such expression and adaptations, the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent.

This analysis was an important development from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices and anticipated the implications of modern computing one hundred years before they were realised. Walter Isaacson ascribes Ada's insight regarding the application of computing to any process based on logical symbols to an observation about textiles: "When she saw some mechanical looms that used punchcards to direct the weaving of beautiful patterns, it reminded her of how Babbage's engine used punched cards to make calculations." This insight is seen as significant by writers such as Betty Toole and Benjamin Woolley, as well as the programmer John Graham-Cumming, whose project Plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete Analytical Engine.

According to the historian of computing and Babbage specialist Doron Swade:

Ada saw something that Babbage in some sense failed to see. In Babbage's world his engines were bound by number...What Lovelace saw...was that number could represent entities other than quantity. So once you had a machine for manipulating numbers, if those numbers represented other things, letters, musical notes, then the machine could manipulate symbols of which number was one instance, according to rules. It is this fundamental transition from a machine which is a number cruncher to a machine for manipulating symbols according to rules that is the fundamental transition from calculation to computation-to general-purpose computation-and looking back from the present high ground of modern computing, if we are looking and sifting history for that transition, then that transition was made explicitly by Ada in that 1843 paper.

Distinction between mechanism and logical structure

Lovelace recognized the difference between the details of the computing mechanism, as covered in an 1834 article on the Difference Engine, and the logical structure of the Analytical Engine, on which the article she was reviewing dwelt. She noted that different specialists might be required in each area.

The [1834 article] chiefly treats it under its mechanical aspect, entering but slightly into the mathematical principles of which that engine is the representative, but giving, in considerable length, many details of the mechanism and contrivances by means of which it tabulates the various orders of differences. M. Menabrea, on the contrary, exclusively developes the analytical view; taking it for granted that mechanism is able to perform certain processes, but without attempting to explain how; and devoting his whole attention to explanations and illustrations of the manner in which analytical laws can be so arranged and combined as to bring every branch of that vast subject within the grasp of the assumed powers of mechanism. It is obvious that, in the invention of a calculating engine, these two branches of the subject are equally essential fields of investigation... They are indissolubly connected, though so different in their intrinsic nature, that perhaps the same mind might not be likely to prove equally profound or successful in both.

Controversy over contribution

Though Lovelace is often referred to as the first computer programmer, some biographers, computer scientists and historians of computing suggest otherwise.

Allan G. Bromley, in the 1990 article Difference and Analytical Engines:

All but one of the programs cited in her notes had been prepared by Babbage from three to seven years earlier. The exception was prepared by Babbage for her, although she did detect a "bug" in it. Not only is there no evidence that Ada ever prepared a program for the Analytical Engine, but her correspondence with Babbage shows that she did not have the knowledge to do so.

Bruce Collier wrote that Lovelace "made a considerable contribution to publicizing the Analytical Engine, but there is no evidence that she advanced the design or theory of it in any way".

Eugene Eric Kim and Betty Alexandra Toole consider it "incorrect" to regard Lovelace as the first computer programmer, as Babbage wrote the initial programs for his Analytical Engine, although the majority were never published. Bromley notes several dozen sample programs prepared by Babbage between 1837 and 1840, all substantially predating Lovelace's notes. Dorothy K. Stein regards Lovelace's notes as "more a reflection of the mathematical uncertainty of the author, the political purposes of the inventor, and, above all, of the social and cultural context in which it was written, than a blueprint for a scientific development".

In his book, Idea Makers, Stephen Wolfram defends Lovelace's contributions. While acknowledging that Babbage wrote several unpublished algorithms for the Analytical Engine prior to Lovelace's notes, Wolfram argues that "there's nothing as sophisticated-or as clean-as Ada's computation of the Bernoulli numbers. Babbage certainly helped and commented on Ada's work, but she was definitely the driver of it." Wolfram then suggests that Lovelace's main achievement was to distill from Babbage's correspondence "a clear exposition of the abstract operation of the machine-something which Babbage never did".

Commemoration

The computer language Ada, created on behalf of the United States Department of Defense, was named after Lovelace. The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980 and the Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, MIL-STD-1815, was given the number of the year of her birth.

In 1981, the Association for Women in Computing inaugurated its Ada Lovelace Award. As of 1998, the British Computer Society (BCS) has awarded the Lovelace Medal, and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students. BCSWomen sponsors the Lovelace Colloquium, an annual conference for women undergraduates. Ada College is a further-education college in Tottenham Hale, London, focused on digital skills.

Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event celebrated on the second Tuesday of October, which began in 2009. Its goal is to "... raise the profile of women in science, technology, engineering, and maths," and to "create new role models for girls and women" in these fields. Events have included Wikipedia edit-a-thons with the aim of improving the representation of women on Wikipedia in terms of articles and editors to reduce unintended gender bias on Wikipedia.

The Ada Initiative was a non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements.

The Engineering in Computer Science and Telecommunications College building in Zaragoza University is called the Ada Byron Building. The computer centre in the village of Porlock, near where Lovelace lived, is named after her. Ada Lovelace House is a council-owned building in Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire, near where Lovelace spent her infancy.

In 2012, a Google Doodle and blog post honoured her on her birthday.

In 2013, Ada Developers Academy was founded and named after her. The mission of Ada Developers Academy is to diversify tech by providing women and gender diverse people the skills, experience, and community support to become professional software developers to change the face of tech.

On 17 September 2013, the BBC Radio 4 biography programme Great Lives devoted an episode to Ada Lovelace; she was sponsored by TV presenter Konnie Huq.

As of November 2015, all new British passports have included an illustration of Lovelace and Babbage.

In 2017, a Google Doodle honoured her with other women on International Women's Day.

On 2 February 2018, Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite named in honour of Ada Lovelace.

In March 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for Ada Lovelace.

On 27 July 2018, Senator Ron Wyden submitted, in the United States Senate, the designation of 9 October 2018 as National Ada Lovelace Day: "To honor the life and contributions of Ada Lovelace as a leading woman in science and mathematics". The resolution (S.Res.592) was considered, and agreed to without amendment and with a preamble by unanimous consent.

In March 2022, a statue of Ada Lovelace was installed at the site of the former Ergon House in the City of Westminster, London, honoring its scientific history. The redevelopment was part of a complex with Imperial Chemical House. The statue was sculpted by Etienne and Mary Millner and based on the portrait by Margaret Sarah Carpenter. The sculpture was unveiled on International Women's Day, 2022. It stands on the 7th floor of Millbank Quarter overlooking the junction of Dean Bradley Street and Horseferry Road.

In September 2022, Nvidia announced the Ada Lovelace graphics processing unit (GPU) microarchitecture.

In July 2023, The UK's Royal Mint issued four commemorative £2 coins in various metals to "honour the innovative contributions of computer science visionary Ada Lovelace and her legacy as a female trailblazer."

Bicentenary (2015)

Special exhibitions were displayed by the Science Museum in London, England and the Weston Library (part of the Bodleian Library) in Oxford, England.

In popular culture

Novels and plays

Lovelace is portrayed in Romulus Linney's 1977 play Childe Byron. In Tom Stoppard's 1993 play , the precocious teenage genius Thomasina Coverly-a character "apparently based" on Ada Lovelace (the play also involves Lord Byron)-comes to understand chaos theory, and theorises the second law of thermodynamics, before either is officially recognised.

In the 1990 steampunk novel The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, Lovelace delivers a lecture on the "punched cards" programme which proves Gödel's incompleteness theorems decades before their actual discovery. Lovelace and Mary Shelley as teenagers are the central characters in Jordan Stratford's steampunk series, The Wollstonecraft Detective Agency.

Lovelace features in John Crowley's 2005 novel, Lord Byron's Novel: The Evening Land, as an unseen character whose personality is forcefully depicted in her annotations and anti-heroic efforts to archive her father's lost novel.

The 2015 play Ada and the Engine by Lauren Gunderson portrays Lovelace and Charles Babbage in unrequited love, and it imagines a post-death meeting between Lovelace and her father. Lovelace and Babbage are also the main characters in Sydney Padua's webcomic and graphic novel The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage. The comic features extensive footnotes on the history of Ada Lovelace, and many lines of dialogue are drawn from actual correspondence.

Lovelace is a primary character in the 2019 Big Finish Doctor Who audio play The Enchantress of Numbers, starring Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor and Jane Slavin as his current companion, WPC Ann Kelso. Lovelace is played by Finty Williams.

In 2019, Lovelace is a featured character in the play STEM FEMMES by Philadelphia theater company Applied Mechanics.

Film and television

In the 1997 film Conceiving Ada, a computer scientist obsessed with Ada finds a way of communicating with her in the past by means of "undying information waves".

Lovelace, identified as Ada Augusta Byron, is portrayed by Lily Lesser in the second season of The Frankenstein Chronicles. She is employed as an "analyst" to provide the workings of a life-sized humanoid automaton. The brass workings of the machine are reminiscent of Babbage's analytical engine. Her employment is described as keeping her occupied until she returns to her studies in advanced mathematics.

Lovelace and Babbage appear as characters in the second season of the ITV series (2017). Emerald Fennell portrays Lovelace in the episode, "The Green-Eyed Monster."

"Lovelace" is the name of the operating system designed by the character Cameron Howe in Halt and Catch Fire.

Lovelace features as a character in " Spyfall, Part 2", the second episode of Doctor Who, series 12, which first aired on BBC One on 5 January 2020. The character was portrayed by Sylvie Briggs, alongside characterisations of Charles Babbage and Noor Inayat Khan.

The Cardano cryptocurrency platform, launched in 2017, uses Ada as the name for the cryptocurrency and Lovelace as the smallest sub-unit of an Ada.

In 2021, Lovelace was directly honoured in the codename of Nvidia's new GPU architecture featured in its RTX 4000 series. Ada Lovelace is the first Nvidia architecture to feature both a first and last name.

Publications

Publication history

Six copies of the 1843 first edition of Sketch of the Analytical Engine with Ada Lovelace's "Notes" have been located. Three are held at Harvard University, one at the University of Oklahoma, and one at the United States Air Force Academy. On 20 July 2018, the sixth copy was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for £95,000. A digital facsimile of one of the copies in the Harvard University Library is available online.

Explanatory notes

References

General and cited sources

Elwin, Malcolm (1975), Lord Byron's Family, John Murray.

Essinger, James (2014), Ada's algorithm: How Lord Byron's daughter Ada Lovelace launched the digital age, Melville House Publishing, ISBN 978-1-61219-408-0 .

Fuegi, J; Francis, J (October-December 2003), "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'" (PDF), Annals of the History of Computing, 25 (4): 16-26, doi:10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887, S2CID 40077111, archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2020.

Hammerman, Robin; Russell, Andrew L. (2015), Hammerman, Robin; Russell, Andrew L. (eds.), Ada's Legacy: Cultures of Computing from the Victorian to the Digital Age, Association for Computing Machinery and Morgan & Claypool, doi:10.1145/2809523, ISBN 978-1-970001-51-8, S2CID 62018931.

Isaacson, Walter (2014), The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution, Simon & Schuster.

Kim, Eugene; Toole, Betty Alexandra (1999). "Ada and the First Computer". Scientific American. 280 (5): 66-71. Bibcode:1999SciAm.280e..76E. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0599-76.

Lewis, Judith S. (July-August 1995). "Princess of Parallelograms and her daughter: Math and gender in the nineteenth century English aristocracy". Women's Studies International Forum. 18 (4): 387-394. doi:10.1016/0277-5395(95)80030-S.

Marchand, Leslie (1971), Byron A Portrait, John Murray.

Menabrea, Luigi Federico (1843), "Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage", Scientific Memoirs, 3, archived from the original on 15 September 2008 With notes upon the memoir by the translator.

Miller, Clair Cain. "Ada Lovelace, 1815-1852," New York Times, 8 March 2018.

Moore, Doris Langley (1977), Ada, Countess of Lovelace, John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-3384-8 .

Moore, Doris Langley (1961), The Late Lord Byron, Philadelphia: Lippincott, ISBN 978-0-06-013013-8, OCLC 358063.

Stein, Dorothy (1985), Ada: A Life and a Legacy, MIT Press Series in the History of Computing, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-19242-2 .

Woolley, Benjamin (February 1999), The Bride of Science: Romance, Reason, and Byron's Daughter, AU: Pan Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-72436-1 .

Woolley, Benjamin (February 2002) [1999], The Bride of Science: Romance, Reason, and Byron's Daughter, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, ISBN 978-0-07-138860-3 .

Further reading

Jennifer Chiaverini, 2017, Enchantress of Numbers, Dutton, 426 pp.

Christopher Hollings, Ursula Martin, and Adrian Rice, 2018, Ada Lovelace: The Making of a Computer Scientist, Bodleian Library, 114 pp.

Miranda Seymour, 2018, In Byron's Wake: The Turbulent Lives of Byron's Wife and Daughter: Annabella Milbanke and Ada Lovelace, Pegasus, 547 pp.

Jenny Uglow (22 November 2018), "Stepping Out of Byron's Shadow", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 18, pp. 30-32.

External links

"Ada's Army gets set to rewrite history at Inspirefest 2018" by Luke Maxwell, 4 August 2018

Works by Ada Lovelace at Open Library

"Untangling the Tale of Ada Lovelace" by Stephen Wolfram, December 2015

"Ada Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing". Women in Science. SDSC. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018.

"Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace". Biographies of Women Mathematicians. Agnes Scott College.

"Papers of the Noel, Byron and Lovelace families". UK: Archives hub. Archived from the original (archive) on 24 April 2012.

"Ada Lovelace & The Analytical Engine". Babbage. Computer History.

"Ada & the Analytical Engine". Educause. Archived from the original (archive) on 10 August 2009.

"Ada Lovelace, Countess of Controversy". Tech TV vault. G4 TV. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018.

"Ada Lovelace" (streaming). In Our Time (audio). UK: BBC Radio 4. 6 March 2008.

"Ada Lovelace's Notes and The Ladies Diary". Yale.

"The fascinating story Ada Lovelace". Sabine Allaeys - via YouTube.

"Ada Lovelace, the World's First Computer Programmer, on Science and Religion". Maria Popova (Brain). 10 December 2013.

"How Ada Lovelace, Lord Byron's Daughter, Became the World's First Computer Programmer". Maria Popova (Brain). 10 December 2014.

O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Ada Lovelace", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews

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Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace ( Byron; 10 December 1815 - 27 November 1852) was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation.

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A paleoecologist and evolutionary biologist in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of California.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Geerat J. Vermeij (born September 28, 1946) is a Dutch-born paleoecologist and evolutionary biologist in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of California, Davis. He studies marine molluscs, both as fossils and as living creatures, as well as influence creatures have on each other's evolutionary fates, alongside having worked on plants, crabs, extinction, biological invasions, and biogeography. He received a MacArthur Fellowship in 1992, and in 2000, was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences. He was also a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences in 1992 and was awarded the Fellows Medal from the California Academy of Sciences in 2017.

Vermeij was born in Sappemeer, Netherlands. Blind from the age of three, he studied Braille at the Prins Alexander Stichting Boarding School in Huis Ter Heide. He moved from the Netherlands to Nutley, New Jersey at age 10, and graduated from Nutley High School in 1965. Since the age of 10, Vermeij wanted to be a conchologist. Vermeij had a school teacher who once brought shells from Florida. There were great differences in the characteristics of those shells and the ones he experienced in the Netherlands, which sparked his interest.

He has a wife, Edith Zipser, and a daughter, Hermine. His vision loss did not slow him down. He travelled the world with research assistants to retrieve shells. His interests in comparing shell traits came his senior year at Princeton University when he took a trip to both Costa Rica and Hawaii. There was a sharp contrast in the molluscs and it intrigued him. Vermeij proceeded to graduate from Princeton University in 1968 and received his Ph.D. in biology and geology from Yale University in 1971.

Vermeij studies coevolutionary relationships between predator and prey organisms, with a focus on marine mollusks. His research argues that an important evolutionary mechanism is the process of escalation, which occurs when species adapt to, or are limited by their competitors, predators, and parasites.

In lieu of sight, Vermeij uses his sense of touch to better understand mollusk morphology. Throughout his career, he has challenged the assumption that people with disabilities like blindness cannot conduct scientific research.

As part of his professional career, he has been a part of multiple professional societies including the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Society for the Study of Evolution, Paleontological Society, American Society of Naturalists, the Institute of Malacology, Nederlandse Malacologische Vereniging, and Werkgroep voor Tertiaire en Kwartiaire Geologie. He was a member of the board of trustees at the California Academy of Sciences from 2006 to 2015.

Vermeij has over 300 publications and 5 published books including his first book, Biogeography and Adaptation published in 1978. He has also published Evolution and Escalation: An Ecological History of Life, A Natural History of Shells, Privileged Hands: A Scientific Life, and Nature: An Economic History, which evaluates economics and evolution. His forthcoming book is titled The Evolution of Power.

In February 2023, Distinguished Professor Emeritus Geerat Vermeij in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, UC Davis, delivered the New Emeriti Distinguished Lecture, focusing on The Evolution of Power: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i7opv_2eIhM.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Geerat J. Vermeij (born September 28, 1946) is a Dutch-born paleoecologist and evolutionary biologist in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of California, Davis. He studies marine molluscs, both as fossils and as living creatures, as well as influence creatures have on each other's evolutionary fates, alongside having worked on plants, crabs, extinction, biological invasions, and biogeography.

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A nuclear physicist.

Famous for contributions to particle physics and quantum electrodynamics.

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Ishfaq Ahmad Khan (3 November 1930 - 18 January 2018) SI, HI, NI, FPAS, was a Pakistani nuclear physicist, emeritus professor of high-energy physics at the National Centre for Physics, and former science advisor to the Government of Pakistan.

A versatile theoretical physicist, Ahmad made significant contributions in the theoretical development of the applications and concepts involving the particle physics, and its relative extension to the quantum electrodynamics, while working as senior research scientist at the CERN in the 1960s and 1970s. Joining the PAEC in the late 1950s, Ahmad served as the director of the Nuclear Physics Division at the secret Pinstech Institute which developed the first designs of atomic bombs, a clandestine project during the post-1971 war. There, he played an influential role in leading the physics and mathematical calculations in the critical mass of the weapons, and did theoretical work on the implosion method used in the weapons.

Since the 1960s and onwards, he was a high-ranking official at the IAEA as part of the Pakistan Government's official mission, working to make the peaceful use of nuclear power for the industrial development. Having chaired the PAEC from 1991 until 2001, he was affiliated with the Pakistan Government as a science adviser to the prime minister on strategic and scientific programs, with the status of Minister of State. A vehement supporter for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, he earned public and international fame in May 1998 when he oversaw and directed PAEC to perform country's first public atomic tests (see Chagai-I and Chagai-II) in a secret weapon-testing laboratories in Balochistan Province of Pakistan. He died on 18 January 2018, aged 87 in Lahore.

Ahmad was born in Gurdaspur, Punjab in India on 3 November 1930 into a Kakazai family that had long been settled in Punjab. Ahmad obtained his early education in Jalandhar, later schooling in Lyallpur, and Lahore before enrolling in the Punjab University in Lahore to study Physics, and earned his undergraduate, BSc degree, in Physics in 1949.

After entering in the post graduate school at the Punjab University, Ahmad obtained his MSc degree, in 1951, after submitting his master's thesis on nuclear physics, which was supervised by R. M. Chaudhry. With his master's degree, he obtained Honours diploma and secured a gold medallion for the recognition of his work in physics. He taught various undergraduate physics laboratory courses at the Government College University while working on fundamental concepts in nuclear physics with his university mentor. In 1954, he won the scholarship under the Colombo Plan fellowship program and went to Quebec, Canada for his doctorate studies.

Ahmad attended the doctorate school at the Université de Montréal and did a two-year-long course in Particle physics and engaged his research on theoretical physics. In 1959, Ahmad obtained D.Sc. in physics after submitting his doctoral works on concepts on advancing on particle physics. His theses were written in fluent French and English language, and he reluctantly returned to Pakistan under the terms of Colombo Plan contract. His DSc theses were supervised by Pierre Demers and covered a wide range of research in the study of elementary particles by using the deployment of special fine grain nuclear emulsion ( AgBr). During his long doctoral studies, Ahmad studied nuclear reaction at the Montreal Laboratory with supervisors and scientists role in the Manhattan Project. Upon his return to Pakistan, he joined the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) as a senior scientist.

In 1952, Ahmad served as a visiting professor of mathematics at the Government College University, before accepting the professorship of mathematics at the University of Paris in 1959. He engaged his research in theoretical physics and obtained a one-year-long research fellowship at the Niels Bohr Institute for Theoretical Physics. In 1962-64, he accepted the professorship in physics at the University of Montreal and the University of Ottawa. In Ottawa, he carried out pioneering research in particle resonance and published important publications in theoretical physics.

Ahmad also performed experiments on nuclear physics at the Meuse Underground Laboratories of France. In 1965, Ahmad published a research report on absorption of Pion's cross sections and the range of complex atom's energy of the pion particle. He recalled his Cern experience in 1994:

In 1994, I visited CERN as chairman of PAEC. The visit took place on the initiative of Pakistani ( theoretical) physicist Ahmed Ali, who works at DESY. It brought back good memories of my earlier visits, which date back to 1962 when I came to CERN as a young post-doctoral fellow working at the University Institute of Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen (now the Niels Bohr Institute) to perform a nuclear emulsion experiment. During my visit in 1994, I was fascinated to see the exciting developments in physics that were taking place at CERN, and I had only one wish- that my own country, Pakistan- should somehow become involved in scientific collaboration with CERN, and that our physicists and engineers could also become part of the most advanced, challenging and rewarding scientific endeavour: the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

In the 1990s, Ahmad played a pivotal role in building closer relations with the CERN, and lobbied tirelessly for PAEC to reach an agreement with CERN. In 1997, Ahmad, as chair of PAEC, signed an agreement with CERN in the up gradation of the CMS detector and the financial contribution worth one million SFr for the construction of eight magnetic rings for the detector. This was followed by in 1998, Ishfaq Ahmad, as PAEC chairman, reached another contract with CERN. The signing of the agreement was followed by the state visit of CERN's director Christopher Llewellyn Smith with whom Ahmad signed a collaborative agreement that provided an entry point for Pakistani's scientist (respectively PAEC) into the CMS collaboration.

In 2000, another treaty between PAEC and CERN was signed that covered the construction of the resistive plate chambers required for the CMS muon system. In Press Conference with Luciano Maiani, Ahmad quoted: "I very much hope and wish that these developments may eventually lead to Pakistan becoming an associate member of CERN."

In 1960, Ahmad joined the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) as senior scientist and was allowed to proceed abroad for post-doctoral work at several of the world's most renowned research institutions. Ahmad published papers in physics at the Niels Bohr Institute at Copenhagen; also at the University of Montreal in Canada as well as the University of Paris - Sorbonne in France. Finally, he settled down for work at the Lahore Centre of the PAEC (PAEC) in 1965. Ahmad held the post of Senior Scientific Officer until 1966. From 1969 until 1971, Ahmad was the director of the Atomic Energy Centre in Lahore; and then served as secretary of PAEC from 1967 till 1969. In 1971, Ahmad became director of the Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology in Nilore until 1976. In 1976, he became a Science Member of PAEC, raised to the position of Senior Member in 1988. He became Chairman of the Commission in 1991 and remained its Chairman from 13 March 1991 to 19 December 2001.

While he was Chairman PAEC, Ahmad has been heading the country's delegation at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, Austria. At IAEA, he was always very keen for getting technical support and the breaking of the isololation of scientists from third world. On his persuasion IAEA's technical assistance program was adapted to cater for special needs of the developing countries. In this regard a Standing Advisory Group on Technical Assistance and Cooperation (SAGTAC) was established; Ahmad served as the first Chairman of the Group.

After the 1971 war with India, the government sent Ishfaq Ahmad to the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH). When Munir Ahmad Khan became the chairman of PAEC and was put in charge of secret atomic bomb project, Munir Khan appointed Ahmad as the director of PINSTECH, where he remained up to 1976. Ahmad served as the director of the Nuclear Physics Division at the secret Pinstech Institute which developed the first designs of atomic bombs, a clandestine project during the post-1971 war. There, he played an influential role in leading the physics and mathematical calculations in the critical mass of the weapons, and did preliminary theoretical work on the implosion method used in the weapons.

As early as in 1976, Ahmad, in a seismic team led by geophysicist Ahsan Mubarak conducted a three-dimensional geometrical survey and made several reconnaissance tours of the suitable areas in Balochistan. After a one-year-long survey, the team found a mountain which matched their specifications. The 185-meter high-rise granite mountain was founded in the Ras Koh region of the Chagai Division of Balochistan, which at their highest point rise to a height of 3,009 metres. Ahmad had long noted that the underground weapon-testing laboratories in the mountain should be "bone dry" and capable of withstanding a ~20 kilotonne nuclear force from the inside. Within a week, further test experiments were conducted to measure the water content of the mountains and the surrounding area and to measure the capability of the mountain's rock to withstand a nuclear test. Once this was confirmed, Ishfaq Ahmed finalised the work on a three-dimensional survey of the area.

In 1976, PAEC succeeded in producing the first local 10 kg of Yellowcake and later on produced the ²³⁹ Pu, the weapon grade plutonium in 1983, which was later tested with the nuclear device.

At PINSTECH, Ahmad produced the first Photographic plate to identify the fissile matter in natural uranium when it is explored. However, due to its classified research, the knowledge of such detector is completely classified. The NPD developed the Thermoluminescent Dosimeter to measure the detection of alpha particles emitted in the decay of radon and thoron gases. Ahmad collaborating with Hameed Ahmad Khan -director of Radiation Physics Division - in the development of CR-39, a type of particle detector. Ahmad gained expertise in nuclear emulsion and developed a first classified nuclear emulsion that provided information about the mass, charge and velocity of the particles producing the track.

A first device was physically manufactured by 1983, and transported to Sargodha air force base for a first test.[citation needed ] On 11 March 1983, a first cold test, codename Kirana-I, of a device was secretly carried out at the weapon-testing laboratories built inside the Central Ammunition Depot (CAD) of Sargodha AFB. The test was overseen and conducted by a small team of scientists led by Ahmad, while calculations on quantum oscillator was conducted by Theoretical physics group. Other invitees and attendees included the Munir Ahmad Khan, Samar Mubarakmand, and Masud Ahmad of PAEC whilst others were high-ranking civilians officials of elite civil bureaucracy and the active-duty officer of the Pakistan military.

In 1991, Ahmad was officially approved as the chairman of PAEC by the prime minister of Pakistan after Munir Khan retired. During this time, he had been a senior scientist and acted as official science advisor to the government of Pakistan on many occasions. In 1998, Ahmad visited Canada to deliver lecture on quantum physics at the Montreal Laboratory when the news of surprise nuclear tests, codename Pokhran-II, of India reached to him. On 16 May 1998, Ahmad cut short his trip and returned to Pakistan to attend meeting with Prime minister Nawaz Sharif, and arranged his meeting with Prime minister on 17 May 1998. The message was bestowed to him by the Joint Headquarters at Rawalpindi, informing him to remain on stand-by a meeting with the Prime Minister.[citation needed ] After commencing the meeting with the Prime minister, Ahmad received green signal from the government of Pakistan to conduct country's first test as a suitable reply to Indian nuclear aggression.

Ahmad personally supervised the test preparations as he also suggests the codenames of the tests. On 28 May 1998, the PAEC, sided by KRL and corps of engineers, performed the first nuclear tests, codename which was followed by two days later, in May 1998. Evidently, the fission devices were had contained the boosted-fission HEU nuclear process, that came from the KRL. But, on 30 May, the second test, codename Chagai-II, was performed completely under the command and control management of the PAEC. The fission devices, on a second test, were reportedly had contained the weapon grade plutonium, producing around at ~20kt of nuclear force. All together, the superposition of sum of the forces and the total blast yield was ranged at the nearly ~40 kt of nuclear force, according to the PAEC scientific data.

After retiring from the PAEC in 2001, Ahmad developed interests in seismology and the climate change, and helped founded the Global Change Impact Studies Centre and the Centre for Earthquake Studies (CES), both initially attached to the National Centre for Physics (NCP) in Islamabad. Ahmad served as elected President of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences and is the lifetime Chairman of the Board of Governors of the National Centre for Physics (NCP)- a research institute established on the pattern of International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) at Trieste, Italy.[citation needed ]

He also put Pakistan on the governing Council of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Austria, which conducts policy related research using mathematical modeling and simulation tools.

Global Change Impact Studies Centre (GCISC)

Ishfaq Ahmad's efforts led to the creation of the Global Change Impact Studies Centre (GCISC) in Islamabad where, for the first time, research on policy issues related to climate change is being undertaken in Pakistan. The centre, an autonomous organisation under the federal govt, works in collaboration with national institutions such as Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD), National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC), WAPDA and PCRWR etc. The centre has also established collaborative relationship with international institutions, most importantly The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, Italy. GCISC, with Arshad M Khan as its executive director, also serves as the secretariat of the prime minister's Committee on Climate Change.

Centre for Earthquake Studies (CES)

After 8 October 2005, Kashmir earthquake, the Government has decided to establish a Centre for Earthquake studies in Islamabad, under the technical direction of Ishfaq Ahmad. The centre under the directorship of Mr. Shahid Ashraf and Ahsan Mubarak started work in collaboration with world leading scientists such as Elchin Khalilov of Azerbaijan. The centre conducts research using a Gravitational Wave Recorder housed at the National Centre for Physics, Islamabad.

Ishfaq Ahmad is internationally known for his long-standing public advocacy for the nuclear power plants for the industrial and socio-economic growth. On international forums, Ahmad deterred the international pressure mounted on Pakistan after conducting its tests, instead highlighted the achievements gained by Pakistan on its nuclear power infrastructure in the country as well as the need of Pakistan's usage of nuclear power for its economical growth. In 2012, Ahmad lobbied for the HMC-3 consortium to be listed as first commercial nuclear power corporation and helped the consortium to acquire its first license to manufacture nuclear materials for industrial power plants.

State honours, awards and recognition

In 1989, Ishfaq Ahmad was bestowed with first state honour, Sitara-e-Imtiaz by Benazir Bhutto; and Hilal-e-Imtiaz in 1995. In 1998, Ahmad received the highest state honour, Nishan-e-Imtiaz, given to any national of Pakistan, for his services to the country in a graceful state ceremony. The same year, he was awarded gold medallion by the Institute of Leadership and Management in Lahore.

Nishan-i-Imitiaz (1998)

Hilal-i-Imtiaz (1995)

Sitara-i-Imtiaz (1989)

Gold Medal, Pakistan Academy of Sciences (1998)

Gold Medal, Institute of Leadership & Management (ILM) (1998)

Gold Medal, Society of Engineering, Materials and Metallurgical Engineering (SEMME), Karachi, (1998)

Gold Medal, Geological Society of Punjab, (1998)

Doctorate of Science Honoris Causa, UET Lahore, 2000.

Who's who in atom, American Institute of Physics (1969)

Elected President of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (2007)

Board of Directors of the Abdus Salam Centre for Solid State Physics, Government College University, Lahore, 2006-present.

Board of Governors of the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology (GIKI) (2002)

Chairman and Board of Governors, Riazuddin National Centre for Physics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad (2001)

Fellow of the Islamic World Academy of Sciences (2000)

Fellow of the Nuclear Society of Pakistan (1997)

Elected fellow of the Pakistan Nuclear Society (1993)

Honorary Fellow of the International Nuclear Energy Academy (INEA)

Honorary Member of World Innovation Foundation (WIF), UK (2006)

Board of Governors of the Government College University, Lahore (1989-1996)

Fellow of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (1983)

Fellow at Niels Bohr Institute of Theoretical Physics, Copenhagen, Denmark (1961-1962)

Member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.

Member of the Board of Physics Olympiad of Pakistan.

An honorary Council Member of International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA).

D.Sc. Thesis (UQAM): Structure and Identification of trajectories in fine grain ionographic emulsions, under the direction of Pierre Demers, Faculty of Science, University of Montreal, Canada, 1958.

Trajectories structure in fine-grained emulsions, Ann. ACFAS, 23, 111-112, 1957. (http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/PierreDemersBibl1950-9.html)

Structure des trajectoires dans les émulsions à grain fin, avec Ishfaq Ahmad, 1er Colloque International de Photographie Corpusculaire. Strasbourg, 1957

Identification of particles in the fine grain emulsions with Ishfaq Ahmad and Jean-Louis Meunier, 1er Colloque International de Photographie Corpusculaire. Strasbourg, 1957

Photometric analysis of the trajectories in ionographic detectors, 25th ACFAS, Univ. Laval, Quebec, Nov.3,1957.Ann.ACFAS,24, 119, 1958.

An optical model of the granular structure of trajectories, 2nd Symposium photography corpuscular Montreal 1958. ACFAS, 26th Congress, University of Ottawa, 31 Oct.- 2 Nov. 1958.

6. L'INFLUENCE DU DÉVELOPPEMENT SUR LA STRUCTURE DES TRAJECTOIRES ET SUR LE VOILE DANS LES ÉMULSIONS À GRAINS FINS, Canadian Journal of Physics, 1959, 37(12). pp. 1548-1552. ( http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/p59-171)

The ionographic detector considered a pulse source, PC II, PUM, 314- 316, 1959.

Influence du diamètre moyen des grains vierges dans une émulsion

nucléaire sur la structure des lacunes. Ahmad Ishfaq and Max Morand. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences, France, 1959, Vol. 1-3 (T248, part 1), pp. 1798-1800 ( http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k32002/f1836.image).

Influence of the gelatin on the granular size distribution of silver bromide during the production of ionographic emulsions, PC III, PUM, 128-134, 1964. (http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/PierreDemersBibl1960-9.html)

Ionographic emulsion made with a mixture of polyvinyl alcohol and albumin, ACFAS, 32nd Congress, Univ. Ottawa, Ontario, 6-8 Nov. 1964.

1964, Ann. ACFAS, 31, 76-7, 1965.

Ionographic emulsions loaded with diamond powder, ACFAS, 32nd Congress, Univ. Ottawa, Ontario, 6 to 8 November,

(3,3) Resonance in the Nucleus - Progress of Theoretical Physics, Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. Vol 35 (3), 1966 (http://ptp.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/3/566.full.pdf).

13. The role of pre-irradiation annealing in changing the track development characteristics of glass track detectors. Nuclear Instruments and Methods, Vol.131(1), 1975, pp. 89-92.

'Seasoning' of latent damage trails in lunar samples, Nature 254, 1975, pp 126-127.

Anisotropy in the track development properties of various crystallographic planes of natural quartz crystals, Radiation Effects, Vol. 30(3), 1976, pp 159-165.

The use of Alpha Sensitive Plastic Films (ASPF) for uranium/thorium exploration and prospecting. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, Vol. 11(6), 1978, pp 295-297.

The measurement of radon and thoron by solid state nuclear track detectors, Radiation Effects, Vol. 35 (1-2), 1978, pp 35-43.

Track structure and identification of particles in nuclear emulsions. Nuclear Instruments and Methods, Vol. 173(1), 1980, pp 15-20.

Some important considerations in the use of solid state nuclear track detectors for radon gas concentration measurements. Nuclear Instruments and Methods, Volume 173 (1), 1980, pp 183-189.

Field experience about the use of alpha sensitive plastic films for uranium exploration. Nuclear Instruments and Methods, Volume 173(1), 1980, Pages 191-196

CERN and Pakistan: a personal perspective, 2003 (http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28934).

Managing nuclear knowledge in a developing country: Pakistan's perspective. Int. J. Nuclear Knowledge Management. Vol 1(1-2), 2004, pp 90-97.

MANAGING NUCLEAR KNOWLEDGE: ROLE OF IAEA AND ITS TECHNICAL COOPERATION PROGRAMME, International Conference on Nuclear Knowledge Management Strategies, Information Management and Human Resource Development, 7-10 September 2004, Sacley, France. (http://www.iaea.org/km/cnkm/presentations/ahmadpakistan.pdf)

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE CHALLENGE OF CLIMATE CHANGE, International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability.

19-24 February 2007, Cyprus ( https://www.springer.com/environment/sustainable+development/book/978-3-540-95990-8).

Ahmad, Ishfaq D.Sc. (2002). Water and New Technologies (in English and French). Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory: Global Change Impact Studies Centre. p. 168. ISBN 978-969-8500-00-9.

Rehman, Shahidur (1999) [1999], "§Untold story of Pakistan's Nuclear Quest", Long Road to Chagai, vol. 1, Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory: Printwise Publications, pp. 70-100, ISBN 978-969-8500-00-9

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Ishfaq Ahmad Khan (3 November 1930 - 18 January 2018) SI, HI, NI, FPAS , was a Pakistani nuclear physicist, emeritus professor of high-energy physics at the National Centre for Physics, and former science advisor to the Government of Pakistan.

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Daniel Lee - Fashion Designer and Creative Genius

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Daniel Lee - Fashion Designer and Creative Genius

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Daniel is from Queensbury in Bradford and has worked with some of the biggest fashion houses in the world.

See his Wikipedia page

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A Canadian-American engineer of African-American descent who invented lubrication systems for steam engines.

Born free on the Ontario shore of Lake Erie to parents who fled enslavement in Kentucky, he travelled to the United States as a young child when his family returned in 1847, becoming a U.S. resident and citizen.

His inventions and accomplishments were honoured in 2012 when the United States Patent and Trademark Office named its first regional office, in Detroit, Michigan, the "Elijah J. McCoy Midwest Regional Patent Office".

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An American agricultural scientist and inventor who promoted alternative crops to cotton and methods to prevent soil depletion.

He was one of the most prominent black scientists of the early 20th century.

He wanted poor farmers to grow other crops, such as peanuts and sweet potatoes, as a source of their own food and to improve their quality of life.

Apart from his work to improve the lives of farmers, Carver was also a leader in promoting environmentalism.

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George Washington Carver ( c. 1864 - January 5, 1943) was an American agricultural scientist and inventor who promoted alternative crops to cotton and methods to prevent soil depletion. He was one of the most prominent black scientists of the early 20th century.

While a professor at Tuskegee Institute, Carver developed techniques to improve types of soils depleted by repeated plantings of cotton. He wanted poor farmers to grow other crops, such as peanuts and sweet potatoes, as a source of their own food and to improve their quality of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts. Although he spent years developing and promoting numerous products made from peanuts, none became commercially successful.

Apart from his work to improve the lives of farmers, Carver was also a leader in promoting environmentalism. He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP. In an era of high racial polarization, his fame reached beyond the black community. He was widely recognized and praised in the white community for his many achievements and talents. In 1941, magazine dubbed Carver a "Black Leonardo".

Color film of Carver shot in 1937 at the Tuskegee Institute by African American surgeon Allen Alexander was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 2019. The 12 minutes of footage includes Carver in his apartment, office and laboratory, as well as images of him tending flowers and displaying his paintings.

Carver was born into slavery, in Diamond Grove, (now Diamond, Newton County, Missouri), near Crystal Place, sometime in the early 1860s. The date of his birth is uncertain and was not known to Carver; but it was before slavery was abolished in Missouri, which occurred in January 1865, during the American Civil War. His enslaver, Moses Carver, was a German American immigrant, who had purchased George's parents, Mary and Giles, from William P. McGinnis on October 9, 1855, for $700 (~$17,500 in 2022).

At age 13, because he wanted to attend the academy there, he moved to the home of another foster family, in Fort Scott, Kansas. After witnessing the killing of a black man by a group of white people, Carver left the city. He attended a series of schools before earning his diploma at Minneapolis High School in Minneapolis, Kansas.

During his time spent in Minneapolis, there was another George Carver in town, which caused confusion over receiving mail. Carver chose a middle initial at random and began requesting letters to him be addressed to George W. Carver. Someone once asked if the "W" stood for Washington, and Carver grinned and said, "Why not?" However, he never used Washington as his middle name, and signed his name as either George W. Carver or simply George Carver.

Carver at work in his laboratory

Carver applied to several colleges before being accepted at Highland University in Highland, Kansas. When he arrived, they refused to let him attend because of his race. In August 1886, Carver traveled by wagon with J. F. Beeler from Highland to Eden Township in Ness County, Kansas. He homesteaded a claim near Beeler, where he maintained a small conservatory of plants and flowers and a geological collection. He manually plowed 17 acres (69,000 m ²) of the claim, planting rice, corn, Indian corn and garden produce, as well as various fruit trees, forest trees, and shrubbery. He also earned money by odd jobs in town and worked as a ranch hand.

In early 1888, Carver obtained a $300 (~$9,771 in 2022) loan at the Bank of Ness City for education. By June he left the area. In 1890, Carver started studying art and piano at Simpson College in Indianola, Iowa. His art teacher, Etta Budd, recognized Carver's talent for painting flowers and plants; she encouraged him to study botany at Iowa State Agricultural College (now Iowa State University) in Ames.

When he began there in 1891, he was the first black student at Iowa State. Carver's Bachelor's thesis for a degree in Agriculture was "Plants as Modified by Man", dated 1894. Iowa State University professors Joseph Budd and Louis Pammel convinced Carver to continue there for his master's degree. Carver did research at the Iowa Experiment Station under Pammel during the next two years. His work at the experiment station in plant pathology and mycology first gained him national recognition and respect as a botanist. Carver received his Master of Science degree in 1896. Carver taught as the first black faculty member at Iowa State.

Despite occasionally being addressed as "doctor", Carver never received an official doctorate, and in a personal communication with Pammel, he noted that it was a "misnomer", given to him by others due to his abilities and their assumptions about his education. Though he did not have an earned doctorate, both Simpson College and Selma University awarded him honorary doctorates of science in his lifetime. In addition, Iowa State awarded him a posthumous doctor of humane letters degree in 1994.

George Washington Carver, front row, center, poses with fellow faculty of Tuskegee Institute in this c. 1902 photograph taken by Frances Benjamin Johnston.

To recruit Carver to Tuskegee, Washington gave him an above average salary and two rooms for his personal use, although both concessions were resented by some other faculty. Because he had earned a master's in a scientific field from a "white" institution, some faculty perceived him as arrogant. Unmarried faculty members normally had to share rooms, with two to a room, in the spartan early days of the institute.

One of Carver's duties was to administer the Agricultural Experiment Station farms. He had to manage the production and sale of farm products to generate revenue for the institute. He soon proved to be a poor administrator. In 1900, Carver complained that the physical work and the letter-writing required were too much.

In 1904, an Institute committee reported that Carver's reports on yields from the poultry yard were exaggerated, and Washington confronted Carver about the issue. Carver replied in writing, "Now to be branded as a liar and party to such hellish deception it is more than I can bear, and if your committee feel that I have willfully lied or [was] party to such lies as were told my resignation is at your disposal." During Washington's last five years at Tuskegee, Carver submitted or threatened his resignation several times: when the administration reorganized the agriculture programs, when he disliked a teaching assignment, to manage an experiment station elsewhere, and when he did not get summer teaching assignments in 1913-14. In each case, Washington smoothed things over.

Carver started his academic career as a researcher and teacher. In 1911, Washington wrote a letter to him complaining that Carver had not followed orders to plant particular crops at the experiment station. This revealed Washington's micro-management of Carver's department, which he had headed for more than 10 years by then. Washington at the same time refused Carver's requests for a new laboratory, research supplies for his exclusive use, and respite from teaching classes. Washington praised Carver's abilities in teaching and original research but said about his administrative skills:

When it comes to the organization of classes, the ability required to secure a properly organized and large school or section of a school, you are wanting in ability. When it comes to the matter of practical farm managing which will secure definite, practical, financial results, you are wanting again in ability.

In 1911, Carver complained that his laboratory had not received the equipment which Washington had promised 11 months before. He also complained about Institute committee meetings. Washington praised Carver in his 1911 memoir, My Larger Education: Being Chapters from My Experience. Washington called Carver "one of the most thoroughly scientific men of the Negro race with whom I am acquainted". After Washington died in 1915, his successor made fewer demands on Carver for administrative tasks.

While a professor at Tuskegee, Carver joined the Gamma Sigma chapter of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity. He spoke at the 1930 Conclave that was held at Tuskegee, Alabama, in which he delivered a powerful and emotional speech to the men in attendance.

From 1915 to 1923, Carver concentrated on researching and experimenting with new uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes, soybeans, pecans, and other crops, as well as having his assistants research and compile existing uses. This work, and especially his speaking to a national conference of the Peanut Growers Association in 1920 and in testimony before Congress in 1921 to support passage of a tariff on imported peanuts, brought him wide publicity and increasing renown. In these years, he became one of the most well-known African Americans of his time.

Carver developed techniques to improve soils depleted by repeated plantings of cotton. Together with other agricultural experts, he urged farmers to restore nitrogen to their soils by practicing systematic crop rotation: alternating cotton crops with plantings of sweet potatoes or legumes, such as peanuts, soybeans and cowpeas. These crops both restored nitrogen to the soil and were good for human consumption.

Following the crop rotation practice resulted in improved cotton yields and gave farmers alternative cash crops. To train farmers to successfully rotate and cultivate the new crops, Carver developed an agricultural extension program for Alabama that was similar to the one at Iowa State. To encourage better nutrition in the South, he widely distributed recipes using the alternative crops.

He founded an industrial research laboratory, where he and assistants worked to popularize the new crops by developing hundreds of applications for them. They did original research as well as promoting applications and recipes, which they collected from others. Carver distributed his information as agricultural bulletins.

Carver's work was known by officials in the national capital before he became a public figure. President Theodore Roosevelt publicly admired his work. Former professors of Carver's from Iowa State University were appointed to positions as Secretary of Agriculture: James Wilson, a former dean and professor of Carver's, served from 1897 to 1913. Henry Cantwell Wallace served from 1921 to 1924. He knew Carver personally because his son Henry A. Wallace and the researcher were friends. The younger Wallace served as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture from 1933 to 1940, and as Franklin Delano Roosevelt's vice president from 1941 to 1945.

The American industrialist, farmer, and inventor William C. Edenborn of Winn Parish, Louisiana, grew peanuts on his demonstration farm. He consulted with Carver.

In 1916, Carver was made a member of the Royal Society of Arts in England, one of only a handful of Americans at that time to receive this honor. Carver's promotion of peanuts gained him the most notice.

By 1920, the U.S. peanut farmers were being undercut by low prices on imported peanuts from the Republic of China. In 1921, peanut farmers and industry representatives planned to appear at Congressional hearings to ask for a tariff. Based on the quality of Carver's presentation at their convention, they asked the African-American professor to testify on the tariff issue before the Ways and Means Committee of the United States House of Representatives. Due to segregation, it was highly unusual for an African American to appear as an expert witness, but Carver appeared and unpacked numerous exhibits and samples to make his case for greater food and industrial uses for the peanut. Southern congressmen mocked him, but as he talked about the importance of the peanut and its uses for American agriculture and manufacturing, committee members repeatedly extended the time for his testimony. The Fordney-McCumber Tariff was enacted in 1922, and included a duty on imported peanuts. Carver's testimony, including samples of peanut milk, peanut flour, industrial dyes made from peanuts, and other peanut-based products, made him widely known as a public figure.

A peanut specimen collected by Carver

During the last two decades of his life, Carver seemed to enjoy his celebrity status. He was often on the road promoting Tuskegee University, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and racial harmony. Although he only published six agricultural bulletins after 1922, he published articles in peanut industry journals and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, "Professor Carver's Advice". Business leaders came to seek his help, and he often responded with free advice. Three American presidents- Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge and Franklin Roosevelt-met with him, and the Crown Prince of Sweden studied with him for three weeks. From 1923 to 1933, Carver toured white Southern colleges for the Commission on Interracial Cooperation.

With his increasing notability, Carver became the subject of biographies and articles. Raleigh H. Merritt contacted him for his biography published in 1929. Merritt wrote:

At present not a great deal has been done to utilize Dr. Carver's discoveries commercially. He says that he is merely scratching the surface of scientific investigations of the possibilities of the peanut and other Southern products.

In 1932, the writer James Saxon Childers wrote that Carver and his peanut products were almost solely responsible for the rise in U.S. peanut production after the boll weevil devastated the American cotton crop beginning about 1892. His article, "A Boy Who Was Traded for a Horse" (1932), in The American Magazine, and its 1937 reprint in Reader's Digest, contributed to this myth about Carver's influence. Other popular media tended to exaggerate Carver's impact on the peanut industry.

From 1933 to 1935, Carver worked to develop peanut oil massages to treat infantile paralysis ( polio). Ultimately, researchers found that the massages, not the peanut oil, provided the benefits of maintaining some mobility to paralyzed limbs.

From 1935 to 1937, Carver participated in the USDA Disease Survey. Carver had specialized in plant diseases and mycology for his master's degree.

In 1937, Carver attended two chemurgy conferences, an emerging field in the 1930s, during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, concerned with developing new products from crops. He was invited by Henry Ford to speak at the conference held in Dearborn, Michigan, and they developed a friendship. That year Carver's health declined, and Ford later installed an elevator at the Tuskegee dormitory where Carver lived, so that the elderly man would not have to climb stairs.

Carver had been frugal in his life, and in his seventies he established a legacy by creating a museum of his work, as well as the George Washington Carver Foundation at Tuskegee in 1938 to continue agricultural research. He donated nearly US$60,000 (equivalent to $1,247,376 in 2022) in his savings to create the foundation.

Carver headed the modern organic movement in the southern agricultural system. Carver's background for his interest in organic farming sprouted from his father being killed during the Civil War, and when his mother was kidnapped by Confederate slave raiders. Now an orphan, Carver found comfort in botany when he was just 11 years old in Kansas. Carver learned about herbal medicine, natural pesticides, and natural fertilizers that yielded plentiful crops from his caretaker. When crops and house plants were dying, he would use his knowledge and go and nurse them back to health. As a teenager, he was termed the "plant doctor".

When his study about infection in soybean reached Booker T. Washington, he invited him to come and teach at the Tuskegee Agricultural school.

Although the emancipation allowed Black families 40 acres and a mule, President Johnson revoked this and gave the land to white plantation owners instead. This prompted Black farmers to exchange what was once their land, and in turn, a small part of the land's harvest. This led to sharecropping. Carver soon realized that farmers were not obtaining enough food to survive, and how the industrialization of cotton had contaminated the soil.

Carver wanted to find a way to organically transform Alabama's failing soil. He found that alternating nitrogen-rich crops would let the soil get back to its natural state. Keeping crops like sweet potatoes, peanuts, and cowpeas would produce more food surplus and different types of food for farmers. Carver worked to pioneer organic fertilizers like swamp muck and compost for the farmers to use. These fertilizers were more sustainable to the planet and helped farmers to spend less money on fertilizers since they were recycling products.

Carver pushed for woodland preservation, to help improve the quality of the topsoil. He urged farmers to feed their hogs acorns. The acorns contained natural pesticides and feeding them acorns was cheaper for the farms too. Carver's efforts towards the holistic and organic approach are still in practice today. In his research, Carver discovered Permaculture. Permaculture could be used to produce carbon from the atmosphere, produce a higher quantity of crops, and let crops flourish despite global warming.

"Austin Curtis - Scientist successor to Dr. Carver", cartoon by C. H. Alston

Carver never married. At age 40, he began a courtship with Sarah L. Hunt, an elementary school teacher and the sister-in-law of Warren Logan, Treasurer of Tuskegee Institute. This lasted three years until she took a teaching job in California. In her 2015 biography, Christina Vella reviews his relationships and suggests that Carver was bisexual and constrained by mores of his historic period.

When he was 70, Carver established a friendship and research partnership with the scientist Austin W. Curtis Jr. This young black man, a graduate of Cornell University, had some teaching experience before coming to Tuskegee. Carver bequeathed to Curtis his royalties from an authorized 1943 biography by Rackham Holt. After Carver died in 1943, Curtis was fired from Tuskegee Institute. He left Alabama and resettled in Detroit. There he manufactured and sold peanut-based personal care products.

Upon returning home one day, Carver suffered a bad fall down a flight of stairs; he was found unconscious by a maid who took him to a hospital. Carver died January 5, 1943, at the age of 78 or 79 from complications ( anemia) resulting from this fall. He was buried next to Booker T. Washington at Tuskegee University. Due to his frugality, Carver's life savings totaled $60,000, all of which he donated in his last years and at his death to the Carver Museum and to the George Washington Carver Foundation.

On his grave was written, "He could have added fortune to fame, but caring for neither, he found happiness and honor in being helpful to the world."

Even as an adult Carver spoke with a high pitch. Historian Linda O. McMurry noted that he "was a frail and sickly child" who suffered "from a severe case of whooping cough and frequent bouts of what was called croup". McMurry contested the diagnosis of croup, holding rather that "His stunted growth and apparently impaired vocal cords suggest instead tubercular or pneumococcal infection. Frequent infections of that nature could have caused the growth of polyps on the larynx and may have resulted from a gamma globulin deficiency. ... until his death the high pitch of his voice startled all who met him, and he suffered from frequent chest congestion and loss of voice."

Carver believed he could have faith both in God and science and integrated them into his life. He testified on many occasions that his faith in Jesus was the only mechanism by which he could effectively pursue and perform the art of science. Carver became a Christian when he was still a young boy, as he wrote in connection to his conversion in 1931:

I was just a mere boy when converted, hardly ten years old. There isn't much of a story to it. God just came into my heart one afternoon while I was alone in the 'loft' of our big barn while I was shelling corn to carry to the mill to be ground into meal.

A dear little white boy, one of our neighbors, about my age came by one Saturday morning, and in talking and playing he told me he was going to Sunday school tomorrow morning. I was eager to know what a Sunday school was. He said they sang hymns and prayed. I asked him what prayer was and what they said. I do not remember what he said; only remember that as soon as he left I climbed up into the 'loft,' knelt down by the barrel of corn and prayed as best I could. I do not remember what I said. I only recall that I felt so good that I prayed several times before I quit.

My brother and myself were the only colored children in that neighborhood and of course, we could not go to church or Sunday school, or school of any kind.

That was my simple conversion, and I have tried to keep the faith.

-  G. W. Carver; Letter to Isabelle Coleman; July 24, 1931

He was not expected to live past his 21st birthday due to failing health. He lived well past the age of 21, and his belief deepened as a result. Throughout his career, he always found friendship with other Christians. He relied on them especially when criticized by the scientific community and media regarding his research methodology.

Carver viewed faith in Jesus Christ as a means of destroying both barriers of racial disharmony and social stratification. He was as concerned with his students' character development as he was with their intellectual development. He compiled a list of "eight cardinal virtues" whose possession defines "a lady or a gentleman":

A monument to Carver at the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis

Be clean both inside and out.

Who neither looks up to the rich nor down on the poor.

Who loses, if needs be, without squealing.

Who wins without bragging.

Who is always considerate of women, children and old people.

Who is too brave to lie.

Who is too generous to cheat.

Who take his share of the world and lets other people have theirs.

Beginning in 1906 at Tuskegee, Carver led a Bible class on Sundays for several students at their request. He regularly portrayed stories by acting them out. He responded to critics with this: "When you do the common things in life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of the world."

1923, Spingarn Medal from the NAACP, awarded annually for outstanding achievement.[37]

1928, honorary doctorate from Simpson College

1939, the Roosevelt Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Southern Agriculture

1940, Carver established the George Washington Carver Foundation at the Tuskegee Institute.

1941, The George Washington Carver Museum was dedicated at the Tuskegee Institute.

1942, Ford built a replica of Carver's birth cabin at the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn as a tribute.

1942, Ford dedicated a laboratory in Dearborn named after Carver.

1943, Liberty ship SS George Washington Carver launched

1947, George Washington Carver Area High School, named in his honor is opened by the Chicago Public Schools in the Riverdale/Far South Side area of Chicago, Illinois, United States.

1950, George Washington Carver State Park named

1951-1954, U.S. Mint features Carver on a 50 cents silver commemorative coin

1965, Ballistic missile submarine USS George Washington Carver (SSBN-656) launched.

1969, Iowa State University constructs Carver Hall in honor of Carver-a graduate of the university.[67]

1943?, the US Congress designated January 5, the anniversary of his death, as George Washington Carver Recognition Day.[68][69]

1999, USDA names a portion of its Beltsville, Maryland, campus the George Washington Carver Center.[70]

2002, Iowa Award, the state's highest citizen award.[71]

2004, George Washington Carver Bridge, Des Moines, Iowa

2007, the Missouri Botanical Gardens has a garden area named in his honor, with a commemorative statue and material about his work

2022, Gov. Kim Reynolds signed legislation naming Feb. 1st every year as George Washington Carver Day in Iowa

Willowbrook Neighborhood Park in Willowbrook, California was renamed George Washington Carver Park in his honor.[72]

Schools named for Carver include the George Washington Carver Elementary School of the Compton Unified School District in Los Angeles County, California,[73] the George Washington Carver School of Arts and Science of the Sacramento City Unified School District in Sacramento, California,[74] and the Dr. George Washington Carver Elementary School, a Newark public school in Newark, New Jersey.[75]

Taxa named after him include: Colletotrichum carveri and Metasphaeria carveri, both named by Job Bicknell Ellis and Benjamin Matlack Everhart in 1902;[76] Cercospora carveriana, named by Pier Andrea Saccardo and Domenico Saccardo in 1906;[77] Taphrina carveri named by Anna Eliza Jenkins in 1939;[78] and Pestalotia carveri, named by E. F. Guba in 1961.[79]

Carver on a 1948 US postage stamp

A movement to establish a U.S. national monument to Carver began before his death. Because of World War II, such non-war expenditures had been banned by presidential order. Missouri senator Harry S. Truman sponsored a bill in favor of a monument. In a committee hearing on the bill, one supporter said:

The bill is not simply a momentary pause on the part of busy men engaged in the conduct of the war, to do honor to one of the truly great Americans of this country, but it is in essence a blow against the Axis, it is in essence a war measure in the sense that it will further unleash and release the energies of roughly 15,000,000 Negro people in this country for full support of our war effort.

The bill passed unanimously in both houses.

On July 14, 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated $30,000 (~$407,834 in 2022) for the George Washington Carver National Monument west-southwest of Diamond, Missouri, the area where Carver had spent time in his childhood. This was the first national monument dedicated to an African American and the first to honor someone other than a president. The 210-acre (0.8 km ²) national monument complex includes a bust of Carver, a -mile nature trail, a museum, the 1881 Moses Carver house, and the Carver cemetery. The national monument opened in July 1953.

In December 1947, a fire broke out in the Carver Museum, and much of the collection was damaged. Time magazine reported that all but 3 of the 48 Carver paintings at the museum were destroyed. His best-known painting, displayed at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, depicts a yucca and cactus. This canvas survived and has undergone conservation. It is displayed together with several of his other paintings.

Carver was featured on U.S. 1948 commemorative stamps. From 1951 to 1954, he was depicted on the commemorative Carver-Washington half dollar coin along with Booker T. Washington. A second stamp honoring Carver, of face value 32¢, was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. Two ships, the Liberty ship SS George Washington Carver and the nuclear submarine USS George Washington Carver (SSBN-656), were named in his honor.

In 1977, Carver was elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. In 1990, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. In 1994, Iowa State University awarded Carver a Doctor of Humane Letters. In 2000, Carver was a charter inductee in the USDA Hall of Heroes as the "Father of Chemurgy".

In 2005, Carver's research at the Tuskegee Institute was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society. On February 15, 2005, an episode of Modern Marvels included scenes from within Iowa State University's Food Sciences Building and about Carver's work. In 2005, the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, opened a George Washington Carver garden in his honor, which includes a life-size statue of him.

Carver has been given credit in popular folklore for many inventions that did not come out of his lab. Three patents (one for cosmetics; US 1522176, issued January 6, 1925, and two for paints and stains; US 1541478, issued June 9, 1925, and US 1632365, issued June 14, 1927) were issued to Carver in 1925 to 1927; however, they were not commercially successful.

Aside from these patents and some recipes for food, Carver left no records of formulae or procedures for making his products. He did not keep a laboratory notebook. Mackintosh notes that, "Carver did not explicitly claim that he had personally discovered all the peanut attributes and uses he cited, but he said nothing to prevent his audiences from drawing the inference."

Carver's research was intended to produce replacements from common crops for commercial products, which were generally beyond the budget of the small one-horse farmer. A misconception grew that his research on products for subsistence farmers were developed by others commercially to change Southern agriculture. Carver's work to provide small farmers with resources for more independence from the cash economy foreshadowed the " appropriate technology" work of E. F. Schumacher.

Dennis Keeney, director of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University, wrote in the Leopold Letter (newsletter):

Carver worked on improving soils, growing crops with low inputs, and using species that fixed nitrogen (hence, the work on the cowpea and the peanut). Carver wrote in 'The Need of Scientific Agriculture in the South': "The virgin fertility of our soils and the vast amount of unskilled labor have been more of a curse than a blessing to agriculture. This exhaustive system for cultivation, the destruction of forest, the rapid and almost constant decomposition of organic matter, have made our agricultural problem one requiring more brains than of the North, East or West.

Carver worked for years to create a company to market his products. The most important was the Carver Penol Company, which sold a mixture of creosote and peanuts as a patent medicine for respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis. Sales were lackluster and the product was ineffective according to the Food and Drug Administration. Other ventures were The Carver Products Company and the Carvoline Company. Carvoline Antiseptic Hair Dressing was a mix of peanut oil and lanolin. Carvoline Rubbing Oil was a peanut oil for massages.

Carver is often mistakenly credited with the invention of peanut butter. By the time Carver published "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it For Human Consumption" in 1916, many methods of preparation of peanut butter had been developed or patented by various pharmacists, doctors and food scientists working in the US and Canada. The Aztecs were known to have made peanut butter from ground peanuts as early as the 15th century. Canadian pharmacist Marcellus Gilmore Edson was awarded U.S. Patent 306,727 (for its manufacture) in 1884, 12 years before Carver began his work at Tuskegee.

Carver is also associated with developing sweet potato products. In his 1922 sweet potato bulletin, Carver listed a few dozen recipes, "many of which I have copied verbatim from Bulletin No. 129, U. S. Department of Agriculture". Carver's records included the following sweet potato products: 73 dyes, 17 wood fillers, 14 candies, 5 library pastes, 5 breakfast foods, 4 starches, 4 flours, and 3 molasses. He also had listings for vinegars, dry coffee and instant coffee, candy, after-dinner mints, orange drops, and lemon drops.

During his more than four decades at Tuskegee, Carver's official published work consisted mainly of 44 practical bulletins for farmers. His first bulletin in 1898 was on feeding acorns to farm animals. His final bulletin in 1943 was about the peanut. He also published six bulletins on sweet potatoes, five on cotton, and four on cowpeas. Some other individual bulletins dealt with alfalfa, wild plum, tomato, ornamental plants, corn, poultry, dairying, hogs, preserving meats in hot weather, and nature study in schools.

His most popular bulletin, How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption, was first published in 1916 and was reprinted many times. It gave a short overview of peanut crop production and contained a list of recipes from other agricultural bulletins, cookbooks, magazines, and newspapers, such as the Peerless Cookbook, Good Housekeeping, and Berry's Fruit Recipes. Carver's was far from the first American agricultural bulletin devoted to peanuts, but his bulletins did seem to be more popular and widespread than previous ones.

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17. ^ Coxe., Toogood, Anna (1973). George Washington Carver National Monument, Diamond, Missouri : historic resource study and administrative history. Denver Service Center, Historic Preservation Team, National Park Service. OCLC 5006777. Archived from the original on March 11, 2022.

18. ^ Wedin, Carolyn (February 9, 2009), "Carver, George Washington", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.45361, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, archived from the original on March 11, 2022

19. ^ Wedin, Carolyn (February 9, 2009), "Carver, George Washington", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.45361, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, archived from the original on March 11, 2022

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29. ^ Collins, Daniel J.; Frederick, Lafayette; Warren, Herman; Rossman, Amy; Dominick, Shannon (2014). "Contributions of Dr. George Washington Carver to global food security: Historical reflections of Dr. Carver's Fungal Plant Disease Survey in the southeastern United States". APSnet Features. doi:10.1094/APSFeature-2014-02.

30. Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). ^ 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1573929638.

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32. ^ "How the Farmer Can Save His Sweet Potatoes", Geo. W. Carver Archived June 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine from the Texas A&M University website.

33. Carver, George Washington. 1916. ^ "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption" Archived December 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 31.

Hersey, Mark D. My Work Is That of Conservation: An Environmental Biography of George Washington Carver (University of Georgia Press; 2011) 306 pages.

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Mackintosh, Barry. "George Washington Carver: The Making of a Myth". Journal of Southern History 42#4 (1976): 507-528. in JSTOR

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William J. Federer, George Washington Carver: His Life & Faith in His Own Words, AmeriSearch (2003) ISBN 0965355764

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H. M. Morris, Men of Science, Men of God (1982)

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Kremer, Gary R. Race and Meaning: The African American Experience in Missouri, University of Missouri Press, 2014.

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George Washington Carver National Monument from the National Park Service

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George Washington Carver. "How the Farmer Can Save His Sweet Potatoes and Ways of Preparing Them for the Table", Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 38, 1936.

George Washington Carver. "How to Grow the Tomato and 115 Ways to Prepare it for the Table", Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 36, 1936.

Peter D. Burchard, "George Washington Carver: For His Time and Ours", National Park Service: George Washington Carver National Monument. 2006.

Louis R. Harlan (ed.), The Booker T. Washington Papers, Volume 4, pp. 127-128. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 1975.

Raleigh H. Merritt, From Captivity to Fame or the Life of George Washington Carver, Boston: Meador Publishing. 1929.

George Washington Carver Archived June 13, 2010, at the Wayback Machine

Mary Bagley, George Washington Carver: Biography, Inventions & Quotes (2013).

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George Washington Carver ( c. 1864 - January 5, 1943) was an American agricultural scientist and inventor who promoted alternative crops to cotton and methods to prevent soil depletion. He was one of the most prominent black scientists of the early 20th century.

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A NASA astronaut. She became the first African-American woman to travel into space (on Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1992).

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Mae Carol Jemison (born October 17, 1956) is an American engineer, physician, and former NASA astronaut. She became the first African-American woman to travel into space when she served as a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1992. Jemison joined NASA's astronaut corps in 1987 and was selected to serve for the STS-47 mission, during which the Endeavour orbited the Earth for nearly eight days on September 12-20, 1992.

Born in Alabama and raised in Chicago, Jemison graduated from Stanford University with degrees in chemical engineering as well as African and African-American studies. She then earned her medical degree from Cornell University. Jemison was a doctor for the Peace Corps in Liberia and Sierra Leone from 1983 until 1985 and worked as a general practitioner. In pursuit of becoming an astronaut, she applied to NASA.

Jemison left NASA in 1993 and founded a technology research company. She later formed a non-profit educational foundation and through the foundation is the principal of the 100 Year Starship project funded by DARPA. Jemison also wrote several books for children and appeared on television several times, including in a 1993 episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation. She holds several honorary doctorates and has been inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame and the International Space Hall of Fame.

Early life and education

Mae Carol Jemison was born in Decatur, Alabama, on October 17, 1956, the youngest of three children of Charlie Jemison and Dorothy Jemison (). Her father was a maintenance supervisor for a charity organization, and her mother worked most of her career as an elementary school teacher of English and math at the Ludwig van Beethoven Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois. The family first lived in Woodlawn and later the Morgan Park neighborhoods. Jemison knew from a young age that she wanted to study science and someday go into space. The television show and, in particular, African-American actress Nichelle Nichols' portrayal of Lieutenant Uhura further stoked her interest in space.

Jemison enjoyed studying nature and human physiology, using her observations to learn more about science. Although her mother encouraged her curiosity and both her parents were supportive of her interest in science, she did not always see the same support from her teachers. When Jemison told a kindergarten teacher she wanted to be a scientist when she grew up, the teacher assumed she meant she wanted to be a nurse. Seeing a lack of female astronauts during the Apollo missions also frustrated Jemison. She later recalled, "everybody was thrilled about space, but I remember being really really irritated that there were no women astronauts."

Jemison began studying ballet at the age of 8 or 9 and entered high school at 12 years old, where she joined the cheerleading team and the Modern Dance Club. Jemison had a great love for dance from a young age. She learned several styles of dance, including African and Japanese, as well as ballet, jazz, and modern dance. As a child, Jemison had aspirations of becoming a professional dancer. At the age of 14, she auditioned for the leading role of Maria in West Side Story. She did not get the leading role but was selected as a background dancer.

After graduating from Chicago's Morgan Park High School in 1973, Jemison entered Stanford University at the age of 16. Although she was young to be leaving home for college, Jemison later said it did not faze her because she was "naive and stubborn enough". There were very few other African-American students in Jemison's classes and she continued to experience discrimination from her teachers. In an interview with The Des Moines Register in 2008, Jemison said that it was difficult to go to Stanford at 16 but that her youthful arrogance may have helped her; she asserted that some arrogance is necessary for women and minorities to be successful in a white male dominated society.

At Stanford, Jemison served as head of the Black Students Union. She also choreographed a musical and dance production called Out of the Shadows. During her senior year in college, she struggled with the choice between going to medical school or pursuing a career as a professional dancer after graduation; she graduated from Stanford in 1977, receiving a B.S. degree in chemical engineering. and B.A. degree in African and African-American studies. While at Stanford, she also pursued studies related to her childhood interest in space and first considered applying to NASA.

Medical career

Jemison attended Cornell Medical School and during her training, traveled to Cuba, to conduct a study funded by American Medical Student Association and to Thailand, where she worked at a Cambodian refugee camp. She also worked for Flying Doctors stationed in East Africa. During her years at Cornell, Jemison continued to study dance by enrolling in classes at the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater. After graduating with an M.D. degree in 1981, she interned at Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center in 1982, and worked as a general practitioner for Ross-Loos Medical Group.

Jemison joined the staff of the Peace Corps in 1983 and served as a medical officer until 1985. She was responsible for the health of Peace Corps volunteers serving in Liberia and Sierra Leone. Jemison supervised the Peace Corps' pharmacy, laboratory, medical staff as well as providing medical care, writing self-care manuals, and developing and implementing guidelines for health and safety issues. She also worked with the Centers for Disease Control helping with research for various vaccines.

Mae Jemison being fitted for a spacesuit and doing an experiment in space.

NASA career

Jemison at the Kennedy Space Center in 1992

Upon returning to the United States after serving in the Peace Corps, Jemison settled in Los Angeles, California. In Los Angeles, she entered into private practice and took graduate-level engineering courses. Inspired by the flights of Sally Ride and Guion Bluford in 1983, Jemison applied to the astronaut program in October 1985. After NASA postponed selection of new candidates after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, Jemison reapplied in 1987. She was chosen out of roughly 2,000 applicants for 15 slots in NASA Astronaut Group 12, the first selected after The Associated Press covered her as the "first black woman astronaut" in 1987. CBS featured Jemison as one of the country's "most eligible singles" on Best Catches, a television special hosted by Phylicia Rashad and Robb Weller in 1989.

Jemison's work with NASA before her shuttle launch included launch support activities at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida and verification of Shuttle computer software in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL). On September 28, 1989, she was selected to join the STS-47 crew as Mission Specialist 4 and was also designated Science Mission Specialist, a new astronaut role being tested by NASA to focus on scientific experiments.

Jemison during Space Shuttle mission STS-47

Jemison flew her only space mission from September 12 to 20, 1992, as one of the seven-member crew aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour, on mission STS-47, a cooperative mission between the United States and Japan, as well as the 50th shuttle mission. Jemison logged 190 hours, 30 minutes, 23 seconds in space and orbited the earth 127 times. The crew was split into two shifts with Jemison assigned to the Blue Shift. Throughout the eight-day mission, she began communications on her shift with the salute "Hailing frequencies open", a quote from Star Trek. Jemison took a poster from the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater along with her on the flight. She also took a West African statuette and a photo of pioneering aviator Bessie Coleman, the first African American with an international pilot license.

STS-47 carried the Spacelab Japan module, a cooperative mission between the United States and Japan that included 43 Japanese and United States life science and materials processing experiments. Jemison and Japanese astronaut Mamoru Mohri were trained to use the Autogenic Feedback Training Exercise (AFTE), a technique developed by Patricia S. Cowings that uses biofeedback and autogenic training to help patients monitor and control their physiology as a possible treatment for motion sickness, anxiety and stress-related disorders.

Jemison aboard the Spacelab Japan module on Endeavour

Aboard the Spacelab Japan module, Jemison tested NASA's Fluid Therapy System, a set of procedures and equipment to produce water for injection, developed by Sterimatics Corporation. She then used IV bags and a mixing method, developed by Baxter Healthcare, to use the water from the previous step to produce saline solution in space. Jemison was also a co-investigator of two bone cell research experiments. Another experiment she participated in was to induce female frogs to ovulate, fertilize the eggs, and then see how tadpoles developed in zero gravity.

Resignation from NASA

Jemison resigned from NASA in March 1993 to start a company. NASA training manager and author Homer Hickam, who had trained Jemison for her flight, later expressed some regret that she had departed.

Post-NASA career

Jemison in 2013

Jemison served on the board of directors of the World Sickle Cell Foundation from 1990 to 1992. In 1993, she founded The Jemison Group Inc., a consulting firm which considers the sociocultural impact of technological advancements and design. Jemison also founded the Dorothy Jemison Foundation for Excellence and named the foundation in honor of her mother. One of the projects of the foundation is The Earth We Share, a science camp for students aged 12 to 16. Founded in 1994, camps have been held at Dartmouth College, Colorado School of Mines, Choate Rosemary Hall and other sites in the United States, as well as internationally in South Africa, Tunisia, and Switzerland. The Dorothy Jemison Foundation also sponsors other events and programs, including the Shaping the World essay competition, Listening to the Future (a survey program that targets obtaining opinions from students), Earth Online (an online chatroom that allows students to safely communicate and discuss ideas on space and science), and the Reality Leads Fantasy Gala.

Jemison was a professor of environmental studies at Dartmouth College from 1995 to 2002 where she directed the Jemison Institute for Advancing Technology in Developing Countries. In 1999, she also became an Andrew D. White Professor-at-Large at Cornell University. Jemison continues to advocate strongly in favor of science education and getting minority students interested in science. She is a member of various scientific organizations, such as the American Medical Association, the American Chemical Society, the Association of Space Explorers and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

In 1999, Jemison founded BioSentient Corp and obtained the license to commercialize AFTE, the technique she and Mohri tested on themselves during STS-47.

In 2012, Jemison made the winning bid for the DARPA 100 Year Starship project through the Dorothy Jemison Foundation for Excellence. The Dorothy Jemison Foundation for Excellence was awarded a $500,000 grant for further work. The new organization maintained the organizational name 100 Year Starship. Jemison is the current principal of the 100 Year Starship.

In 2018, she collaborated with Bayer Crop Science and National 4-H Council for the initiative named Science Matters which was aimed at encouraging young children to understand and pursue agricultural sciences.

Jemison's first book, Find Where the Wind Goes (2001), is a memoir of her life written for children. She describes her childhood, her time at Stanford, in the Peace Corps and as an astronaut. School Library Journal found the stories about her earlier life to be the most appealing. Book Report found that the autobiography gave a realistic view into her interactions with her professors, whose treatment of her was not based on her intelligence but on stereotypes of woman of color.

Her A True Book series of four children's books published in 2013 is co-authored with Dana Meachen Rau. Each book in the series has a "Find the Truth" challenge, true or false questions answers to which are revealed at the end of the story. School Library Journal found the series to be "properly tantalizing surveys" of the Solar System but criticized the inclusion of a few outdated theories in physics and astronomy.

Public profile

Jemison at a symposium in 2009

LeVar Burton learned that Jemison was an avid Star Trek fan and asked her if she would be interested in being on the show. In 1993, Jemison appeared as Lieutenant Palmer in " Second Chances", an episode of the science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, becoming the first real-life astronaut to appear on .

From 1999 to 2005, Jemison was appointed an Andrew Dickson White Professor-at-Large at Cornell University.

Jemison is an active public speaker who appears before private and public groups promoting science and technology. "Having been an astronaut gives me a platform," says Jemison, "but I'd blow it if I just talked about the Shuttle." Jemison uses her platform to speak out on the gap in the quality of health-care between the United States and the Third World, saying that "Martin Luther King [Jr.]... didn't just have a dream, he got things done." Jemison has also appeared as host and technical consultant of the science series World of Wonder which aired on the Discovery Channel from 1994 to 1998.

In 2006, Jemison participated in African American Lives, a PBS television miniseries hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr., that traces the family history of eight famous African Americans using historical research and genetic techniques. Jemison found to her surprise that she is 13% East Asian in her genetic makeup. She also learned that some of her paternal ancestors were slaves at a plantation in Talladega County, Alabama.

Jemison participated in the Red Dress Heart Truth fashion show, wearing Lyn Devon, during the 2007 New York Fashion Week to help raise money to fight heart disease. In May of the same year, she was the graduation commencement speaker and only the 11th person in the 52-year history of Harvey Mudd College to be awarded an honorary D.Eng. degree.

On February 17, 2008, Jemison was the featured speaker for the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Alpha Kappa Alpha, the first sorority established by African-American college women. Jemison paid tribute to Alpha Kappa Alpha by carrying the sorority's banner with her on her shuttle flight. Her space suit is a part of the sorority's national traveling Centennial Exhibit. Jemison is an honorary member of Alpha Kappa Alpha.

Jemison participated with First Lady Michelle Obama in a forum for promising girls in the Washington, D.C. public schools in March 2009.

In 2014, Jemison also appeared at Wayne State University for their annual Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Tribute Luncheon. In 2016, she partnered with Bayer Corporation to promote and advance science literacy in schools, emphasizing hands-on experimentation.

She took part in the Michigan State University's lecture series, "Slavery to Freedom: An American Odyssey", in February 2017. In May 2017, Jemison gave the commencement speech at Rice University. She discussed the 100 Year Plan, science and education and other topics at Western Michigan University also in May 2017.

In 2017, LEGO released the "Women of NASA" set, with minifigures of Jemison, Margaret Hamilton, Sally Ride, and Nancy Grace Roman. The Google Doodle on March 8, 2019 ( International Women's Day) featured a quote from Jemison: "Never be limited by other people's limited imaginations."

Personal life

Jemison built a dance studio in her home and has choreographed and produced several shows of modern jazz and African dance.

In the spring of 1996, Jemison filed a complaint against a Texas police officer, accusing him of police brutality during a traffic stop that ended in her arrest. She was pulled over by Nassau Bay police officer Henry Hughes for allegedly making an illegal U-turn and arrested after Hughes learned of an outstanding warrant on Jemison for a speeding ticket. In the process of arresting her, the officer twisted her wrist and forced her to the ground, as well as having her walk barefooted from the patrol car into the police station. In her complaint, Jemison said the officer physically and emotionally mistreated her. Jemison's attorney said she believed she had already paid the speeding ticket years ago. She spent several hours in jail and was treated at an area hospital after release for deep bruises and a head injury. The Nassau Bay officer was suspended with pay pending an investigation, but the police investigation cleared him of wrongdoing. She filed a lawsuit against the city of Nassau Bay and the officer.

Honors and awards

Jemison on 1996 Azeri postage stamp

Institutions

Honorary doctorates

Filmography

Publications

Jemison, Mae (2001). Find where the wind goes: moments from my life. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-439-13196-4. OCLC 44548911.

Jemison, Mae (2001). S.E.E.ing the Future: Science, Engineering and Education (PDF). Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College. p. 56. ERIC ED464816.

She contributed the piece "Outer Space: The Worldly Frontier" to the 2003 anthology Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women's Anthology for a New Millennium, edited by Robin Morgan.

Jemison, Mae; Rau, Dana Meachen (2013). Journey Through Our Solar System (True Books: Dr. Mae Jemison and 100 Year Starship). Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-531-24061-8.

Jemison, Mae; Rau, Dana Meachen (2013). Discovering New Planets (True Books: Dr. Mae Jemison and 100 Year Starship). Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-531-24063-2.

Jemison, Mae; Rau, Dana Meachen (2013). Exploring Our Sun (True Books: Dr. Mae Jemison and 100 Year Starship). Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-531-24062-5.

Jemison, Mae; Rau, Dana Meachen (2013). The 100 Year Starship (True Books: Dr. Mae Jemison and 100 Year Starship). Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-531-24060-1.

References

Further reading

Ceaser, Ebraska D. Mae C. Jemison: 1st Black Female Astronaut, New Day Press, 1992.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mae Carol Jemison (born October 17, 1956) is an American engineer, physician, and former NASA astronaut. She became the first African-American woman to travel into space when she served as a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1992.

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A pioneering biologist, academic and science writer.

He is recognized for his work unlocking the role of the cell surface in the development of organisms.

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An American physicist and educator.

He was the first African-American to earn a Ph.D. from any American university, completing his dissertation in physics at Yale University in 1876.

On the basis of his academic record, he was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa Society.

In 1874, he became one of the first African Americans to graduate from Yale College.

Bouchet was also among the first 20 Americans (of any race) to receive a Ph.D. in physics and was the sixth to earn a Ph.D. in physics from Yale.

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{{Information |Description={{en|1=Portrait of Edward Alexander Bouchet, Yale College class of 1874, the first African-American to graduate from Yale College. Courtesy of the Yale University Manuscripts & Archives Digital Images Database. Retouched by Marm

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Edward Alexander Bouchet Yale College class of 1874.jpg

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Original file ‎(2,416 × 3,014 pixels, file size: 6.74 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment 01:21, 27 May 2010 351 × 500 (83 KB) MarmadukePercy {{Information |Description={{en|1=Portrait of Edward Alexander Bouchet, Yale College class of 1874, the first African-American to graduate from Yale College.

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A theoretical physicist.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to the electroweak unification theory.

He was the first Pakistani and first Muslim from an Islamic country to receive the Nobel Prize in science.

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An organic chemist.

He helped to synthesise the cancer-fighting alkaloids obtained from the rosy-periwinkle.

He is currently serving as Professor Emeritus at the International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences at the University of Karachi.

He has twice served as the President of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (2003-2006, and 2011–2014).

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Atta-ur-Rahman ( Urdu: عطاالرحمان; b. 22 September 1942), h-index 75, with 36,000 citations is a Pakistani organic chemist and is currently serving as Professor Emeritus at the International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences at the University of Karachi and as Chairman of PM Task Force on Science and Technology. He has twice served as the President of Pakistan Academy of Sciences (2003-2006, and 2011-2014). He was the Federal Minister of Science and Technology (2000-2002), Federal Minister of Education (2002) and Chairman Higher Education Commission with status of Federal Minister (2002-2008) He is also the President of the Network of Academies of Sciences in Countries of the Organisation of Islamic Countries (NASIC). After returning to Pakistan from Cambridge after completing his tenure as Fellow of Kings College, Cambridge University, he contributed to the development of the International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences at the University of Karachi, and transforming the landscape of higher education, science and technology of Pakistan. He is Fellow of Royal Society (London), Life Fellow of Kings College, Cambridge University, UK.,, Academician Chinese Academy of Sciences and Professor Emeritus at University of Karachi

Atta-ur-Rahman was born on 22 September 1942 in Old Delhi into an Urdu-speaking academic family. His grandfather, Sir Abdur Rahman, was a vice-chancellor of the University of Delhi (1934-38) who briefly served as a judge at the Madras High Court.

In 1946, Abdur Rahman was appointed as vice-chancellor of the Punjab University in Lahore, eventually relocating his family there, a year before the partition of India took place. Abdur Rahman eventually became a Senior Justice at the Supreme Court of Pakistan in 1949. His father, Jamil-ur-Rahman, was a lawyer who established a cotton ginning textile industry in Okara, Punjab, Pakistan. After settling in Karachi in 1952, he passed the competitive O-Level and A-Level from the Karachi Grammar School and joined Karachi University.

Attending Karachi University in 1960, Rahman graduated with a bachelor's degree (with honors) in chemistry in 1963. He obtained a Master of Science (MSc) in organic chemistry in 1964 with first class and 1st position, and lectured at Karachi University for a year before receiving a Commonwealth Scholarship for doctoral studies in the United Kingdom. He joined King's College at the University of Cambridge and resumed research in natural products under John Harley-Mason. In 1968, Rahman received a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in organic chemistry; the subjects of his doctoral thesis were natural products and organic materials. He was elected as a fellow of King's College, University of Cambridge in 1969 and continued his research at Cambridge University until 1973. During that period, he is credited with correcting the earlier work of the Nobel Laureate Sir Robert Robinson on the chemistry of harmaline. Later in 2007, he was appointed as an honorary life fellow of King's College Cambridge.

In 1964, Rahman joined the Karachi University as a lecturer in undergraduate chemistry. He remained associated with the Cambridge University between 1969 and 1973, and is presently honorary Life Fellow at the King's College of the Cambridge University. In 1977, he became the co-director of the Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry at University of Karachi; eventually he was ascended as the Director in 1990. In 1979, Rahman did the post-doctoral research at the University of Tübingen. Upon returning to Pakistan, he joined Karachi University where he lectures and taught chemistry. He was appointed Professor Emeritus at University of Karachi for life.

He carried out important studies on the synthesis of anti-cancer alkaloids present in the plant Catharanthus roseus and analytical studies on organic compounds involving circular dichroism and is generally recognized as bringing a huge positive change in the development of science and technology as well as higher education in Pakistan.

His book entitled "Stereoselective Synthesis in Organic Chemistry" (Springer-Verlag) was termed a monumental contribution in the field by the Nobel Laureate Sir Derek Barton in the foreword of the book written by him. His book entitled "NMR Spectroscopy-Basic Principles" was published by Springer-Verlag and translated into Japanese for use in university courses in Japan The Nobel Laureate Herbert C. Brown applauded the contributions of Rahman in science and technology.

After securing the fellowship of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, Rahman had been affiliated with the Pakistan government regarding education and science affairs. From 1996 until 2012, Rahman served in the board of directors of the Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation, representing Pakistan's delegation. In 1997, Rahman served as the Coordinator General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation's (OIC) Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) that comprised 57 Ministers of Science and Technology from 57 OIC member countries. In recognition of his scientific transformation of Pakistan and building a large number of Centers of Excellence in the country as well as promoting scientific research, Rahman was conferred the TWAS Prize in Institution Building, in Durban, South Africa in 2009. Atta-ur-Rahman has seved as the co-chairman of UN ESCAP.

In 1999, he joined the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoSci) as its minister, assisting in drafting the official science policy of the country. In 2002, he was appointed as minister of the Ministry of Education (MoEd) as well as becoming the chairman of the Higher Education Commission (HEC) until resigning in 2008. Atta-ur-Rahman has also served as Chairman of the Prime Ministers National Task Force on Science and Technology, Co Chairman of Prime Ministers National Task Force on Information Technology and Telecommunications, and Vice Chairman of the Prime Ministers Task Force on Technology Driven Knowledge Economy during the years 2019 to 2022. He is the President of the Network of Science of Organisation of Islamic Countries (NASIC)

Atta-ur-Rahman receiving an award from the Minister of Higher Education of Austria for revolutionary changes brought about to uplift higher education sector in Pakistan.

Atta-ur-Rahman receiving UNESCO Science Prize at World Congress on Science in Budapest Hungary (1999)

Atta-ur-Rahman (middle) after receiving the International Science and Technology Collaboration Award, from President Xi Jinping on 10 January 2020

Atta-ur-Rahman Institute of Natural Product Discovery established in Universiti Teknologi, Mara, near Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia

Atta-ur-Rahman has been selected as one of the 500 most influential personalities of the Islamic World. Institutions have been named after Rahman in China, the Atta-ur-Rahman Institute for Natural Product Discovery (AuRIns) in Malaysia and the Academician Professor Atta-ur-Rahman One Belt and One Road TCM Research Center were named after Rahman, as well as the Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences at the National University of Sciences & Technology (Islamabad, Pakistan) and the Atta-ur-Rahman Laboratories, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences at the University of Karachi (Karachi, Pakistan). The US Publisher ARKAT USA has published a special issue of the journal Arkivoc, Vol 2007, in honour of Atta-ur-Rahman FRS which had contributions from top scientists in the field of natural product chemistry. Similarly, the international journal Molecules published by the Swiss publisher MDPI published a special issue of the journal in honour of Atta-ur-Rahman. The World Academy of Science, Italy has introduced a special Prize in his honour (TWAS-Atta-ur-Rahman Award in Chemistry) for young scientists which is awarded once every two years. In recognition of his eminent contributions, Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman has received honorary doctorate degrees from many universities including the University of Cambridge (UK), Coventry University (UK), Bradford University (UK), Universiti Teknologi Mara (Malaysia), Asian Institute of Teknologi (Thailand), University of Karachi (Pakistan), Gomal University (Pakistan), and several other universities

National and international Awards

In recognition of his eminent contributions in the field of organic chemistry, he has been conferred with many civil awards, including:

Fellowships

1. ^ http://casad.cas.cn/ysxx2022/wjys/201512/t20151224_4502768.html

2. ^ "Atta RAHMAN | Professor Emeritus | PhD (Cambridge), DSc (Cambridge), DSc (Coventry), | University of Karachi, Karachi | HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry | Research profile".

3. ^ "Profiles in Leadership (3): Atta ur Rahman on HEJ, HEC, and OIC Science Cooperation Muslim Science".

4. ^ "Prof. Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman, FRS". Archived from the original on 3 July 2020.

5. ^ "Reactions of harmaline (4,9-dihydro-7-methoxy-1-methyl-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole) and its derivatives. Part II. Reinvestigation of acetylharmaline". Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1: 736-738. 1 January 1972. doi:10.1039/P19720000736 - via pubs.rsc.org.

6. Archived copy Archived 7 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine

7. ^ Choudhary, Muhammad Iqbal (14 March 2013). "Professor Atta-ur-Rahman: towering scientific achievements". Natural Product Research. 27 (4-5): 298-301. doi:10.1080/14786419.2013.766053. PMID 23473069. S2CID 19648663.

8. ^ Stereoselective Synthesis in Organic Chemistry. Springer Science & Business Media. 6 December 2012. ISBN 9781461383277 - via Google Books.

9. ^ Nuclear Magnetic Resonance: Basic Principles. Springer-Verlag. 14 November 1986. ISBN 9783540962434 - via Google Books.

10. ^ Profile of Atta-ur-Rahman on UNESCO.org website Archived 19 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine Published 10 November 2014, Retrieved 9 April 2021

11. ^ "Malaysian King confers degree on Atta-ur-Rahman". The News International (newspaper). 23 October 2011. Archived from the original on 19 December 2013.

12. ^ "Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC) gives title of Distinguished National Professor to four scholars". Free Online Library website. 2011. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020.

13. ^ "中国化学会荣誉会士" [Chinese Chemical Society Honorary Fellow in 1997] (in Chinese). Chinese Chemical Society website. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Atta-ur-Rahman ( Urdu: عطاالرحمان; b. 22 September 1942), h-index 75, with 36,000 citations is a Pakistani organic chemist and is currently serving as Professor Emeritus at the International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences at the University of Karachi and as Chairman of PM Task Force on Science and Technology.

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A research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants.

He was a pioneer in large-scale chemical synthesis of progesterone and testosterone.

His work laid the foundation for the production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills.

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Percy Lavon Julian (April 11, 1899 - April 19, 1975) was an American research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine and was a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones progesterone and testosterone from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol. His work laid the foundation for the steroid drug industry's production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills.

He later started his own company to synthesize steroid intermediates from the wild Mexican yam. His work helped greatly reduce the cost of steroid intermediates to large multinational pharmaceutical companies, helping to significantly expand the use of several important drugs, including synthesizing cortisone.

He received more than 130 chemical patents. He was one of the first African Americans to receive a doctorate in chemistry. He was the first African-American chemist inducted into the National Academy of Sciences, and the second African-American scientist inducted (after David Blackwell) from any field.

Percy Lavon Julian was born on April 11, 1899, in Montgomery, Alabama, as the first child of six born to James Sumner Julian and Elizabeth Lena Adams Julian. Both of his parents were graduates of what was to be Alabama State University. His father, James, whose own father had been enslaved, was employed as a clerk in the Railway Service of the United States Post Office, and his mother Elizabeth was a schoolteacher.

At a time when access to an education beyond the eighth grade was extremely rare for African Americans, Julian's parents steered all of their children toward higher education. Julian attended DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana. The college accepted few African-American students. The segregated nature of the town subjected him to social humiliations. He was not allowed to live in a college dormitory and first stayed in an off-campus boarding home, which refused to serve him meals. It took him days before he found an establishment where he could eat. He later found work firing the furnace, waiting tables, and doing other odd jobs in a fraternity house; in return, he was allowed to sleep in the attic and eat at the house. Julian graduated from DePauw in 1920 as a Phi Beta Kappa and valedictorian.

By 1930, his father had moved the family to Greencastle so that all his children could attend DePauw. He still worked as a railroad postal clerk. James owned his own home, valued at $3,000 (approximately $53,000 today).

After graduating from DePauw, Julian wanted to obtain his doctorate in chemistry, but learned it would be difficult for an African American to do so. Instead, he obtained a position as a chemistry instructor at Fisk University. In 1923 he received an Austin Fellowship in Chemistry, which allowed him to attend Harvard University to obtain his M.S. However, worried that white students would resent being taught by an African American, Harvard withdrew Julian's teaching assistantship, making it impossible for him to complete his Ph.D. there.

In 1929, while an instructor at Howard University, Julian received a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship to continue his graduate work at the University of Vienna, where he earned his Ph.D. in 1931. He studied under Ernst Späth and was considered an impressive student. Europe gave him freedom from the racial prejudices that had stifled him in the States. He freely participated in intellectual social gatherings, attended the opera, and found greater acceptance among his peers. Julian was one of the first African Americans to receive a Ph.D. in chemistry, after St. Elmo Brady and Edward M.A. Chandler.

After returning from Vienna, Julian taught for one year at Howard University. At Howard, in part due to his position as a department head, Julian became caught up in university politics, setting off a chain of scandals. At university president Mordecai Wyatt Johnson's request, he goaded white professor of chemistry Jacob Shohan (Ph.D., Harvard), into resigning. In late May 1932, Shohan retaliated by releasing to the local African-American newspaper the letters Julian had written to him from Vienna. The letters described "a variety of subjects from wine, pretty Viennese women, music and dances, to chemical experiments and plans for the new chemical building." In the letters, he spoke with familiarity, and some derision, of members of the Howard University faculty, calling one well-known dean an "ass (also known as a donkey)".

Around this same time, Julian also became entangled in an interpersonal conflict with his laboratory assistant, Robert Thompson. Julian had recommended Thompson for dismissal in March 1932. Thompson sued Julian for " alienating the affections of his wife", Anna Roselle Thompson, stating he had seen them together in a sexual tryst. Julian counter-sued him for libel. When Thompson was fired, he too gave the paper intimate and personal letters which Julian had written to him from Vienna. Julian's letters revealed "how he fooled the [Howard] president into accepting his plans for the chemistry building" and "how he bluffed his good friend into appointing" a professor of Julian's liking. Through the summer of 1932, the Baltimore Afro-American published all of Julian's letters. Eventually, the scandal and accompanying pressure forced Julian to resign.

On December 24, 1935, he married Anna Roselle (Ph.D. in sociology, 1937, University of Pennsylvania). They had two children: Percy Lavon Julian, Jr. (August 31, 1940 - February 24, 2008), who became a noted civil rights lawyer in Madison, Wisconsin; and Faith Roselle Julian (born 1944), who still resides in their Oak Park home and often makes inspirational speeches about her father and his contributions to science.

At the lowest point in Julian's career, his former mentor, William Martin Blanchard, a professor of chemistry at DePauw, threw him a much-needed lifeline. Blanchard offered Julian a position to teach organic chemistry at DePauw in 1932. Julian then helped Josef Pikl, a fellow student at the University of Vienna, to come to the United States to work with him at DePauw. In 1935, Julian and Pikl completed the total synthesis of physostigmine and confirmed the structural formula assigned to it. Robert Robinson of Oxford University in the U.K. had been the first to publish a synthesis of physostigmine, but Julian noticed that the quoted melting point of Robinson's end product was incorrect, indicating that he had not created it. When Julian completed his synthesis, the melting point matched the correct one for natural physostigmine from the calabar bean.

Julian also extracted stigmasterol, which took its name from Physostigma venenosum, the west African calabar bean that he hoped could serve as raw material for the synthesis of human steroidal hormones. At about this time, in 1934, Butenandt and Fernholz, in Germany, had shown that stigmasterol, isolated from soybean oil, could be converted to progesterone by synthetic organic chemistry.

In 1936 Julian was denied a professorship at DePauw for racial reasons. DuPont offered a job to Pikl, but declined to hire Julian, despite his superlative qualifications as an organic chemist, apologizing that they were "unaware he was black". Julian next applied for a job at the Institute of Paper Chemistry in Appleton, Wisconsin. However, Appleton was a sundown town, forbidding African Americans from staying overnight, explicitly stating "No Negro should be a bed or boarded overnight in Appleton."

Meanwhile, Julian had written to the Glidden Company, a supplier of soybean oil products, to request a five-gallon sample of the oil to use as his starting point for the synthesis of human steroidal sex hormones (in part because his wife was experiencing infertility).[citation needed ] After receiving the request, W. J. O'Brien, a vice-president at Glidden, telephoned Julian, offering him the position of director of research at Glidden's Soya Products Division in Chicago. He was very likely offered the job by O'Brien because he was fluent in German, and Glidden had just purchased a modern continuous countercurrent solvent extraction plant from Germany for the extraction of vegetable oil from soybeans for paints and other uses.

Julian supervised the assembly of the plant at Glidden when he arrived in 1936. He then designed and supervised the construction of the world's first plant for the production of industrial-grade, isolated soy protein from oil-free soybean meal. Isolated soy protein could replace the more expensive milk casein in industrial applications such as coating and sizing of paper, glue for making Douglas fir plywood, and in the manufacture of water-based paints.

At the start of World War II, Glidden sent a sample of Julian's isolated soy protein to National Foam System Inc. (today a unit of Kidde Fire Fighting), which used it to develop Aer-O-Foam, the U.S. Navy's beloved firefighting "bean soup." While it was not exactly Julian's brainchild, his meticulous care in the preparation of the soy protein made the firefighting foam possible. When a hydrolyzate of isolated soy protein was fed into a water stream, the mixture was converted into a foam by means of an aerating nozzle. The soy protein foam was used to smother oil and gasoline fires aboard ships and was particularly useful on aircraft carriers. It has saved the lives of thousands of sailors and airmen. Citing this achievement, in 1947 the NAACP awarded Julian the Spingarn Medal, its highest honor.

Percy's research at Glidden changed direction in 1940 when he began work on synthesizing progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone from the plant sterols stigmasterol and sitosterol, isolated from soybean oil by a foam technique he invented and patented. At that time, clinicians were discovering many uses for the newly discovered hormones. However, only minute quantities could be extracted from hundreds of pounds of animal spinal cords.

In 1940, Julian was able to produce 100 pounds (45 kg) of mixed soy sterols daily, which had a value of $10,000 ($98,000 today) as sex hormones. Julian was soon ozonizing 100 pounds (45 kg) daily of mixed sterol dibromides. The soy stigmasterol was easily converted into commercial quantities of the female hormone progesterone, and the first pound of progesterone that he produced, valued at $63,500 ($622,000 today), was shipped to buyer Upjohn in an armored car. Production of other sex hormones soon followed.

His work made possible the production of these hormones on a larger industrial scale, with the potential of reducing the cost of treating hormonal deficiencies. Julian and his co-workers obtained patents for Glidden on key processes for the preparation of progesterone and testosterone from soybean plant sterols. Product patents held by a former cartel of European pharmaceutical companies had prevented a significant reduction in wholesale and retail prices for clinical use of these hormones in the 1940s. He saved many lives with this discovery.

On April 13, 1949, rheumatologist Philip Hench at the Mayo Clinic announced the dramatic effectiveness of cortisone in treating rheumatoid arthritis. The cortisone was produced by Merck at great expense using a complex 36-step synthesis developed by chemist Lewis Sarett, starting with deoxycholic acid from cattle bile acids. On September 30, 1949, Julian announced an improved process for producing cortisone. This eliminated the use of osmium tetroxide, which was rare and expensive. By 1950, Glidden could begin producing closely related compounds which might have partial cortisone activity. Julian also announced the synthesis, starting with the cheap and readily available pregnenolone (synthesized from the soybean oil sterol stigmasterol) of the steroid cortexolone (also known as Reichstein's Substance S, and most often referred as 11-Deoxycortisol), a molecule that differed from cortisone by a single missing oxygen atom; and possibly 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and pregnenetriolone, which he hoped might also be effective in treating rheumatoid arthritis, but unfortunately they were not.

On April 5, 1952, biochemist Durey Peterson and microbiologist Herbert Murray at Upjohn published the first report of a fermentation process for the microbial 11α-oxygenation of steroids in a single step (by common molds of the order Mucorales). Their fermentation process could produce 11α-hydroxyprogesterone or 11α-hydrocortisone from progesterone or Compound S, respectively, which could then by further chemical steps be converted to cortisone or 11β-hydrocortisone ( cortisol).

After two years, Glidden abandoned production of cortisone to concentrate on Substance S. Julian developed a multistep process for conversion of pregnenolone, available in abundance from soybean oil sterols, to cortexolone. In 1952, Glidden, which had been producing progesterone and other steroids from soybean oil, shut down its own production and began importing them from Mexico through an arrangement with Diosynth (a small Mexican company founded in 1947 by Russell Marker after leaving Syntex). Glidden's cost of production of cortexolone was relatively high, so Upjohn decided to use progesterone, available in large quantity at low cost from Syntex, to produce cortisone and hydrocortisone.

In 1953, Glidden decided to leave the steroid business, which had been relatively unprofitable over the years despite Julian's innovative work. On December 1, 1953, Julian left Glidden after 18 years, giving up a salary of nearly $50,000 a year (equivalent to $550,000 in 2022) to found his own company, Julian Laboratories, Inc., taking over the small, concrete-block building of Suburban Chemical Company in Franklin Park, Illinois.

On December 2, 1953, Pfizer acquired exclusive licenses of Glidden patents for the synthesis of Substance S. Pfizer had developed a fermentation process for microbial 11β-oxygenation of steroids in a single step that could convert Substance S directly to 11β-hydrocortisone (cortisol), with Syntex undertaking large-scale production of cortexolone at very low cost.

Around 1950, Julian moved his family to the Chicago suburb of Oak Park, becoming the first African-American family to reside there. Although some residents welcomed them, there was also opposition. Before they moved in, on Thanksgiving Day, 1950, their home was firebombed. Later, after they moved in, the house was attacked with dynamite on June 12, 1951. The attacks galvanized the community, and a community group was formed to support the Julians. Julian's son later recounted that during these times, he and his father often kept watch over the family's property by sitting on the front porch with a shotgun.

Julian's new research firm, Julian Laboratories, Inc., hired many of his best chemists, including African-Americans and women, from Glidden. He won a contract to provide Upjohn with $2 million worth of progesterone (equivalent to $20 million today). To compete against Syntex, he would have to use the same Mexican yam, obtained from the Mexican barbasco trade, as his starting material. Julian used his own money and borrowed from friends to build a processing plant in Mexico, but he could not get a permit from the government to harvest the yams. Abraham Zlotnik, a former Jewish University of Vienna classmate whom Julian had helped escape from the Holocaust, led a search to find a new yam source in Guatemala for the company.

In July 1956, Julian and executives of two other American companies trying to enter the Mexican steroid intermediates market appeared before a U.S. Senate subcommittee. They testified that Syntex was using undue influence to monopolize access to the Mexican yam. The hearings resulted in Syntex signing a consent decree with the U.S. Justice Department. While it did not admit to restraining trade, it promised not to do so in the future. Within five years, large American multinational pharmaceutical companies had acquired all six producers of steroid intermediates in Mexico, four of which had been Mexican-owned.

Syntex reduced the cost of steroid intermediates more than 250-fold over twelve years, from $80 per gram in 1943 to $0.31 per gram in 1955. Competition from Upjohn and General Mills, which had together made very substantial improvements in the production of progesterone from stigmasterol, forced the price of Mexican progesterone down to less than $0.15 per gram in 1957. The price continued to fall, bottoming out at $0.08 per gram in 1968.

In 1958, Upjohn purchased 6,900 kg of progesterone from Syntex at $0.135 per gram, 6,201 kg of progesterone from Searle (who had acquired Pesa) at $0.143 per gram, 5,150 kg of progesterone from Julian Laboratories at $0.14 per gram, and 1,925 kg of progesterone from General Mills (who had acquired Protex) at $0.142 per gram.

Despite continually falling bulk prices of steroid intermediates, an oligopoly of large American multinational pharmaceutical companies kept the wholesale prices of corticosteroid drugs fixed and unchanged into the 1960s. Cortisone was fixed at $5.48 per gram from 1954, hydrocortisone at $7.99 per gram from 1954, and prednisone at $35.80 per gram from 1956. Merck and Roussel Uclaf concentrated on improving the production of corticosteroids from cattle bile acids. In 1960 Roussel produced almost one-third of the world's corticosteroids from bile acids.

Julian Laboratories chemists found a way to quadruple the yield on a product on which they were barely breaking even. Julian reduced their price per kg for the product from $4,000 to $400. He sold the company in 1961 for $2.3 million (equivalent to $23 million today) and became one of the first black millionaires. The U.S. and Mexico facilities were purchased by Smith Kline, and Julian's chemical plant in Guatemala was purchased by Upjohn.

In 1964, Julian founded Julian Associates and Julian Research Institute, which he managed for the rest of his life. Julian also helped to found the Legal Defense and Educational Fund of Chicago, where he served on the boards of various organizations and universities.[citation needed ]

Julian died of liver cancer in Waukegan, Illinois on April 19, 1975, a week after his 76th birthday.

In 1947, he was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.

In 1950, the Chicago Sun-Times named Percy Julian the Chicagoan of the Year.

He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1973 in recognition of his scientific achievements. He became the second African American to be inducted, after David Blackwell.

Since 1975, the National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers has presented the Percy L. Julian Award for Pure and Applied Research in Science and Engineering.

In 1975, Percy L. Julian High School was opened on the south side of Chicago, Illinois as a Chicago public high school.

In 1980, the science and mathematics building on the DePauw University campus was rededicated as the Percy L. Julian Mathematics and Science Center. In Greencastle, Indiana, where DePauw is located, a street was named after Julian.

In 1985, Hawthorne School in Oak Park, Illinois, was renamed Percy Julian Middle School.

Illinois State University, where Julian served on the board of trustees, named a hall after him.

A structure at Coppin State University is named the Percy Julian Science Building.

In 1990, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.

In 1993 Julian was honored on a stamp issued by the United States Postal Service.

In 1999, the American Chemical Society recognized Julian's synthesis of physostigmine as a National Historic Chemical Landmark.

In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Percy Lavon Julian on his list of 100 Greatest African-Americans.

In 2011, the qualifying exam preparation committee at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine was named for Percy Julian.

In 2019, asteroid 5622 Percy julian, discovered by Eleanor Helin at Palomar Observatory in 1990, was named in his memory. The naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on August 27, 2019 ().

In November 2022, it was announced that Robert E Lee High School in Montgomery, AL would be renamed to Dr. Percy L. Julian High School.

Ruben Santiago-Hudson portrayed Percy Julian in the Public Broadcasting Service Nova documentary about his life, called "Forgotten Genius". It was presented on the PBS network on February 6, 2007, sponsored by the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation with further funding by the National Endowment for the Humanities. Approximately sixty of Julian's family members, friends, and work associates were interviewed for the docudrama.

Production on the biopic began in May 2002 at DePauw University's Greencastle campus, where Julian's bust is on display in the atrium of the Percy Lavon Julian Science and Mathematics Center. The completion and broadcast of the documentary was delayed while Nova commissioned and published a companion book on Julian's life.

According to University of Illinois historian James Anderson in the film, "His story is a story of great accomplishment, of heroic efforts and overcoming tremendous odds...a story about who we are and what we stand for and the challenges that have been there and the challenges that are still with us."

The Percy Lavon Julian family papers are archived at DePauw University.

U.S. Patent 2,218,971, October 22, 1940, Recovery of sterols

U.S. Patent 2,373,686, July 15, 1942, Phosphatide product and method of making

U.S. Patent 2,752,339, June 26, 1956, Preparation of cortisone

U.S. Patent 3,149,132, September 15, 1964, 16-aminomenthyl-17-alkyltestosterone derivatives

U.S. Patent 3,274,178, September 20, 1966, Method for preparing 16(alpha)-hydroxypregnenes and intermediates obtained therein

U.S. Patent 3,761,469, September 25, 1973, Process for the manufacture of steroid chlorohydrins; with Arnold Lippert Hirsch

On the Progenitors of Certain Plant Alkaloids and the Mechanism of their Formation in the Plant Structure; Percy L. Julian. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 1933, 43, pp 122-126.

Studies in the Indole Series. I. The Synthesis of Alpha-Benzylindoles; Percy L. Julian, Josef Pikl; J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1933, 55(5), pp 2105-2110.

Studies in the Indole Series. V. The Complete Synthesis of Physostigmine (Eserine); Percy L. Julian, Josef Pikl; J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1935, 57(4), pp 755-757.

Studies in the Indole Series VII. The Course of the Fischer Reaction with Ketones of the Type R CH2 CO CH3. Alpha-Propyl and Alpha-Homoveratryl Indole; Percy L Julian, Josef Pikl; Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 1935, 45, pp 145-150.

1. Stille, Darlene R. ^ Percy Lavon Julian: Pioneering Chemist (Signature Lives series) Archived March 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, Capstone, 2009, ISBN 0756540895, ISBN 978-0756540890.

2. "NOVA: Forgotten Genius". Nova (American TV series). February 6, 2007. Archived from the original on October 11, 2018.

3. Cobb, W. M. ^ "Medical History: Percy Lavon Julian, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., L.H.H.D., 1899- " Archived October 19, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, Journal of the National Medical Association, March 1971; Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 143-150, PMC 2609845.

4. ^ Miller, Dean (January 1, 2014). Chemists. Cavendish Square Publishing. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-62712-554-3. Archived from the original on September 14, 2022.

5. ^ "Milestones". Time. May 5, 1975. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Died. Percy L. Julian, 76, prolific black research chemist; of Harvard and the University of Vienna on his way to garnering over 130 chemical patents.

6. ^ "Percy L. Julian Is Awarded Doctorate in Chemistry". Washington Post. August 2, 1931. Percy L. Julian, associate professor and acting head of the department of chemistry of Howard University, has been awarded his doctorate in chemistry at the University of Vienna, his achievement being a combination of two years' residence abroad and the transfer of graduate credit from Harvard University.

7. ^ "Julian Will Do Research in Chemistry in Austrian Universities". Washington Post. June 9, 1929. Nine members of the faculty of the college of liberal arts of Howard University have been granted leaves of absence for graduate study during 1929-1930, and one for two years beginning with the fall of 1929. Percy L. Julian will study organic chemistry and microanalysis at the University of Vienna and at Graz University.

8. Kenneth R. Manning, ^ Black Apollo of Science: The Life of Ernest Everett Just, Oxford University Press, 1983, pp. 223-24.

9. ^ Lamb, Yvonne Shinhoster (March 26, 2008). "Civil Rights Lawyer Percy Julian Jr., 67". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.

10. ^ A. Butenandt, U. Westphal and H.Cobler, Berichte Deutsche chemische Gesellschaft, Vol. 67, 1934, pp. 1611-1616, 2085-2087.

11. ^ E. Fernholz. Berichte Deutsche chemische Gesellschaft, Vol. 67, 1934, pp. 2027-2031. (in German)

12. 1634-1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700-1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800-present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800-".

13. Bernhard Witkop. "Percy Lavon Julian. 1899-1975." in Biographical Memoirs. ^ National Academy of Sciences, 1980, Vol. 52, pp. 223-266.

14. Gereffi, Gary (1983). The Pharmaceutical Industry and Dependency in the Third World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 53-163. ISBN 978-0-691-09401-4.

15. ^ Gibbons, Roy (September 30, 1949). "Science gets the synthetic key to rare drug; discovery is made in Chicago". Chicago Tribune. p. 1. Dr. Julian's new method for synthesizing the anti-arthritic compound, cortisone, is less costly than present methods, because it eliminates the need for utilizing osmium tetroxide, a rare and expensive chemical, the Glidden company declared...But whether has Dr. Julian has also synthesized cortisone from soybeans neither he nor the Glidden company would reveal.

16. "News of the week: New cortisone synthesis". Chemical & Engineering News. 27 (41): 2936-2942. October 10, 1949. doi:10.1021/cen-v027n041.p2936. Quote: A new synthesis of cortisone, eliminating the need for expensive osmium tetroxide, and the synthesis of three other compounds related to cortisone, which may possibly be useful in the treatment of arthritis, have been announced by Percy L. Julian, director of research of the soya products division of the Glidden Co., Chicago. No statement was made as to further details of the new synthesis, but it was revealed that soybean products were not involved...all three [other compounds] were made from soybean sterols.

17. Lehman, R.W.; Embree, N.D. (1951). "Soybean oil by-products". In Markley, Klare S. (ed.). Soybeans and Soybean Products, vol. 2. New York: Interscience Publishers. p. 846. OCLC 1573228. Cortisone has been synthesized81d from bile acids having unsaturation or oxygenation in ring "C" which can give rise to a keto group at C₁₁. Its synthesis from soybean oil sterols has not been reported, but the preparation from these sterols of closely related compounds which may have partial activity has been announced by Julian.81e

18. Applezweig, Norman (1962). . New York: Blakiston Division, McGraw-Hill. pp. vii-xi, 9-83.
p. 26:
The pregnenolone experience also served to show that the older hormone producers using cholesterol and stigmasterol could not hope to become suppliers of the vast new quantities of pregnane compounds which the cortical hormones might require. In 1952 the Glidden Co., which until then had been producing progesterone and other steroids from stigmasterol, shifted over to Mexican sources through an arrangement with Diosynth and closed down its own production. The Glidden research director, Percy Julian, and his staff had worked out an excellent synthesis for Compound "S" which started from 16-dehydropregnenolone. The latter compound was directly available from diosgenin but would have been of prohibitive cost if prepared from soya sterols. Since Compound "S" differed from cortisone only by the absence of oxygen at 11, there were high hopes that Compound "S" would succeed where pregnenolone had failed, as a substitute for cortisone. Compound "S" also proved to be an ineffective precursor when fed to patients with arthritic disease; in fact, it aggravated rather than relieved their symptoms.
p. 30:
The Glidden Company also ventured further afield from its soya sterols to exploit some of the researches of Julian, which were designed to improve the conversion of deoxycholic acid to cortisone. After two years, Glidden decided to abandon the production of cortisone from bile acid and to concentrate instead on Compound "S," which now loomed as a competitor for progesterone in processes that could convert it via fermentation to cortisone and hydrocortisone.
Since Glidden's cost of production of Compound "S" was still relatively high, the progesterone group won out, and progesterone [from diosgenin] still remains the raw material of choice at Upjohn.

19. ^ Gjerde H, Gadeholt G, Olsen H, Mørland J, Norman N (July 1985). "11-Deoxycortisol induces hepatic tryptophan oxygenase in rats". Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica. 57 (1): 36-9. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0773.1985.tb00006.x. PMID 4050454.

20. Witkop, Bernhard. ^ "Percy Lavon Julian: April 11, 1899 - April 19, 1975" Archived February 22, 2001, at the Wayback Machine (Biographical Memoir), National Academy Press, National Academy of Sciences, (undated). Retrieved February 23, 2013.

21. ^ Peterson, D. H.; Murray, H .C. (1952). "Microbiological Oxygenation of Steroids At Carbon₁₁" (PDF). Journal of the American Chemical Society. 74 (7): 1871-2. doi:10.1021/ja01127a531. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 4, 2008.

22. ^ "Arson Fails at Home of Negro Scientist". New York Times. November 23, 1950. p. 29. Chicago, November 22, 1950. Quote: An attempt was made tonight to burn down the expensive home that Dr. Percy Julian, 51 years old, internationally known Negro research chemist, recently purchased in one of the most exclusive sections in suburban Oak Park.

23. United States Senate (1957). Wonder drugs: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Patents, Trademarks, and Copyrights of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 84th Congress, 2nd session, pursuant to S. Res. 167, on licensing of United States Government-owned patents; removal of obstacles to the production of essential materials from the cheapest source for the manufacture of cortisone and other hormones. July 5 and 6, 1956. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. pp. 114-5.

24. United States Senate (1960). Administered prices : hearings before the Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly of the Committee on the Judiciary, US Senate, 86th Congress, 1st session, pursuant to S. Res. 57; Part 14: Administered Prices in the Drug Industry (Corticosteroids). December 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12, 1959. Washington: US Government Printing Office. pp. 7884, 8296.

25. NOBCChE. ^ NOBCChe Percy L. Julian Award Recipients Archived March 9, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers (NOBCChE) website.

26. Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). ^ 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.

27. ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 5622 Percyjulian (1990 TL4)" (2019-02-26 last obs.). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Archived from the original on January 10, 2020.

28. Taylor, Percy. "Percy Julian: Against the Odds" Archived December 8, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Humanities, published by the National Endowment for the Humanities, January-February 2007, Vol. 28, No. 1.

Cobb, W. M. (1971). "Percy Lavon Julian, PhD, Sc.D., LL.D., L.H.D., 1899-". Journal of the National Medical Association. Vol. 63, no. 2. pp. 143-50. PMC . PMID 4928023.

Cullen, Katherine E. Chemistry: The People Behind the Science (Pioneers In Science), Chapter 8: Percy Julian (1899-1975): Synthesis of Glaucoma Drug and Sterols from Natural Plant Products, Infobase Publishing, 2006, pp. 103-114, ISBN 0816072221, ISBN 978-0816072224.

Kyle, R. A.; Shampo, M. A. (1996). "Stamp vignette on medical science. Percy Lavon Julian-industrial chemist". Mayo Clin. Proc. 71 (12): 1170. doi:10.4065/71.12.sv. PMID 8945489.

Weissmann, Gerald (2005). "Cortisone and the burning cross. The story of Percy Julian". The Pharos of Alpha Omega Alpha-Honor Medical Society. Alpha Omega Alpha. 68 (1): 13-16. PMID 15792073.

Percy Julian Chemistry and Civil Rights. Resources from Teachers' Domain

Bernhard Witkop, "Percy Lavon Julian", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (1980)

Profile of Percy Julian - The Black Inventor Online Museum

Percy Lavon Julian at Find a Grave

Percy Julian Archives at DePauw University

Forgotten Genius, PBS Nova documentary and video

Video: "Bringing Chemistry to Prime Time", a talk by Nova producer Steve Lyons on the creation of the Percy Julian PBS documentary

"Glidden Company History". Glidden Company.

"Percy Julian, Chemist Extraordinaire" (biography), Shunya's Notes website, June 24, 2007.

Glidden Co. Soy Information Center, Glidden Company.

Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko (August 21, 2022). Biography of Dr. Percy Lavon Julian (1899-2020): Greatest African-American Chemist of the 20th Century (PDF). Lafayette, CA: Soyinfo Center. ISBN 9781948436816.

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Percy Lavon Julian (April 11, 1899 - April 19, 1975) was an American research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine and was a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones progesterone and testosterone from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol.

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A scientist and nuclear engineer.

He established the nuclear engineering, nuclear physics and nuclear technology institutes in Pakistan.

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Ansar Pervaiz, also spelled as ( Ansar Parvez), HI, is a Pakistani scientist and a nuclear engineer who was the former chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), and former chairman of the Board of Governors of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Pervaiz is widely given credit for establishing the nuclear engineering, nuclear physics and nuclear technology institutes within Pakistan.

Pervaiz is a strong supporter for peaceful civilian-used nuclear technology in Pakistan whereas he is also supervising the construction of second atomic power plant, Karachi nuclear power plant-II, in Karachi. Pervaiz also established Nuclear medicines centres and cancer research centres in PAEC.

Born in Lahore, Ansar Pervaiz received his early and intermediate education there. In 1972, Ansar Pervaiz received his BSc in Physics from Punjab University. The same year, he attended Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad where he secured a gold medal followed by a double MSc in physics and Nuclear technology from Quaid-e-Azam University in 1974. In 1974, he went to United States for higher studies where he attended Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute where he received his PhD in Nuclear engineering and Nuclear reactor technology in 1977. He served as visiting assistant professor of both nuclear physics and nuclear technology at Purdue University - West Lafayette, Indiana, USA from 1982 till 1984. While at Purdue University, he had more than 30 publications in international journals and proceedings.

In 1986, he came back to Pakistan and joined PAEC as a Principle Scientific Officer (PSO). He formed the nuclear safety group at PAEC. Later, he was transferred in Karachi nuclear power plant, where he was appointed head of the nuclear safety department. At Karachi nuclear power plant, he expertised in nuclear reactor physics, pressure vessel, radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), very high temperature reactor (VHTR), and liquid metal cooled reactor (LMFR). He also established the food processing and agricultural engineering labs at PAEC. In May 1998, he was awarded Hilal-i-Imtiaz by then- Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif. He also served as a director of KANUPP Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering before promoting as a director general at the Chasma Reactor.

Parvaiz joined PAEC in 1986. He was put in charge of nuclear technology labs. He worked closely with his fellow nuclear scientist and engineers to plan and set up nuclear power plants of civilian purpose throughout the country. He was a general manager at the Chashma Nuclear Power Unit-II before elevating as a chairman of the agency. In March 2009, he met, together with his fellow engineers and scientists, with Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani where he briefed the Prime Minister about the energy crisis in Pakistan. He was appointed as Project Director of nuclear power plant. In April 2009, he was appointed as PAEC chairman. He is also the chairman of the board of governors of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences.

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, under Parvaiz, planned to set up 8800 MW power plants in Pakistan. Pakistan, currently suffering with power shortage and crises, the PAEC unveiled its indigenous plans to set up more nuclear power plants in the country. Pakistan's nuclear power plants were operating well and PAEC was looking forward to installing more nuclear power plants, said by Parvez.

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Ansar Pervaiz, also spelled as ( Ansar Parvez), HI, is a Pakistani scientist and a nuclear engineer who was the former chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), and former chairman of the Board of Governors of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

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A civil engineer and statesman. Regarded in India as one of the foremost civil engineers.

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Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya (Moːkśguṇam Viśveśvarayya) (15 September 1861 - 12/14 April 1962), also referred to by his initials, MV, was an Indian civil engineer, administrator, and statesman, who served as the 19th Dewan of Mysore from 1912 to 1918.

Visvesvaraya is regarded in India as one of the foremost civil engineers whose birthday, 15 September, is celebrated every year as Engineer's Day in India, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania. He is also often regarded as "the maker of modern Mysore". According to , a Kannada language newspaper, he is also the most popular figure in the southern Indian state of Karnataka.

Visvesvaraya worked as a civil engineer for the government of British India and later as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Mysore. For his services to British India, he was appointed CIE and later knighted KCIE. For his services to the Kingdom of Mysore and the Republic of India, he was awarded the Bharata Ratna by Government of India in 1955.

M. Visvesvaraya was born on 15 September 1861 at Muddenahalli, Kingdom of Mysore (in present-day Chikkaballapura district, Karnataka) into a Telugu speaking family of Mokshagundam Srinivasa Shastry and Venkatalakshmi. His ancestors hail from Mokshagundam, a village in present-day Andhra Pradesh, and had migrated to the kingdom years prior to Visvesvaraya's birth.

Visvesvaraya received his primary education in Bangalore and earned a Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree from the University of Madras. He later studied at the College of Engineering, Pune (then College of Science at the University of Bombay) and graduated as an engineer, receiving Diploma in Civil Engineering (DCE). It was here that he helped found and become a member of the Deccan Club and was its first secretary; he was well-acquainted with the progressives in Pune, including Sir R. G. Bhandarkar, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, who were instrumental in starting the club and were its members.

Visvesvaraya began his career by working for the Government of British India, working in Bombay Presidency and other British-held colonies in the Middle East. He later worked for Hyderabad State. After retirement, he began his administrative and statesmanship career and continued his engineering career in the Kingdom of Mysore.

Engineering career

Visvesvaraya became an assistant engineer in 1885 at the Public Works Department, Bombay, in Bombay Presidency.

In 1899, Visvesvaraya was invited to join the Indian Irrigation Commission where he implemented an intricate system of irrigation in the Deccan Plateau and designed and patented a system of automatic weir water floodgates that were first installed in 1903 at Khadakvasla Dam near Pune. These gates raised the storage level in the reservoir to the highest level likely to be attained without causing any damage to the dam. Based on the success of these gates, the same system was installed at Tigra Dam in Gwalior and later at the KRS Dam at Mysore, Karnataka. He later became the chief engineer of the Laxmi Talav Dam near Kolhapur.

In around 1906/1907, the Government of British India sent Visvesvaraya to the British Colony of Aden (present-day Yemen), to study water supply and drainage systems. The project prepared by him was successfully implemented in Aden.

After opting for voluntary retirement in 1908, Visvesvaraya took a foreign tour to study industrialised nations. Then, for a short period, he worked for Nizam Osman Ali Khan. He was one of the chief engineers of the flood protection system for the city of Hyderabad who suggested flood relief measures for the city, which was under constant threat by the Musi river. He achieved celebrity status when he designed a flood protection system for the city. He was instrumental in developing a system to protect Visakhapatnam port from sea erosion. This dam created the biggest reservoir in Asia at the time of its construction.

In November 1909, at the invitation of Dewan V.P. Madhava Rao, Visvesvaraya joined as a chief engineer of Mysore State. He was the Chief Engineer of the KRS Dam at Mysore. He was also later the chairman of the board of engineers for the Tungabhadra Dam in Hospet, Karnataka.

Premiership

In 1912, Visvesvaraya was appointed Dewan of Mysore by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV. He served for nearly seven years until 1918. With support from the maharaja, Visvesvaraya contributed to the general development of the Kingdom of Mysore.

During his premiership as Dewan, Visvesvaraya was responsible for the founding of factories and institutions funded for by the maharaja, including Mysore Soap Factory, Parasitoid Laboratory, Mysore Iron & Steel Works in Bhadravathi, Bangalore Polytechnic (now Sri Jayachamarajendra Polytechnic Bangalore), Bangalore Agricultural University, State Bank of Mysore, Century Club, Mysore Chamber of Commerce (now Federation of Karnataka Chambers of Commerce & Industry), Mysore Apex Chamber of Commerce (now Apex Chamber of Karnataka), and numerous other industrial places. The Bangalore Press was also established during his tenure as Dewan. He was also instrumental in the founding of Government Engineering College (now University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering) at Bangalore in 1917, one of the first engineering institutes in India. He commissioned several new railway lines in Mysore Railways (now part of Southwestern Indian Railways).

Visvesvaraya encouraged private investment in industry during his tenure as Dewan. He was instrumental in charting out a plan for road construction between Tirumala and Tirupati.

Visvesvaraya gave his technical advice for the location of Mokama Bridge over the Ganga in Bihar. At the time, he was over 90 years old.

Career timeline

Assistant Engineer in Bombay, 1885; served in Nasik, Khandesh (mainly in Dhule) and Pune

Services lent to Municipality of Sukkur, Sind, 1894; designed and carried out waterworks for the municipality

Executive Engineer, Surat, 1896

Assistant Superintending Engineer, Pune, 1897-1899; visited China and Japan, 1898

Executive Engineer for Irrigation, Pune, 1899

Sanitary Engineer, Bombay, and member, Sanitary Board, 1901; gave evidence before Indian Irrigation Commission

Designed and constructed automatic gates patented by him at Lake Fife Storage Reservoir; introduced a new system of irrigation known as "Block System", 1903; represented the Bombay Government at Simla Irrigation Commission, 1904; on special duty, 1905

Superintending Engineer, 1907; visited Egypt, Canada, United States, and Russia, 1908

Consulting Engineer to Hyderabad/Nizam State supervised and carried out engineering works on Musi river; Hyderabad floods of 1909

Retired from British Service, 1909

Chief Engineer and Secretary to Government of Mysore, 1909

Dewan of Mysore, Public Works Department and Railway, 1913

Awards and honours

Visvesvaraya on a 1960 stamp of India

Visvesvaraya was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) in 1911 by King Edward VII. In 1915, while he was Dewan of Mysore, Visvesvaraya was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE) by King George V for his contributions to the public good.

After India attained independence, Visvesvaraya received the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour, in 1955. He received an honorary membership from the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, a fellowship from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and several honorary degrees including D.Sc., LL.D., D.Litt. from eight universities in India. He was the president of the 1923 session of the Indian Science Congress.

Recognition

Visvesvaraya received recognition in many fields, most notably education and engineering. Visvesvaraya Technological University in Belagavi (to which most engineering colleges in Karnataka are affiliated) was named in his honour, as well as prominent colleges like University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering, Bangalore; Sir M. Visvesvaraya Institute of Technology, Bangalore; and Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur; Visvesvaraya Hostel, IIT (BHU) Varanasi; Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum, Bangalore.

The College of Engineering, Pune, his alma mater, erected a statue in Visvesvaraya's honour. Two metro stations in India, one in Bangalore on the Purple Line ( Sir M. Visveshwaraya Station, Central College), and another one in Delhi on the Pink Line ( Sir Vishweshwaraiah Moti Bagh), are named after him. The railway terminal in Baiyyapanahalli at Bangalore is named Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal after him.

On 15 September 2018, to celebrate his 157th birth anniversary, Sir Visvesvaraya was honored with a Google Doodle.

The Samadhi of Visvesvaraya at Muddenahalli

Visvesvaraya died on 12/14 April 1962, aged 100.

Visvesvaraya was known for his sincerity, time management and dedication to his cause. Visvesvaraya was a strict lacto-vegetarian who never ate meat or eggs. He was also a non-smoker and a teetotaller.

A very important part of Visvesvaraya's nature was his love for Kannada language. He set up Kannada Parishat for the improvement of Kannada. He wanted seminars for Kannada supporters to be instituted and conducted right in Kannada.

Memorial at Muddenahalli

Visvesvaraya National Memorial Trust manages a memorial for Visvesvaraya at his birthplace of Muddenahalli. The memorial exhibits his awards, titles and personal belongings, including his living room, spectacles, cups, books and block with which his visiting cards were printed. Models of the Krishna Raja Sagar Dam, which Visvesvaraya designed and supervised the construction of, are exhibited. The memorial is adjacent to his house, which was refurbished and is regarded as a shrine by locals.

References

1. "Diwans take over". . 15 August 2002. Archived from the original on 22 June 2003.

2. ^ Sen, Siba Pada; India), Institute of Historical Studies (Kolkata (1967). The Indian Press: A Collection of Papers Presented at the Fourth Annual Conference of the Institute, Mysore, 1966. Institute of Historical Studies.

3. "Padma Awards Directory (1954-2007)" (PDF). Ministry of Home affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2009.

4. ^ Ikegame, Aya (7 May 2013). Princely India Re-imagined: A Historical Anthropology of Mysore from 1799 to the present. Routledge. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-136-23909-0. Archived from the original on 14 September 2022.

5. ^ Mokshagundam, Visvesvaraya (1951). Memoirs of My Working Life. G. Claridge & Co., Ltd. pp. 28-30.

6. ^ Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan Das, ed. (2007). Science, Technology, Imperialism and War. History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. XV(1). Pearson Longman. p. 247.

7. ^ "Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya: Model engineer and scholar". Hindustan Times. 14 January 2020. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020.

8. Husain, Dildar (1966) ^ An Engineering Wizard of India, Institution of Engineers(India);AP, Hyderabad.

9. ^ Sree Venkateswara Ghat Rd, Tirupati, AP Archived 7 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine

10. ^ "44th Sir M Visvesvaraya Memorial Lecture by Dr. Amit Chatterjee" (PDF). Advancement of Engineering in India in New Millennium: A Compilation of Memorial Lectures Presented in Indian Engineering Congresses (2001-2010): 12-13. December 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2016.

11. ^ Kidiyoor, Suchith (14 June 2022). "Modi to formally inaugurate Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal on June 20". thehindu.com.

12. Athre, H. V. R. (1990). ^ New Book on Bharatha Rathna: Dr. M. Visvesvaraya's Biography. Mysore Economic Review. p. 81

13. Nath, Pandri. (1987). ^ Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya: Life and Work. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 110

External links

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Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya (Moːkśguṇam Viśveśvarayya) (15 September 1861 - 12/14 April 1962), also referred to by his initials, MV, was an Indian civil engineer, administrator, and statesman, who served as the 19th Dewan of Mysore from 1912 to 1918.

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An astrophysicist. Known for her work on the detection of gravitational waves in the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory project.

Also known for the exploration of macroscopic quantum effects in optomechanics.

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A physicist known for his work in the field of light scattering.

The Raman effect was discovered on 28 February 1928. The day is celebrated annually by the Government of India as the National Science Day.

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A British entertainer, comic, children's television presenter and wrestler, best known for his work presenting Playhouse Disney (1998–2006) and The Fun Song Factory (1994–1999).

He also presented the popular CBBC game show Get Your Own Back, which he now tours with around the UK.

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Gilgamesh (Akkadian: 𒀭𒄑𒂆𒈦, romanized: Gilgameš; originally Sumerian: 𒀭𒄑𒉋𒂵𒎌, romanized: Bilgames)

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A hero in ancient Mesopotamian mythology and the protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem written in Akkadian during the late 2nd millennium BC.

He was possibly a historical king of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, who was posthumously deified.

His rule probably would have taken place sometime in the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period, c. 2900 – 2350 BC, though he became a major figure in Sumerian legend during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 – c. 2004 BC).

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A national poet from Pakistan.

A South Asian Muslim philosopher, author, and politician. His poetry is considered to be among the greatest of the 20th century, and his vision of a cultural and political ideal for the Muslims of British-ruled India is widely regarded as having animated the impulse for the Pakistan Movement.

He is commonly referred to by the honourific Allama (Persian: علامه, transl. "learned"

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A Russian and Soviet rocket scientist who pioneered astronautics.

Along with Hermann Oberth and Robert H. Goddard, he is one of the pioneers of space flight and the founding father of modern rocketry and astronautics.

His works later inspired Wernher von Braun and leading Soviet rocket engineers Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko, who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program.

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Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky ( Russian: Константи́н Эдуа́рдович Циолко́вский; Polish: Konstanty Ciołkowski; 17 September [ O.S. 5 September] 1857 - 19 September 1935) was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist who pioneered astronautics. Along with Hermann Oberth and Robert H. Goddard, he is one of the pioneers of space flight and the founding father of modern rocketry and astronautics. His works later inspired Wernher von Braun and leading Soviet rocket engineers Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko, who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program.

Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, about 200 km (120 mi) southwest of Moscow. A recluse by nature, his unusual habits made him seem bizarre to his fellow townsfolk.

Tsiolkovsky was born in Izhevskoye (now in Spassky District, Ryazan Oblast), in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family. His father, Makary Edward Erazm Ciołkowski, was a Polish forester of Roman Catholic faith who relocated to Russia; his Russian Orthodox mother Maria Ivanovna Yumasheva was of mixed Volga Tatar and Russian origin. His father was successively a forester, teacher, and minor government official. At the age of 10, Konstantin caught scarlet fever and lost his hearing. When he was 13, his mother died. He was not admitted to elementary schools because of his hearing problem, so he was self-taught. As a reclusive home-schooled child, he passed much of his time by reading books and became interested in mathematics and physics. As a teenager, he began to contemplate the possibility of space travel.

Tsiolkovsky spent three years attending a Moscow library, where Russian cosmism proponent Nikolai Fyodorov worked. He later came to believe that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human species, with immortality and a carefree existence.

Additionally, inspired by the fiction of Jules Verne, Tsiolkovsky theorized many aspects of space travel and rocket propulsion. He is considered the father of spaceflight and the first person to conceive the space elevator, becoming inspired in 1895 by the newly constructed Eiffel Tower in Paris.

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky with his steel dirigibles in his garden, 1913

Despite the youth's growing knowledge of physics, his father was concerned that he would not be able to provide for himself financially as an adult and brought him back home at the age of 19 after learning that he was overworking himself and going hungry. Afterwards, Tsiolkovsky passed the teacher's exam and went to work at a school in Borovsk near Moscow. He also met and married his wife Varvara Sokolova during this time. Despite being stuck in Kaluga, a small town far from major learning centers, Tsiolkovsky managed to make scientific discoveries on his own.

The first two decades of the 20th century were marred by personal tragedy. Tsiolkovsky's son Ignaty committed suicide in 1902, and in 1908 many of his accumulated papers were lost in a flood. In 1911, his daughter Lyubov was arrested for engaging in revolutionary activities.

Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel and related subjects. Among his works are designs for rockets with steering thrusters, multistage boosters, space stations, airlocks for exiting a spaceship into the vacuum of space, and closed-cycle biological systems to provide food and oxygen for space colonies.

Tsiolkovsky's first scientific study dates back to 1880-1881. He wrote a paper called "Theory of Gases," in which he outlined the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, but after submitting it to the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (RPCS), he was informed that his discoveries had already been made 25 years earlier. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his second work, "The Mechanics of the Animal Organism". It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society. Tsiolkovsky's main works after 1884 dealt with four major areas: the scientific rationale for the all-metal balloon (airship), streamlined airplanes and trains, hovercraft, and rockets for interplanetary travel.

In 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. During this period, Tsiolkovsky began working on a problem that would occupy much of his time during the coming years: an attempt to build an all-metal dirigible that could be expanded or shrunk in size.

Tsiolkovsky developed the first aerodynamics laboratory in Russia in his apartment. In 1897, he built the first Russian wind tunnel with an open test section and developed a method of experimentation using it. In 1900, with a grant from the Academy of Sciences, he made a survey using models of the simplest shapes and determined the drag coefficients of the sphere, flat plates, cylinders, cones, and other bodies. Tsiolkovsky's work in the field of aerodynamics was a source of ideas for Russian scientist Nikolay Zhukovsky, the father of modern aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Tsiolkovsky described the airflow around bodies of different geometric shapes, but because the RPCS did not provide any financial support for this project, he was forced to pay for it largely out of his own pocket.

Tsiolkovsky studied the mechanics of lighter-than-air powered flying machines. He first proposed the idea of an all-metal dirigible and built a model of it. The first printed work on the airship was "A Controllable Metallic Balloon" (1892), in which he gave the scientific and technical rationale for the design of an airship with a metal sheath. Tsiolkovsky was not supported on the airship project, and the author was refused a grant to build the model. An appeal to the General Aviation Staff of the Russian army also had no success. In 1892, he turned to the new and unexplored field of heavier-than-air aircraft. Tsiolkovsky's idea was to build an airplane with a metal frame. In the article "An Airplane or a Birdlike (Aircraft) Flying Machine" (1894) are descriptions and drawings of a monoplane, which in its appearance and aerodynamics anticipated the design of aircraft that would be constructed 15 to 18 years later. In an Aviation Airplane, the wings have a thick profile with a rounded front edge and the fuselage is faired. But work on the airplane, as well as on the airship, did not receive recognition from the official representatives of Russian science, and Tsiolkovsky's further research had neither monetary nor moral support. In 1914, he displayed his models of all-metal dirigibles at the Aeronautics Congress in St. Petersburg but met with a lukewarm response.

Disappointed at this, Tsiolkovsky gave up on space and aeronautical problems with the onset of World War I and instead turned his attention to the problem of alleviating poverty. This occupied his time during the war years until the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Starting in 1896, Tsiolkovsky systematically studied the theory of motion of rocket apparatus. Thoughts on the use of the rocket principle in the cosmos were expressed by him as early as 1883, and a rigorous theory of rocket propulsion was developed in 1896. Tsiolkovsky derived the formula, which he called the "formula of aviation", now known as Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, establishing the relationship between:

change in the rocket's speed ( )

exhaust velocity of the engine ( )

initial ( ) and final ( ) mass of the rocket

After writing out this equation, Tsiolkovsky recorded the date: 10 May 1897. In the same year, the formula for the motion of a body of variable mass was published in the thesis of the Russian mathematician I. V. Meshchersky ("Dynamics of a Point of Variable Mass," I. V. Meshchersky, St. Petersburg, 1897).

His most important work, published in May 1903, was Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices (Russian: Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами). Tsiolkovsky calculated, using the Tsiolkovsky equation, that the horizontal speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth is 8,000 m/s (5 miles per second) and that this could be achieved by means of a multistage rocket fueled by liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. In the article "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices", it was suggested for the first time that a rocket could perform space flight. In this article and its sequels (1911 and 1914), he developed some ideas of missiles and considered the use of liquid rocket engines.

The outward appearance of Tsiolkovsky's spacecraft design, published in 1903, was a basis for modern spaceship design. The design had a hull divided into three main sections. The pilot and copilot were in the first section, the second and third sections held the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen needed to fuel the spacecraft.

However, the result of the first publication was not what Tsiolkovsky expected. No foreign scientists appreciated his research, which today is a major scientific discipline. In 1911, he published the second part of the work "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices". Here Tsiolkovsky evaluated the work needed to overcome the force of gravity, determined the speed needed to propel the device into the solar system ("escape velocity"), and examined calculation of flight time. The publication of this article made a splash in the scientific world, and Tsiolkovsky found many friends among his fellow scientists.

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1934

In 1926-1929, Tsiolkovsky solved the practical problem regarding the role played by rocket fuel in getting to escape velocity and leaving the Earth. He showed that the final speed of the rocket depends on the rate of gas flowing from it and on how the weight of the fuel relates to the weight of the empty rocket.

Tsiolkovsky conceived a number of ideas that have been later used in rockets. They include: gas rudders (graphite) for controlling a rocket's flight and changing the trajectory of its center of mass, the use of components of the fuel to cool the outer shell of the spacecraft (during re-entry to Earth) and the walls of the combustion chamber and nozzle, a pump system for feeding the fuel components, the optimal descent trajectory of the spacecraft while returning from space, etc.[citation needed ] In the field of rocket propellants, Tsiolkovsky studied a large number of different oxidizers and combustible fuels and recommended specific pairings: liquid oxygen and hydrogen, and oxygen with hydrocarbons. Tsiolkovsky did much fruitful work on the creation of the theory of jet aircraft, and invented his chart Gas Turbine Engine.[clarification needed ] In 1927, he published the theory and design of a train on an air cushion. He first proposed a "bottom of the retractable body" chassis.[clarification needed ] However, space flight and the airship were the main problems to which he devoted his life. Tsiolkovsky had been developing the idea of the hovercraft since 1921, publishing a fundamental paper on it in 1927, entitled "Air Resistance and the Express Train" (Russian: Сопротивление воздуха и скорый по́езд). In 1929, Tsiolkovsky proposed the construction of multistage rockets in his book Space Rocket Trains (Russian: Космические ракетные поезда).

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in his working room, 1934

Tsiolkovsky championed the idea of the diversity of life in the universe and was the first theorist and advocate of human spaceflight.

Hearing problems did not prevent the scientist from having a good understanding of music, as outlined in his work "The Origin of Music and Its Essence."

Tsiolkovsky supported the Bolshevik Revolution, and eager to promote science and technology, the new Soviet government elected him a member of the Socialist Academy in 1918.

Tsiolkovsky's path through the political and social cataclysms of revolutionary Russia was not as trouble-free as the official Soviet histories portrayed it. According to Galina Sergeeva, the deputy director for scientific research at the State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics: "Like any other person who was brought up in a totally different world, he had a problem understanding what was happening. On one hand, the goals which the Revolution declared-the happiness and well-being of the people, the reconstruction of the world for the better-he obviously supported. But on the other hand, he suffered almost immediately [after the Revolution]: ChK [the Bolsheviks' notorious secret police] arrested him, brought him to Moscow, and threw him in prison." According to Sergeeva, Tsiolkovsky was accused of anti-Soviet writing and was jailed in the infamous Lubyanka prison for several weeks before a high-ranking official had him released.

He worked as a high school mathematics teacher until retiring in 1920 at the age of 63. In 1921, he received a lifetime pension.

In his late lifetime Tsiolkovsky was honored for his pioneering work. However, from the mid-1920s onwards the importance of his other work was acknowledged, and he was honoured for it and the Soviet state provided financial backing for his research. He was initially popularized in Soviet Russia in 1931-1932 mainly by two writers: Yakov Perelman and Nikolai Rynin. Tsiolkovsky died in Kaluga on 19 September 1935 after undergoing an operation for stomach cancer. He bequeathed his life's work to the Soviet state.

Tsiolkovsky influenced later rocket scientists throughout Europe, like Wernher von Braun. Soviet search teams at Peenemünde found a German translation of a book by Tsiolkovsky of which "almost every page...was embellished by von Braun's comments and notes." Leading Soviet rocket-engine designer Valentin Glushko and rocket designer Sergey Korolev studied Tsiolkovsky's works as youths, and both sought to turn Tsiolkovsky's theories into reality.: 3, 166, 182, 187, 205-206, 208  In particular, Korolev saw traveling to Mars as the more important priority,: 208, 333, 337  until in 1964 he decided to compete with the American Project Apollo for the Moon.

In 1989, Tsiolkovsky was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.

The cover of the book The Will of the Universe: The Unknown Intelligence by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, 1928, considered to be a work of Cosmist philosophy

Tsiolkovsky wrote a book called The Will of the Universe: The Unknown Intelligence in 1928 in which he propounded a philosophy of panpsychism. He believed humans would eventually colonize the Milky Way galaxy. His thought preceded the Space Age by several decades, and some of what he foresaw in his imagination has come into being since his death. Tsiolkovsky also did not believe in traditional religious cosmology, but instead (and to the chagrin of the Soviet authorities) he believed in a cosmic being that governed humans as "marionettes, mechanical puppets, machines, movie characters", thereby adhering to a mechanical view of the universe, which he believed would be controlled in the millennia to come through the power of human science and industry. In a short article in 1933, he explicitly formulated what was later to be known as the Fermi paradox.

He wrote a few works on ethics, espousing negative utilitarianism.

Draft first space ship by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

In 1964, The Monument to the Conquerors of Space was erected to celebrate the achievements of the Soviet people in space exploration. Located in Moscow, the monument is 107 meters (350 feet) tall and covered with titanium cladding. The main part of the monument is a giant obelisk topped by a rocket and resembling in shape the exhaust plume of the rocket. A statue of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the precursor of astronautics, is located in front of the obelisk.

The State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga now bears his name. His residence during the final months of his life (also in Kaluga) was converted into a memorial museum a year after his death.

The town Uglegorsk in Amur Oblast was renamed Tsiolkovsky by President of Russia Vladimir Putin in 2015.

The crater Tsiolkovskiy (the most prominent crater on the far side of the Moon) was named after him, while asteroid 1590 Tsiolkovskaja was named after his wife.[28][29] (The Soviet Union obtained naming rights by operating Luna 3, the first space device to successfully transmit images of the side of the Moon not seen from Earth.[30])

The Tsiolkovsky Memorial Apartment. A museum created in Borovsk where he lived and had started his career as a teacher.[31]

There is a statue of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky directly outside the Sir Thomas Brisbane Planetarium in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.

There is a Google Doodle honoring the famous pioneer.[32]

There is a Tsiolkovsky exhibit on display at the Museum of Jurassic Technology in Los Angeles, California.

There is a 1 ruble 1987 coin commemorating the 130th anniversary of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's birth.[33]

Awards and decorations dedicated to Tsiolkovsky

Tsiolkovsky was consulted for the script to the 1936 Soviet science-fiction film, Kosmicheskiy reys.[35]

In Altman's 1979 post-apocalyptic film Quintet, the motto of the charity house run by the character St. Christopher is taken from Tsiolkovsky: "The Earth is the cradle of the mind, but one cannot live in the cradle forever."

Science-fiction writer Alexander Belyaev's novel [KETs Star ru] features a city and space station named with Tsiolkovsky's initials.

A lunar station is named Tsiolkovsky in Stanisław Lem's novel Tales of Pirx the Pilot, story "The Conditional Reflex".

The Soviet ship in Harry Turtledove's 1990 Mars exploration novel A World of Difference is named Tsiolkovsky.

In Princeton physicist and space colony advocate Gerard K. O'Neill's 1981 book of futurism, 2081: A Hopeful View of the Human Future, the protagonist rides a spaceship named the Konstantin Tsiolokovsky from his home in a space colony at twice the orbital radius of Pluto to the Earth of 2081.

A space station is named Tsiolkovsky 1 in William Gibson's 1981 short story "Hinterlands".

The character Aeolia Schenberg in the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam 00 is based on Tsiolkovsky.

The Mars-based space elevators in the Horus Heresy novel Mechanicum by Graham McNeill, set in the Warhammer 40k universe, are called "Tsiolkovsky Towers".[36]

The science ship, SS Tsiolkovsky (NCC-53911) in the 1987 Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Naked Now" is named after him.

Episode eight of Denpa Onna to Seishun Otoko is called "Tsiolkovsky's Prayer".

In the comic book series Assassin's Creed: The Fall, the leader of the Assassin Order reads from The Will of the Universe.

"Tsiolkovski" is the name given to an underground facility in a huge Farside crater on the Moon in Arthur C. Clarke and Stephen Baxter's science-fiction Sunstorm: A Time Odyssey (2005). In the same book the Russian astrophysicist Mikhail Martynov, says: "we Russians have always been drawn to the sun. Tsiolkovski himself, our great space visionary, drew on sun worship in some of his thinking, so it's said." Martynov refers to him as „father of Russian astronautics", and at one time speculates „ No wonder that Tsiolkovski's vision of humanity's future in space had been full of sunlight; indeed, he had dreamed that ultimately humankind in space would evolve into a closed, photosynthesizing metabolic unit, needing nothing but sunlight to live. Some philosophers even regarded the whole of the Russian space program as nothing but a modern version of a solar-worshiping ritual." (Chap. 42, pp.293-4.)

In a 2015 episode of Murdoch Mysteries, set in about 1905, James Pendrick works with Tsiolkovsky's daughter to build a suborbital rocket based on his ideas and be the first man in space; a second rocket built to the same design is adapted as a ballistic missile for purposes of extortion.

The 2019 novel Delta-v by Daniel Suarez features a first-of-its-kind artificial spin gravity asteroid mining ship named Konstantin as explicit homage.

Illustration by A. Gofman from On the Moon

Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E. (1928), The Will of the Universe: The Unknown Intelligence

Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E. (1893), On the Moon (На Луне) (in Russian)

Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E. (1903), "The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices (Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами)", The Science Review (in Russian) (5), archived from the original on 28 November 2019

Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E. (1931), Origin and an Essence of Music (Происхождение музыки и ее сущность) (PDF) (in Russian)

Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E., Call of the Cosmos: A Collection of Papers, FOREIGN LANGUAGES PRESS

Miller, Ron (1993). The Dream Machines. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89464-039-9.

Andrews, James T. (2009), Red Cosmos: K.E. Tsiolkovskii, Grandfather of Soviet Rocketry, Texas A&M University Press, ISBN 978-1-60344-168-1 Review

Georgiy Stepanovich Vetrov (1994). S. P. Korolyov and Space: First steps. M. Nauka. ISBN 5-02-000214-3.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky ( Russian: Константи́н Эдуа́рдович Циолко́вский; Polish: Konstanty Ciołkowski; 17 September [ O.S. 5 September] 1857 - 19 September 1935) was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist who pioneered astronautics. Along with Hermann Oberth and Robert H. Goddard, he is one of the pioneers of space flight and the founding father of modern rocketry and astronautics.

# data[].attributes.body
A marine geologist and computational scientist. His research focuses on tectonic plates, underwater earthquakes, and volcanoes.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lee Sang-Mook (born October 18, 1962) is a Korean marine geologist and computational scientist. He has worked as a researcher at the Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute from 1998 to 2003, and as a professor and researcher at Seoul National University since 2003. As an associate professor in the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, he specializes in Marine Geology and Geophysics. He heads the Undergraduate Interdisciplinary Program in Computational Sciences and the graduate program in Computational Science and Technology.

His research focuses on tectonic plates, underwater earthquakes, and volcanoes. He has advocated successfully at the national level for the use of Korean survey ships for basic scientific research.

After being injured in a car accident on July 2, 2006, Dr. Lee became a quadriplegic. He was able to return to work in less than a year, and continues to teach, do research, and travel. He has helped in the development of assistive technologies such as the DOWELL smartphone program by Samsung.

He is an advocate for the education of students with physical disabilities, and has introduced a "Calculative science collaboration major" focusing on the use of supercomputers, mathematics and digital modeling techniques, suitable for disabled science students. Lee served as Chair of the Preparation Committee of the "PyeongChang Forum for the Earth and its Citizens" prior to the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang.

1985, B.S., Seoul National University, College of Natural Sciences, Dept of Oceanography

1995, Ph.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology/Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Joint Program in Oceanography/Applied Ocean Science and Engineering

1996-1998, Post-doctoral Research, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Durham, England

2008 Commendation (Certificate of Honor), The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco

2009 Medal of Merit, Republic of Korea

2010 2010 DO-IT Trailblazer Award, DO-IT Center, University of Washington

2011 Grand Prize, Seoul City Welfare Award

Oceanography, Marine Geology and Geophysics, Geodynamics, Plate Tectonics, High-resolution Investigation of Deep Sea, Underwater Acoustics, Seafloor Topography, Underwater Volcanoes and Earthquakes, Gravity and Magnetics, Structure of Earth Interior, Numerical Modeling, Computational Sciences, Rock Magnetics, Assistive Technology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lee Sang-Mook (born October 18, 1962) is a Korean marine geologist and computational scientist. He has worked as a researcher at the Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute from 1998 to 2003, and as a professor and researcher at Seoul National University since 2003.

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An Indian-American electrical engineer and computer scientist.

He is Professor Emeritus of Electrical and Computer Engineering at University of New Mexico (UNM).

He is best known for inventing the discrete cosine transform (DCT) in the early 1970s. The DCT is the most widely used data compression transformation, the basis for most digital media standards (image, video and audio) and commonly used in digital signal processing.

He also described the discrete sine transform (DST), which is related to the DCT.

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A botanist who worked on plant breeding, cytogenetics and phytogeography. Her most notable work involved studies on sugarcane and the aubergine (brinjal).

# data[].attributes.body
A software engineer. She has built mobile and enterprise applications, and is also known for her knowledge of software architecture, and deploying mobile services, particularly for banking applications.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Farida Nana Efua Bedwei (born 6 April 1979) is a Ghanaian software engineer and co-founder of Logiciel, a fin-tech company in Ghana. Farida Bedwei has built mobile and enterprise applications, and is also known for her knowledge of software architecture, and deploying mobile services, particularly for banking applications.

Farida was born in Lagos, Nigeria and spent her early childhood living in three different countries ( Dominica, Grenada and UK) due to the nature of her fathers job with the United Nations Development Programme. She was diagnosed with cerebral palsy at the age of one. Her family moved to Ghana when she was 9 years old and was home schooled until 12 years.

She was home schooled until the age of 12 when she was first sent to a government school in Ghana. Farida's parent at the tender age of 15 noticed her early passion for computers and decided to enroll her in a one-year computer course at the St. Michael information technology centre, making her one of the youngest in the class and also enabled her to skip high school. She later obtained a one-year degree in Computer Science from the University of Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom (from 2004 to 2005) and further acquired a certificate in Project Management in 2009 from the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA).

Farida Bedwei began her career as a software developer at Soft Company Ltd (now known as the Softtribe), and moved from there to Rancard Solutions Ltd, where she progressed from the position of solutions analyst to Senior Software Architect from 2001 to 2010.

At Rancard Solutions, she was responsible for the development and maintenance of mobility platforms. One of her achievements at Rancard Solutions include the development of a content management system for the Commission for Human Rights and Administrative Justice and PayBureau, an enterprise web-based payroll application for KPMG Accra to facilitate simultaneous management of payroll services for different companies.

In 2010, Bedwei moved to G-Life Microfinance where she was responsible for designing and implementing new products and services. In April 2011, she left to set up her own company, Logiciel Ltd, Accra, Ghana, where she is the co-founder and chief technology officer. At Logiciel Ltd, she led the creation and successful implementation of gKudi, a web-based (cloud) banking software suite for the micro-finance industry, used by 130 micro-finance institutions nationwide.

In 2015, she authored her first book, a mini-autobiography titled: Definition of a miracle. She has since received several awards and appointments including her appointment to the Board of Ghana's National Communication Authority.

Farida also created a cerebral palsy superhero. Her comic character called Karmzah gets her power from her crutches that she has to use for her cerebral palsy.

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Farida Nana Efua Bedwei (born 6 April 1979) is a Ghanaian software engineer and co-founder of Logiciel, a fin-tech company in Ghana. Farida Bedwei has built mobile and enterprise applications, and is also known for her knowledge of software architecture, and deploying mobile services, particularly for banking applications.

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An African American inventor and patent draftsman. His inventions included an evaporative air conditioner, an improved process for manufacturing carbon filaments for light bulbs, and an improved toilet system for railroad cars.

Latimer's innovations in the design of carbon filaments, which were used in incandescent light bulbs, significantly improved the bulb's efficiency and made it more practical for everyday use.

His contributions to the lighting industry helped make electric lighting more accessible and affordable.

While Thomas Edison is often credited with inventing the practical incandescent light bulb, Latimer's contributions to its development were invaluable, and he played a crucial role in advancing the technology.

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Lewis Latimer Lewis Howard Latimer (1848-1928) was a Black inventor and patent draftsman who improved Thomas Edison's original invention by patenting the use of a carbon filament which made possible the widespread use of electric light in public and at home. Like Thomas Edison, Lewis Latimer had little formal childhood schooling.

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A British-Indian mathematician.

Despite having almost no formal training in pure mathematics, he made contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and continued fractions, including solutions to mathematical problems then considered unsolvable.

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An Indian political leader, merchant, scholar and writer who served as 2nd, 9th, and 22nd President of the Indian National Congress from 1886 to 1887, 1893 to 1894 and 1906 to 1907.

He was the Diwan of Baroda from 1874, before moving to England, where he was a Liberal Party Member of Parliament in the British House of Commons, representing Finsbury Central between 1892 and 1895.

He was the second person of Asian descent to be a British MP.

His book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India brought attention to his theory of the Indian "wealth drain" into Britain.

In 2014, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg inaugurated the Dadabhai Naoroji Awards for services to UK-India relations.

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An American abolitionist and social activist.

After escaping slavery, Tubman made some 13 missions to rescue approximately 70 enslaved people, including her family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known collectively as the Underground Railroad.

During the American Civil War, she served as an armed scout and spy for the Union Army.

In her later years, Tubman was an activist in the movement for women's suffrage.

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Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross, c. March 1822 - March 10, 1913) was an American abolitionist and social activist. After escaping slavery, Tubman made some 13 missions to rescue approximately 70 enslaved people, including her family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known collectively as the Underground Railroad. During the American Civil War, she served as an armed scout and spy for the Union Army. In her later years, Tubman was an activist in the movement for women's suffrage.

Born into slavery in Dorchester County, Maryland, Tubman was beaten and whipped by enslavers as a child. Early in life, she suffered a traumatic head wound when an irate overseer threw a heavy metal weight, intending to hit another slave, but hit her instead. The injury caused dizziness, pain, and spells of hypersomnia, which occurred throughout her life. After her injury, Tubman began experiencing strange visions and vivid dreams, which she ascribed to premonitions from God. These experiences, combined with her Methodist upbringing, led her to become devoutly religious.

In 1849, Tubman escaped to Philadelphia, only to return to Maryland to rescue her family soon after. Slowly, one group at a time, she brought relatives with her out of the state, and eventually guided dozens of other enslaved people to freedom. Traveling by night and in extreme secrecy, Tubman (or " Moses", as she was called) "never lost a passenger". After the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed, she helped guide escapees farther north into British North America (Canada), and helped newly freed people find work. Tubman met John Brown in 1858, and helped him plan and recruit supporters for his 1859 raid on Harpers Ferry.

When the Civil War began, Tubman worked for the Union Army, first as a cook and nurse, and then as an armed scout and spy. For her guidance of the raid at Combahee Ferry, which liberated more than 700 enslaved people, she is widely credited as first woman to lead an armed expedition in the war. After the war, she retired to the family home on property she had purchased in 1859 in Auburn, New York, where she cared for her aging parents. She was active in the women's suffrage movement until illness overtook her, and she had to be admitted to a home for elderly African Americans that she had helped to establish years earlier. She became an icon of courage and freedom.

Birth and family

Map of key locations in Tubman's life

Tubman was born Araminta "Minty" Ross to enslaved parents, Harriet ("Rit") Green and Ben Ross. Rit was enslaved by Mary Pattison Brodess (and later her son Edward). Ben was enslaved by Anthony Thompson, who became Mary Brodess's second husband, and who ran a large plantation near the Blackwater River in the Madison area of Dorchester County, Maryland.

As with many enslaved people in the United States, neither the exact year nor place of Tubman's birth is known. Tubman reported the year of her birth as 1825, while her death certificate lists 1815 and her gravestone lists 1820. Historian Kate Larson's 2004 biography of Tubman records the year as 1822, based on a midwife payment and several other historical documents, including her runaway advertisement. Based on Larson's work, more recent biographies have accepted March 1822 as the most likely timing of Tubman's birth.

Tubman's maternal grandmother, Modesty, arrived in the U.S. on a slave ship from Africa; no information is available about her other ancestors. As a child, Tubman was told that she seemed like an Ashanti person because of her character traits, though no evidence has been found to confirm or deny this lineage. Her mother, Rit (who may have had a white father), was a cook for the Brodess family. Her father, Ben, was a skilled woodsman who managed the timber work on Thompson's plantation. They married around 1808 and, according to court records, had nine children together: Linah, Mariah Ritty, Soph, Robert, Minty (Harriet), Ben, Rachel, Henry, and Moses.

Rit struggled to keep her family together as slavery threatened to tear it apart. Edward Brodess sold three of her daughters (Linah, Mariah Ritty, and Soph), separating them from the family forever. When a trader from Georgia approached Brodess about buying Rit's youngest son, Moses, she hid him for a month, aided by other enslaved people and freedmen in the community. At one point she confronted Brodess about the sale. Finally, Brodess and "the Georgia man" came toward the slave quarters to seize the child, where Rit told them, "You are after my son; but the first man that comes into my house, I will split his head open." Brodess backed away and abandoned the sale. Tubman's biographers agree that stories told about this event within the family influenced her belief in the possibilities of resistance.

Tubman's mother was assigned to "the big house" and had scarce time for her own family; consequently, as a child Tubman took care of a younger brother and baby, as was typical in large families. When she was five or six years old, Brodess hired her out as a nursemaid to a woman named "Miss Susan". Tubman was ordered to care for the baby and rock the cradle as it slept; when the baby woke up and cried, Tubman was whipped. She later recounted a particular day when she was lashed five times before breakfast. She carried the scars for the rest of her life. She found ways to resist, such as running away for five days, wearing layers of clothing as protection against beatings, and fighting back.

Also in her childhood, Tubman was sent to work for a planter named James Cook. She had to check his muskrat traps in nearby marshes, even after contracting measles. She became so ill that Cook sent her back to Brodess, where her mother nursed her back to health. Brodess then hired her out again. She spoke later of her acute childhood homesickness, comparing herself to "the boy on the Swanee River", an allusion to Stephen Foster's song " Old Folks at Home". As she grew older and stronger, she was assigned to field and forest work, driving oxen, plowing, and hauling logs.

As an adolescent, Tubman suffered a severe head injury when an overseer threw a two-pound (1 kg) metal weight at another slave who was attempting to flee. The weight struck Tubman instead, which she said: "broke my skull". Bleeding and unconscious, she was returned to her enslaver's house and laid on the seat of a loom, where she remained without medical care for two days. After this incident, Tubman frequently experienced extremely painful headaches. She also began having seizures and would seemingly fall unconscious, although she claimed to be aware of her surroundings while appearing to be asleep. Larson suggests she may have had temporal lobe epilepsy, possibly as a result of brain injury; Clinton suggests her condition may have been narcolepsy or cataplexy. A definitive diagnosis is not possible due to lack of contemporary medical evidence, but this condition remained with her for the rest of her life.

After her injury, Tubman began experiencing visions and vivid dreams, which she interpreted as revelations from God. These spiritual experiences had a profound effect on Tubman's personality and she acquired a passionate faith in God. Although Tubman was illiterate, she was told Bible stories by her mother and likely attended a Methodist church with her family. She rejected the teachings of white preachers who urged enslaved people to be passive and obedient victims to those who trafficked and enslaved them; instead she found guidance in the Old Testament tales of deliverance. This religious perspective informed her actions throughout her life.

Family and marriage

Anthony Thompson promised to manumit Tubman's father at age 45. After Thompson died, his son followed through with that promise in 1840. Tubman's father continued working as a timber estimator and foreman for the Thompson family. Later in the 1840s, Tubman paid a white attorney five dollars (equivalent to $160 in 2022) to investigate the legal status of her mother, Rit. The lawyer discovered that Atthow Pattison, the grandfather of Mary Brodess, indicated in his will that Rit and any of her children would be manumitted at age 45, and that any children born after she reached age 45 would be freeborn. The Pattison and Brodess families ignored this stipulation when they inherited the enslaved family, but taking legal action to enforce it was an impossible task for Tubman.

Around 1844, she married a free black man named John Tubman. Although little is known about him or their time together, the union was complicated because of her enslaved status. The mother's status dictated that of children, and any children born to Harriet and John would be enslaved. Such blended marriages - free people of color marrying enslaved people - were not uncommon on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, where by this time, half the black population was free. Most African-American families had both free and enslaved members. Larson suggests that they might have planned to buy Tubman's freedom.

Tubman changed her name from Araminta to Harriet soon after her marriage, though the exact timing is unclear. Larson suggests this happened right after the wedding, and Clinton suggests that it coincided with Tubman's plans to escape from slavery. She adopted her mother's name, possibly as part of a religious conversion, or to honor another relative.

Escape from slavery

Notice offering a reward of US$100 (equivalent to $3,520 in 2022) for the capture and return of "Minty" (Harriet Tubman) and her brothers Henry and Ben

In 1849, Tubman became ill again, which diminished her value to slave traders. Edward Brodess tried to sell her, but could not find a buyer. Angry at him for trying to sell her and for continuing to enslave her relatives, Tubman began to pray for God to make Brodess change his ways. She said later: "I prayed all night long for my master till the first of March; and all the time he was bringing people to look at me, and trying to sell me." When it appeared as though a sale was being concluded, Tubman changed her prayer: "First of March I began to pray, 'Oh Lord, if you ain't never going to change that man's heart, kill him, Lord, and take him out of the way'." A week later, Brodess died, and Tubman expressed regret for her earlier sentiments.

As in many estate settlements, Brodess's death increased the likelihood that Tubman would be sold and her family broken apart. His widow, Eliza, began working to sell the family's enslaved people. Tubman refused to wait for the Brodess family to decide her fate, despite her husband's efforts to dissuade her. "[T]here was one of two things I had a right to", she explained later, "liberty or death; if I could not have one, I would have the other".

Tubman and her brothers, Ben and Henry, escaped from slavery on September 17, 1849. Tubman had been hired out to Anthony Thompson (the son of her father's former owner), who owned a large plantation in an area called Poplar Neck in neighboring Caroline County; it is likely her brothers labored for Thompson as well. Because they were hired out, Eliza Brodess probably did not recognize their absence as an escape attempt for some time. Two weeks later, she posted a runaway notice in the Cambridge Democrat, offering a reward of up to US$100 each (equivalent to $3,520 in 2022) for their capture and return to slavery. Once they had left, Tubman's brothers had second thoughts. Ben may have regretted leaving his wife and children. The two men went back, forcing Tubman to return with them.

Sometime in October or November, Tubman escaped again, this time without her brothers. Before leaving she sang a farewell song to hint at her intentions, which she hoped would be understood by Mary, a trusted fellow slave: "I'll meet you in the morning", she intoned, "I'm bound for the promised land." While her exact route is unknown, Tubman made use of the network known as the Underground Railroad. This informal system was composed of free and enslaved black people, white abolitionists, and other activists. Most prominent among the latter in Maryland at the time were Quakers (members of the Religious Society of Friends). The Preston area near Poplar Neck contained a substantial Quaker community and was probably an important first stop during Tubman's escape. From there, she probably took a common route for people fleeing slavery - northeast along the Choptank River, through Delaware, and then north into Pennsylvania. A journey of nearly 90 miles (145 km) by foot would have taken between five days and three weeks.

Tubman had to travel by night, guided by the North Star and trying to avoid slave catchers eager to collect rewards for fugitive slaves. The "conductors" in the Underground Railroad used deceptions for protection. At an early stop, the lady of the house instructed Tubman to sweep the yard so as to seem to be working for the family. When night fell, the family hid her in a cart and took her to the next friendly house. Given her familiarity with the woods and marshes of the region, Tubman likely hid in these locales during the day. The particulars of her first journey are unknown; because other escapees from slavery used the routes, Tubman did not discuss them until later in life. She crossed into Pennsylvania with a feeling of relief and awe, and recalled the experience years later:

When I found I had crossed that line, I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person. There was such a glory over everything; the sun came like gold through the trees, and over the fields, and I felt like I was in Heaven.

Nicknamed "Moses"

Tubman sitting (1868 or 1869)

After reaching Philadelphia, Tubman thought of her family. "I was a stranger in a strange land," she said later. "[M]y father, my mother, my brothers, and sisters, and friends were [in Maryland]. But I was free, and they should be free." While Tubman saved money from working odd jobs in Philadelphia and Cape May, New Jersey, the U.S. Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which forced law enforcement officials to assist in the capture of escaped slaves - even in states that had outlawed slavery - and heavily punished abetting escape. The law increased risks for those who had escaped slavery, more of whom therefore sought refuge in Southern Ontario, where slavery had been abolished. Racial tensions were also increasing in Philadelphia as poor Irish immigrants competed with free blacks for work.

In December 1850, Tubman was warned that her niece Kessiah and Kessiah's children would soon be sold in Cambridge. Tubman went to Baltimore, where her brother-in-law Tom Tubman hid her until the sale. Kessiah's husband, a free black man named John Bowley, made the winning bid for his wife. While the auctioneer stepped away to have lunch, John, Kessiah and their children escaped to a nearby safe house. When night fell, Bowley sailed the family on a log canoe 60 miles (97 kilometres) to Baltimore, where they met with Tubman, who brought the family to Philadelphia.

Early next year she returned to Maryland to guide away other family members. During her second trip, she recovered her youngest brother, Moses, along with two other men. Word of her exploits had encouraged her family, and she became more confident with each trip to Maryland.

In late 1851, Tubman returned to Dorchester County for the first time since her escape, this time to find her husband John. When she arrived there, she learned that John had married another woman named Caroline. Tubman sent word that he should join her, but he insisted that he was happy where he was. Suppressing her anger, she found some enslaved people who wanted to escape and led them to Philadelphia.

Frederick Douglass worked for slavery's abolition alongside Tubman.

Because the Fugitive Slave Law had made the northern United States a more dangerous place for those escaping slavery to remain, many escapees began migrating to Southern Ontario. In December 1851, Tubman guided an unidentified group of 11 escapees, possibly including the Bowleys and several others she had helped rescue earlier, northward. There is evidence to suggest that Tubman and her group stopped at the home of abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass. Douglass and Tubman admired one another greatly as they both struggled against slavery. Years later he contrasted his efforts with hers, writing:

Most that I have done and suffered in the service of our cause has been in public, and I have received much encouragement at every step of the way. You, on the other hand, have labored in a private way. I have wrought in the day - you in the night. ... The midnight sky and the silent stars have been the witnesses of your devotion to freedom and of your heroism. Excepting John Brown - of sacred memory - I know of no one who has willingly encountered more perils and hardships to serve our enslaved people than you have.

From 1851 to 1862, Tubman returned repeatedly to the Eastern Shore of Maryland, rescuing some 70 slaves in about 13 expeditions, including her other brothers, Henry, Ben, and Robert, their wives and some of their children. She also provided specific instructions to 50 to 60 additional enslaved people who escaped. Because of her efforts, she was nicknamed "Moses", alluding to the biblical prophet who led the Hebrews to freedom from Egypt. One of her last missions into Maryland was to retrieve her aging parents. Her father purchased her mother from Eliza Brodess in 1855, but even when they were both free, the area was hostile. In 1857, Tubman received word that her father was at risk of arrest for harboring a group of eight people escaping slavery. She led her parents north to St. Catharines, Canada, where a community of formerly enslaved people, including other relatives and friends of Tubman, had gathered.

Routes and methods

Tubman's dangerous work required ingenuity. She usually worked during winter, when long nights and cold weather minimized the chance of being seen. She would start the escapes on Saturday evenings, since newspapers would not print runaway notices until Monday morning. She used subterfuges to avoid detection. Tubman once disguised herself with a bonnet and carried two live chickens to give the appearance of running errands. Suddenly finding herself walking toward a former enslaver, she yanked the strings holding the birds' legs, and their agitation allowed her to avoid eye contact. Later she recognized a fellow train passenger as a former enslaver; she snatched a nearby newspaper and pretended to read. Tubman was known to be illiterate, and the man ignored her.

In an 1897 interview with historian Wilbur Siebert, Tubman named some people who helped her and places she stayed along the Underground Railroad. She stayed with Sam Green, a free black minister living in East New Market, Maryland; she also hid near her parents' home at Poplar Neck. She would travel from there northeast to Sandtown and Willow Grove, Delaware, and to the Camden area where free black agents, William and Nat Brinkley and Abraham Gibbs, guided her north past Dover, Smyrna, and Blackbird, where other agents would take her across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal to New Castle and Wilmington. In Wilmington, Quaker Thomas Garrett would secure transportation to William Still's office or the homes of other Underground Railroad operators in the greater Philadelphia area. Still is credited with helping hundreds escape to safer places in New York, New England, and Southern Ontario.

Tubman's faith was another important resource as she ventured repeatedly into Maryland. The visions from her childhood head injury continued, and she saw them as divine premonitions. She spoke of "consulting with God", and trusted that He would keep her safe. Garrett once said of her, "I never met with any person of any color who had more confidence in the voice of God, as spoken direct to her soul." Her faith also provided immediate assistance. She used spirituals as coded messages, warning fellow travelers of danger or to signal a clear path. She sang versions of " Go Down Moses" and changed the lyrics to indicate that it was either safe or too dangerous to proceed. As she led escapees across the border, she would call out, "Glory to God and Jesus, too. One more soul is safe!"

She carried a revolver as protection from slave catchers and their dogs. Tubman also threatened to shoot anyone who tried to turn back since that would risk the safety of the remaining group, as well as anyone who helped them on the way. Tubman spoke of one man who insisted he was going to go back to the plantation. She pointed the gun at his head and said, "Go on or die." Several days later, the man who wavered crossed into Canada with the rest of the group.

By the late 1850s, Eastern Shore slaveholders were holding public meetings about the large number of escapes in the area; they cast suspicion on free blacks and white abolitionists. They did not know that "Minty", the petite, disabled woman who had run away years before, was responsible for freeing so many enslaved people. Though a popular legend persists about a reward of $40,000 (equivalent to $1,303,000 in 2022) for Tubman's capture, this is a manufactured figure: in 1867, in support of Tubman's claim for a military pension, an abolitionist named Sallie Holley wrote that $40,000 "was not too great a reward for Maryland slaveholders to offer for her". If it were real, such a high reward would have garnered national attention. A reward of $12,000 has also been claimed, though no documentation has been found for either figure.

Tubman and the fugitives she assisted were never captured. Years later, she told an audience: "I was conductor of the Underground Railroad for eight years, and I can say what most conductors can't say - I never ran my train off the track and I never lost a passenger."

John Brown and Harpers Ferry

Tubman helped John Brown plan and recruit for the raid at Harpers Ferry.

In April 1858, Tubman was introduced to the abolitionist John Brown, an insurgent who advocated the use of violence to destroy slavery in the United States. Although she was not previously involved in armed insurrection, she agreed with his course of direct action and supported his goals. Like Tubman, he spoke of being called by God, and trusted the divine to protect him from the wrath of slavers. She, meanwhile, claimed to have had a prophetic vision of meeting Brown before their encounter.

Thus, as he began recruiting supporters for an attack on slaveholders, Brown was joined by "General Tubman", as he called her. Her knowledge of support networks and resources in the border states of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Delaware was invaluable to Brown and his planners. Although other abolitionists like Douglass did not endorse his tactics, Brown dreamed of fighting to create a new state for those freed from slavery, and made preparations for military action. He believed that after he began the first battle, the enslaved would rise up and carry out a rebellion across the slave states. He asked Tubman to gather former slaves then living in Southern Ontario who might be willing to join his fighting force, which she did.

On May 8, 1858, Brown held a meeting in Chatham, Canada, where he unveiled his plan for a raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia. When word of the plan was leaked to the government, Brown put the scheme on hold and began raising funds for its eventual resumption. Tubman aided him in this effort and with more detailed plans for the assault.

Tubman was busy during this time, giving talks to abolitionist audiences and tending to her relatives. In early October 1859, as Brown and his men prepared to launch the attack, Tubman was ill in New Bedford, Massachusetts. It is not known whether she still intended to join Brown's raid or if she had become skeptical of the plan, but when the raid on Harpers Ferry took place on October 16, Tubman had recovered from her illness and was in New York City.

The raid failed; Brown was convicted of treason, murder, and inciting a rebellion, and he was hanged on December 2. His actions were seen by many abolitionists as a symbol of proud resistance, carried out by a noble martyr. Tubman herself was effusive with praise. She later told a friend: "[H]e done more in dying, than 100 men would in living."

Auburn and Margaret

In early 1859, Frances Adeline Seward, the wife of abolitionist Republican U.S. Senator William H. Seward, sold Tubman a seven-acre (2.8 ha) farm in Fleming, New York, for $1,200 (equivalent to $42,200 in 2022). The adjacent city of Auburn was a hotbed of antislavery activism, and Tubman took the opportunity to move her parents from Canada back to the U.S. Her farmstead became a haven for Tubman's family and friends. For years, she took in relatives and boarders, offering a safe place for black Americans seeking a better life in the north.

Shortly after acquiring the farm, Tubman went back to Maryland and returned with an eight-year-old light-skinned black girl named Margaret, who Tubman said was her niece. She also indicated the girl's parents were free blacks. According to Margaret's daughter Alice, Margaret later described her childhood home as prosperous and said that she left behind a twin brother. These descriptions conflict with what is known about the families of Tubman's siblings, which created uncertainty among historians about the relationship and Tubman's motivations. Alice called Tubman's actions a "kidnapping", saying, "she had taken the child from a sheltered good home to a place where there was nobody to care for her". After speculating in her 2004 biography of Tubman that Margaret might have been Tubman's own secret daughter, Kate Larson found evidence that Margaret was the daughter of Isaac and Mary Woolford, a free black couple who were neighbors of Tubman's parents in Maryland and who had twins named James and Margaret.

In November 1860, Tubman conducted her last rescue mission. Throughout the 1850s, Tubman had been unable to effect the escape of her sister Rachel, and Rachel's two children Ben and Angerine. Upon returning to Dorchester County, Tubman discovered that Rachel had died, and the children could be rescued only if she could pay a bribe of $30 (equivalent to $980 in 2022). She did not have the money, so the children remained enslaved. Their fates remain unknown. Never one to waste a trip, Tubman gathered another group, including the Ennalls family, ready and willing to take the risks of the journey north. It took them weeks to get away safely because of slave catchers forcing them to hide out longer than expected. The weather was unseasonably cold and they had little food. The Ennalls' infant child was quieted with paregoric while slave patrols rode by. They safely reached the home of David and Martha Wright in Auburn on December 28, 1860.

American Civil War

A woodcut of Tubman in her Civil War clothing

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Tubman had a vision that the war would soon lead to the abolition of slavery. More immediately, enslaved people near Union positions began began escaping in large numbers. General Benjamin Butler declared these escapees to be " contraband" - property seized by northern forces - and put them to work, initially without pay, at Fort Monroe in Virginia. The number of "contrabands" encamped at Fort Monroe and other Union positions rapidly increased. In January 1862, Tubman volunteered to support the Union cause and began helping refugees in the camps, particularly in Port Royal, South Carolina.

In South Carolina, Tubman met General David Hunter, a strong supporter of abolition. He declared all of the "contrabands" in the Port Royal district free, and began gathering formerly enslaved people for a regiment of black soldiers. U.S. President Abraham Lincoln was not yet prepared to enforce emancipation on the southern states and reprimanded Hunter for his actions. Tubman condemned Lincoln's response and his general unwillingness to consider ending slavery in the U.S., for both moral and practical reasons:

God won't let master Lincoln beat the South till he does the right thing. Master Lincoln, he's a great man, and I am a poor negro; but the negro can tell master Lincoln how to save the money and the young men. He can do it by setting the negro free.

Tubman served as a nurse in Port Royal, preparing remedies from local plants and aiding soldiers suffering from dysentery and infectious diseases. At first, she received government rations for her work, but to dispel a perception that she was getting special treatment, she gave up her right to these supplies and made money selling pies and root beer, which she made in the evenings.

Scouting and the Combahee River Raid

When Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, Tubman considered it a positive but incomplete step toward the goal of liberating all black people from slavery. She turned her own efforts towards more direct actions to defeat the Confederacy. In early 1863, Tubman used her knowledge of covert travel and subterfuge to lead a band of scouts through the land around Port Royal. Her group, working under the orders of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, mapped the unfamiliar terrain and reconnoitered its inhabitants. She later worked alongside Colonel James Montgomery, and provided him with key intelligence that aided in the capture of Jacksonville, Florida.

Illustration of the Combahee River Raid from Harper's Weekly

Later that year, Tubman's intelligence gathering played a key role in the raid at Combahee Ferry. She guided three steamboats with black soldiers under Montgomery's command past mines on the Combahee River to assault several plantations. Once ashore, the Union troops set fire to the plantations, destroying infrastructure and seizing thousands of dollars worth of food and supplies. Forewarned of the raid by Tubman's spy network, enslaved people throughout the area heard steamboats' whistles and understood that they were being liberated. Tubman watched as those fleeing slavery stampeded toward the boats; she later described a scene of chaos with women carrying still-steaming pots of rice, pigs squealing in bags slung over shoulders, and babies hanging around their parents' necks. Armed overseers tried to stop the mass escape, but their efforts were nearly useless in the tumult. As Confederate troops raced to the scene, the steamboats took off toward Beaufort with more than 750 formerly enslaved people.

Newspapers heralded Tubman's "patriotism, sagacity, energy, [and] ability" in the raid, and she was praised for her recruiting efforts - more than 100 of the newly liberated men joined the Union army. Reports about her involvement in the raid led to a revival of the "General Tubman" appellation previously given to her by John Brown. Although her contributions have sometimes been exaggerated, her role in the raid led to her being widely credited as the first woman to lead U.S. troops in an armed assault.

In July 1863, Tubman worked with Colonel Robert Gould Shaw at the assault on Fort Wagner, reportedly serving him his last meal. She later described the battle to historian Albert Bushnell Hart:

And then we saw the lightning, and that was the guns; and then we heard the thunder, and that was the big guns; and then we heard the rain falling, and that was the drops of blood falling; and when we came to get the crops, it was dead men that we reaped.

For two more years, Tubman worked for the Union forces, tending to newly liberated people, scouting into Confederate territory, and nursing wounded soldiers in Virginia, a task she continued for several months after the Confederacy surrendered in April 1865.

Formal portrait of Tubman taken after the Civil War and circulated as a carte de visite

Tubman had received little pay for her Union military service. She was not a regular soldier and was only occasionally compensated for her work as a spy and scout; her work as a nurse was entirely unpaid. For over three years of service, she received a total of $200 (equivalent to $3,820 in 2022). Her unofficial status caused great difficulty in documenting her service, and the U.S. government was slow in recognizing its debt to her. Meanwhile, her humanitarian work for her family and the formerly enslaved kept her in a state of constant poverty.

When a promised appointment to an official military nursing position fell through in July 1865, Tubman decided to return to her home in New York. During a train ride to New York in October 1865, Tubman traveled on a half-fare ticket provided to her because of her service. A conductor told her to move from a regular passenger car into the less-desirable smoking car. When she refused, he cursed at her and grabbed her. She resisted, and he summoned additional men for help. They muscled her into the smoking car, injuring her in the process. As these events transpired, white passengers cursed Tubman and told the conductor to kick her off the train.

Tubman spent her remaining years in Auburn, tending to her family and other people in need. In addition to managing her farm, she took in boarders and worked various jobs to pay the bills and support her elderly parents. One of the people Tubman took in was a farmer named Nelson Davis. Born enslaved in North Carolina, he had served as a private in the 8th United States Colored Infantry Regiment from September 1863 to November 1865. He began working in Auburn as a bricklayer, and they soon fell in love. Though he was 22 years younger than she was, on March 18, 1869, they were married at the Central Presbyterian Church. They adopted a baby girl named Gertie in 1874.

Tubman in 1887 (far left), with her husband Davis (seated, with cane), their adopted daughter Gertie (beside Tubman), Lee Cheney, John "Pop" Alexander, Walter Green, "Blind Aunty" Sarah Parker, and her great-niece Dora Stewart at Tubman's home in Auburn, New York

Tubman's friends and supporters from the days of abolition, meanwhile, raised funds to support her. One admirer, Sarah Hopkins Bradford, wrote an authorized biography entitled Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman. The 132-page volume was published in 1869 and brought Tubman some $1,200 in income (equivalent to $26,400 in 2022). Even with this assistance, paying off the mortgage on her farm in May 1873 exhausted Tubman's savings. That October, she fell prey to swindlers. Two black men claimed to know a former slave who had a trunk of gold coins smuggled out of South Carolina, which they would sell for cash at less than half the coins' value. She knew white people in the South had buried valuables when Union forces threatened the region, and black men were frequently assigned to digging duties, so the claim seemed plausible to her. She borrowed money from a wealthy friend and arranged to receive the gold late one night. Once the men had lured her into the woods, they knocked her out with chloroform and stole her purse. Tubman was found dazed and injured; the trunk was filled with rocks.

The crime brought new attention from local leaders to Tubman's precarious financial state and spurred renewed efforts to get compensation for her Civil War service. In 1874, Representatives Clinton D. MacDougall of New York and Gerry W. Hazelton of Wisconsin introduced a bill to pay Tubman a $2,000 (~$51,729 in 2022) lump sum "for services rendered by her to the Union Army as scout, nurse, and spy", but it was defeated in the Senate. In February 1880, Tubman's wood-framed house burned down, but with the help of her supporters it was quickly replaced with a new brick home.

Nelson Davis died of tuberculosis on October 14, 1888. The Dependent and Disability Pension Act of 1890 made Tubman eligible for a pension as his widow. After she documented her marriage and her husband's service record to the satisfaction of the Bureau of Pensions, in 1895 Tubman was granted a monthly widow's pension of $8 (equivalent to $281 in 2022), plus a lump sum of $500 to cover the five-year delay in approval. In December 1897, New York Congressman Sereno E. Payne introduced a bill to grant Tubman a soldier's monthly pension of $25 (~$879.00 in 2022). Although Congress received documents and letters to support Tubman's claims, some members objected to a woman being paid a full soldier's pension. In February 1899, Congress approved a compromise amount of $20 per (~$704.00 in 2022) month (the $8 from her widow's pension plus $12 for her service as a nurse), but did not acknowledge her as a scout and spy.

Suffragist activism

Tubman in 1911

In her later years, Tubman worked to promote the cause of women's suffrage. A white woman once asked Tubman whether she believed women ought to have the vote, and received the reply: "I suffered enough to believe it." Tubman began attending meetings of suffragist organizations, and was soon working alongside women such as Susan B. Anthony and Emily Howland.

Tubman traveled to New York, Boston and Washington, D.C. to speak in favor of women's voting rights. She described her actions during and after the Civil War, and used the sacrifices of countless women throughout modern history as evidence of women's equality to men. When the National Federation of Afro-American Women was founded in 1896, Tubman was the keynote speaker at its first meeting.

This wave of activism kindled a new wave of admiration for Tubman among the press in the United States. A publication called The Woman's Era launched a series of articles on "Eminent Women" with a profile of Tubman. An 1897 suffragist newspaper reported a series of receptions in Boston honoring Tubman and her lifetime of service to the nation. However, her endless contributions to others had left her in poverty, and she had to sell a cow to buy a train ticket to these celebrations.

Church, illness, and death

In the 1870s, Tubman became active in the Thompson Memorial African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Zion Church in Auburn. In 1895, she began discussions with AME Zion leaders and others to create a Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged that would care for "indigent colored people". Despite her financial limitations, in 1896 Tubman bid $1215 (~$42,739 in 2022) at auction for a 25-acre (10 ha) farm adjacent to the one she already owned, to use for the new facility. She designated one of the farm's buildings as its primary residence and named it "John Brown Hall" to honor her late abolitionist ally. However, raising funds for the project was difficult, and attempts to donate the property were complicated by the multiple mortgage loans used to pay for it. After Tubman almost lost the property due her financial difficulties, AME Zion agreed to take it over in 1903.

The home did not open for another five years, and Tubman was dismayed when the church ordered residents to pay a $100 entrance fee (equivalent to $3,260 in 2022). She said: "[T]hey make a rule that nobody should come in without they have a hundred dollars. Now I wanted to make a rule that nobody should come in unless they didn't have no money at all." She was frustrated by the new rule but was the guest of honor nonetheless when the home celebrated its opening on June 23, 1908.

As Tubman aged, her childhood head trauma continued to trouble her. Unable to sleep because of pain and "buzzing" in her head, in the late 1890s she asked a doctor at Boston's Massachusetts General Hospital to operate. In her words, he "sawed open my skull, and raised it up, and now it feels more comfortable". She reportedly received no anesthesia and instead bit down on a bullet, as she had seen Civil War soldiers do when their limbs were amputated.

By 1911, Tubman's body was so frail that she was admitted into the rest home named in her honor. A New York newspaper described her as "ill and penniless", prompting supporters to offer a new round of donations. Surrounded by friends and family members, she died of pneumonia on March 10, 1913. Just before she died, she quoted the Gospel of John to those in the room: "I go away to prepare a place for you." Tubman was buried with semi-military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn.

Tubman's great-niece, Eva Stewart Northrup, launching the SS Harriet Tubman

Widely known and well-respected while she was alive, Tubman became an American icon in the years after she died. By the 1980s, Tubman was one of American history's most famous figures. She inspired generations of African Americans struggling for equality and civil rights; she was praised by leaders across the political spectrum.

Parks, monuments and historical sites

National parks and national monuments related to Tubman in the United States are the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument and the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park, both in Maryland, and the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park in Auburn. The Salem Chapel in St. Catharines, where Tubman worshipped, is a National Historic Site of Canada.

The city of Auburn has several historical sites related to Tubman, including her gravesite. Other state and local historical sites about Tubman include a state park and memorial garden in Maryland, and a museum in New Jersey.

Artistic portrayals

Tubman is the subject of many works of art. Musicians including Woody Guthrie, Wynton Marsalis, and Walter Robinson have written songs celebrating her. She is the subject of operas by Thea Musgrave, Nkeiru Okoye, and Hilda Paredes, as well as plays by Carolyn Gage and a collaboration of May Miller and Willis Richardson. Tubman is the focus of novels by Elizabeth Cobbs, Marcy Heidish, and Anne Parrish, and is a character in novels by Terry Bisson, Ta-Nehisi Coates, and James McBride.

Since Tubman's life was first dramatized on television in a 1963 episode of the series The Great Adventure, she has been portrayed in TV productions such as The Good Lord Bird, , Underground, and A Woman Called Moses. Cynthia Erivo received an Academy Award nomination for portraying Tubman in the 2019 theatrical film .

Artists including Fern Cunningham, Jane DeDecker, Nina Cooke John, and Alison Saar have presented Tubman in sculptures. She has been drawn or painted by numerous artists, including Romare Bearden, Aaron Douglas, William Johnson, Jacob Lawrence, and Faith Ringgold.

Other honors and commemorations

Official $20 bill prototype

In 1978, Tubman became the first African-American woman honored on a U.S. postage stamp; she appeared on a second stamp in 1995. Beginning in 2016, there have been plans to add a portrait of Tubman to the front of the twenty-dollar bill, moving the portrait of President Andrew Jackson, a slaveholder, to the back of the bill.

Dozens of schools, streets and highways, church groups, social organizations, and government agencies have been named after Tubman. In 1944, the United States Maritime Commission launched the SS Harriet Tubman, its first Liberty ship named for a black woman.

Historiography

Tubman hoped to become literate and write her own memoirs, but she never did. Instead, Sarah Hopkins Bradford combined Tubman's personal recollections, journalistic accounts, and letters from Tubman's friends and supporters to create Scenes from the Life of Harriet Tubman in 1868. Criticized by modern biographers for its artistic license and highly subjective point of view, the book nevertheless provides insight into Tubman's own view of her experiences. In 1886, Bradford released a re-written volume called Harriet, the Moses of her People. In both volumes Harriet Tubman is hailed as a latter-day Joan of Arc. The revision took a more moralistic and literary tone than the prior work, including changes of many event descriptions from first to third person. A final revision in 1901 added an appendix with more stories about Tubman's life.

The first full biography of Tubman to be published after Bradford's was Earl Conrad's Harriet Tubman (1943). Conrad experienced great difficulty in finding a publisher - the search took four years - and endured disdain and contempt for his efforts to construct a more objective, detailed account of Tubman's life for adults. Several highly dramatized versions of Tubman's life had been written for children, and many more came later, but Conrad wrote in an academic style. Though she was a popular historical figure, another book-length biography based on original scholarship did not appear for 60 years, when Jean Humez published a close reading of Tubman's life stories in 2003. Larson and Clinton both published their biographies soon after in 2004. Historian Milton Sernett's 2007 book Harriet Tubman: Myth, Memory, and History discusses the major biographies of Tubman up to that time.

References

Clinton, Catherine (2004). Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom. New York: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-14492-6 - via Open Library.

"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800-". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis.

Franklin, Jonathan (March 13, 2023). "A Monument of Harriet Tubman Now Replaces a Statue of Christopher Columbus in Newark". . Archived from the original on June 15, 2023.

Gaige, Amity (August 23, 2013). "The Good Lord Bird, by James McBride". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on July 25, 2019.

Gibson, Chantal N. & Silverman, Monique (2005). "Sur/Rendering Her Image: The Unknowable Harriet Tubman". Canadian Art Review. 30 (1): 25-38. JSTOR 42630711.

Hobson, Janell (2022). When God Lost Her Tongue: Historical Consciousness and the Black Feminist Imagination. Subversive Histories, Feminist Futures series. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429243554. ISBN 978-0-429-24355-4. S2CID 240990028.

Humez, Jean M. (Summer 1993). "In Search of Harriet Tubman's Spiritual Autobiography". NWSA Journal. 5 (2): 162-182. JSTOR 4316258.

Humez, Jean (2003). Harriet Tubman: The Life and Life Stories. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-19120-7 - via Open Library.

Kaufman, Rachel (May 13, 2018). "Pilot, Thinker, Soldier, Spy: The Epic Timeless Season Finale Twofer". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on October 17, 2020.

Larson, Kate Clifford (2004). Bound For the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-45627-4 - via Open Library.

Oertel, Kristen T. (2015). Harriet Tubman: Slavery, the Civil War, and Civil Rights in the Nineteenth-century America. Routledge Historical Americans series. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-94897-9.

Portelli, Alessandro (Fall 1988). "Fire on the Mountain". Review. Appalachian Journal. 16 (1): 87-90. JSTOR 40933404.

Roma, Catherine (2001). "Contemporary British Composers". In Pendle, Karin (ed.). Women and Music: A History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 227-251. ISBN 978-0-253-11503-4 - via Open Library.

Rosenberg, Amy S. (September 17, 2020). "The Harriet Tubman Museum in Cape May Marked Its Opening. Here's What's Inside, and Why It's in Cape May". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on September 21, 2020.

Sacks, Sam (May 17, 2019). "Fiction: Tales of History and Imagination". Books & Arts in Review. The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on July 25, 2019.

Vargas, Ángel (October 17, 2018). "La gesta de Harriet Tubman llega al Cervantino en forma de ópera" [The deeds of Harriet Tubman arrive at the Cervantino in the form of an opera]. (in Spanish). Archived from the original on April 17, 2021.

Further reading

External links

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Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross, c. March 1822 - March 10, 1913) was an American abolitionist and social activist. After escaping slavery, Tubman made some 13 missions to rescue approximately 70 enslaved people, including her family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known collectively as the Underground Railroad.

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A British politician who is a serving Member of Parliament (MP) for Hackney North and Stoke Newington since being elected in 1987.

She served in the Shadow Cabinet of Jeremy Corbyn as Shadow Home Secretary from 2016 to 2020 and is an advisor to the Privy Council.

She is both the first black woman elected to parliament and the longest-serving black MP.

She remains a member of the Labour Party, while sitting in the House of Commons as an independent, having had the whip suspended in April 2023.

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An Indian mathematician and astronomer who is considered as the founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the Late Middle Ages.

Madhava made pioneering contributions to the study of infinite series, calculus, trigonometry, geometry, and algebra.

He was the first to use infinite series approximations for a range of trigonometric functions, which has been called the "decisive step onward from the finite procedures of ancient mathematics to treat their limit-passage to infinity".

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A surgeon, author and researcher.

One of the first Black Canadians to graduate from McGill University’s Faculty of Medicine.

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Widely regarded as a pioneer of polymer chemistry.

Instrumental in designing a long-lasting plastic to sheath telephone cables.

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A medical doctor and the first woman of African descent to graduate from the University of Michigan Medical School.

She founded the Nursing Program at Spelman College, where she was the first black faculty member.

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A researcher in the field of parallel and distributed computing.

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A physicist and ICTP laureate.

Known for his contributions to scientific knowledge in the field of mathematics and statistical physics.

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A prominent chemist and physicist.

One of the pioneers of nano-technology.

Known for important contributions to the field of nanomaterial-based catalysts.

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A theoretical physicist.

He made contributions to the fields of superstring and string theory.

He was the first Pakistani physicist to publish a research paper in the field of superstring theory.

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An Indian astrophysicist who helped devise the theory of thermal ionisation.

His Saha ionisation equation allowed astronomers to accurately relate the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures.

Saha's equation is considered one of the ten most outstanding discoveries in astronomy and astrophysics since Galileo's invention of the telescope in 1608.

He was elected as an independent member to the Parliament of India in 1952.

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Meghnad Saha FRS (6 October 1893 - 16 February 1956) was an Indian astrophysicist who gained global prominence for his development of the Saha Ionization Equation, used to describe chemical and physical conditions in stars. His work allowed astronomers to accurately relate the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures. He was repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics by Arthur Compton, Debendra Mohan Bose and Sisir Kumar Mitra.[citation needed ] Saha was a dedicated humanitarian who became politically active to devote himself for the people of the newly independent India, which was facing a post-partition crisis. He was elected to the Parliament of India in 1952.

Meghnad Saha was born in 1893 in Shaoratoli, a village near Dhaka, in the former Bengal Presidency of British India (in present-day Bangladesh). Son of Jagannath Saha, Meghnad belonged to a poor family and struggled to rise in life. During his early schooling he was forced to leave Dhaka Collegiate School because he participated in the Swadeshi movement. He earned his Indian School Certificate from Dhaka College. He was also a student at the Presidency College, Kolkata and Rajabazar Science College CU; a professor at Allahabad University from 1923 to 1938, and thereafter a professor and Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of Calcutta until his death in 1956. He became Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927. He was president of the 21st session of the Indian Science Congress in 1934.

Amongst Saha's classmates were Satyendra Nath Bose, Jnan Ghosh and J. N. Mukherjee. In later life he was close to Amiya Charan Banerjee, a renowned mathematician at Allahabad University. Saha was an atheist.

Saha died on 16 February 1956 of a cardiac arrest in New Delhi. He was on his way to the office of the Planning Commission in Rashtrapati Bhavan, when he collapsed a few yards away from there. He died on the way to hospital, at 10:15 a.m. ( IST). It was reported, that he had been suffering from hypertension for ten months prior to his death. His remains were cremated at the Keoratola crematorium in Kolkata the following day.

Saha's study of the thermal ionisation of elements led him to formulate what is known as the Saha equation. This equation is one of the basic tools for interpretation of the spectra of stars in astrophysics. By studying the spectra of various stars, one can find their temperature and from that, using Saha's equation, determine the ionisation state of the various elements making up the star. This work was soon extended by Ralph H. Fowler and Edward Arthur Milne. Saha had previously reached the following conclusion on the subject.

"It will be admitted from what has gone before that the temperature plays the leading role in determining the nature of the stellar spectrum. Too much importance must not be attached to the figures given, for the theory is only a first attempt for quantitatively estimating the physical processes taking place at high temperature. We have practically no laboratory data to guide us, but the stellar spectra may be regarded as unfolding to us, in an unbroken sequence, the physical processes succeeding each other as the temperature is continually varied from 3000 K to 40,000 K."

Saha also invented an instrument to measure the weight and pressure of solar rays and helped to build several scientific institutions, such as the Physics Department in Allahabad University and the Institute of Nuclear Physics in Calcutta. He founded the journal Science and Culture and was the editor until his death. He was the leading spirit in organizing several scientific societies, such as the National Academy of Science (1930), the Indian Physical Society (1934), Indian Institute of Science (1935). He was the Director at Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science during 1953-1956. The Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, founded in 1943 in Kolkata, is named after him.

To actively participate in planning of education, industrialization, health, and river valley development Saha stood as a candidate in the constituency of North-West Calcutta in the 1951 Loksabha election. He ran on the ticket of Union of Socialists and Progressives but Saha always maintained his independence. He was pitted against a powerful and well-funded candidate from Congress, Mr. Prabhu Dayal Himatsingka. Saha was not well funded for his campaign and wrote to his publisher in November 1951 to ask for a Rs 5,000 advance against the sale of his textbook, Treatise on Heat, "because I am standing for election in the house of the people from NW Calcutta". Saha won the contest by a margin of 16%.

Saha actively participated in the parliament in the areas of Education, Refugee and Rehabilitation, Atomic Energy, Multipurpose River Projects and Flood Control and long term planning. In the book "Meghnad Saha in Parliament" Saha is described as "Never unduly critical, Saha was so forthright, so incisive, so thorough in pointing out lapses that the treasury bench was constantly on the defensive. This is brought out by the way he was accused of leaving his laboratory and straying into a territory not his own. But the reason why he was slowly drifting towards this public role (he was never a politician in the correct sense of the term) was the gradually widening gulf between his dream and the reality-between his vision of an industrialised India and the Government implementation of the plan."

Saha was the chief architect of river planning in India and prepared the original plan for the Damodar Valley Project. His own observation with respect to his transition into government projects and political affairs is as follows:

Scientists are often accused of living in the "Ivory Tower" and not troubling their mind with realities and apart from my association with political movements in my juvenile years, I had lived in ivory tower up to 1930. But science and technology are as important for administration now-a-days as law and order. I have gradually glided into politics because I wanted to be of some use to the country in my own humble way.

Saha was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1930 by Debendra Mohan Bose and Sisir Kumar Mitra.[citation needed ] The Nobel Committee evaluated Saha's work. It was seen as a useful application, but not a "discovery." Thus he was not awarded the Prize.[citation needed ] Saha was nominated again for the Prize in 1937 and 1940 by Arthur Compton; and in 1939, 1951 and 1955 by Mitra.[citation needed ] The Committee held to its previous decision.

"Meghnad Saha's ionization equation (c. 1920), which opened the door to stellar astrophysics was one of the top ten achievements of 20th century Indian science [and] could be considered in the Nobel Prize class." - Jayant Narlikar

"The impetus given to astrophysics by Saha's work can scarcely be overestimated, as nearly all later progress in this field has been influenced by it and much of the subsequent work has the character of refinements of Saha's ideas." - Svein Rosseland

"He (Saha) was extremely simple, almost austere, in his habits and personal needs. Outwardly, he sometimes gave an impression of being remote, matter of fact, and even harsh, but once the outer shell was broken, one invariably found in him a person of extreme warmth, deep humanity, sympathy and understanding; and though almost altogether unmindful of his own personal comforts, he was extremely solicitous in the case of others. It was not in his nature to placate others. He was a man of undaunted spirit, resolute determination, untiring energy and dedication." - Daulat Singh Kothari

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Meghnad Saha FRS (6 October 1893 - 16 February 1956) was an Indian astrophysicist who gained global prominence for his development of the Saha Ionization Equation, used to describe chemical and physical conditions in stars. His work allowed astronomers to accurately relate the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures.

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An Indian theoretical physicist and mathematician.

He is best known for his work on quantum mechanics in the early 1920s, in developing the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate.

A Fellow of the Royal Society, he was awarded India's second highest civilian award, the Padma Vibhushan, in 1954 by the Government of India.

The class of particles that obey Bose statistics, bosons, was named after Bose by Paul Dirac.

A polymath, he had a wide range of interests in varied fields, including physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, mineralogy, philosophy, arts, literature, and music.

He served on many research and development committees in India after independence.

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Satyendra Nath Bose (1 January 1894 - 4 February 1974) was an Indian mathematician and physicist specialising in theoretical physics. He is best known for his work on quantum mechanics in the early 1920,in developing the foundation for Bose statistics and the theory of the Bose condensate. A Fellow of the Royal Society, he was awarded India's second highest civilian award, the Padma Vibhushan, in 1954 by the Government of India.

The class of particles that obey Bose statistics, bosons, was named after Bose by Paul Dirac.

A polymath, he had a wide range of interests in varied fields, including physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, mineralogy, philosophy, arts, literature, and music. He served on many research and development committees in sovereign India.

Bose was born in Calcutta (now Kolkata), the eldest of seven children in a Bengali Kayastha family. He was the only son, with six sisters after him. His ancestral home was in the village Bara Jagulia, in the district of Nadia, in the Bengal Presidency. His schooling began at the age of five, near his home. When his family moved to Goabagan, he was admitted into the New Indian School. In the final year of school, he was admitted into the Hindu School. He passed his entrance examination ( matriculation) in 1909 and stood fifth in the order of merit. He next joined the intermediate science course at the Presidency College, Calcutta, where his teachers included Jagadish Chandra Bose, Sarada Prasanna Das, and Prafulla Chandra Ray.

Bose received a Bachelor of Science in mixed mathematics from Presidency College, standing first in 1913. Then he joined Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee's newly formed Science College where he again stood first in the MSc mixed mathematics exam in 1915. His marks in the MSc examination created a new record in the annals of the University of Calcutta, which is yet to be surpassed.

After completing his MSc, Bose joined the Science college, Calcutta University as a research scholar in 1916 and started his studies in the theory of relativity. It was an exciting era in the history of scientific progress. Quantum theory had just appeared on the horizon and important results had started pouring in.

His father, Surendranath Bose, worked in the Engineering Department of the East Indian Railway Company. In 1914, at age 20, Satyendra Nath Bose married Ushabati Ghosh, the 11-year-old daughter of a prominent Calcutta physician. They had nine children, two of whom died in early childhood. When he died in 1974, he left behind his wife, two sons, and five daughters.

As a polyglot, Bose was well versed in several languages such as Bengali, English, French, German and Sanskrit as well as the poetry of Lord Tennyson, Rabindranath Tagore and Kalidasa. He could play the , an Indian musical instrument similar to a violin. He was actively involved in running night schools that came to be known as the Working Men's Institute.

Bose attended Hindu School in Calcutta, and later attended Presidency College, also in Calcutta, earning the highest marks at each institution, while fellow student and future astrophysicist Meghnad Saha came second. He came in contact with teachers such as Jagadish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray and Naman Sharma who provided inspiration to aim high in life. From 1916 to 1921, he was a lecturer in the physics department of the Rajabazar Science College under University of Calcutta. Along with Saha, Bose prepared the first book in English based on German and French translations of original papers on Einstein's special and general relativity in 1919. In 1921, he joined as Reader of the Department of Physics of the recently founded University of Dhaka (in present-day Bangladesh). Bose set up whole new departments, including laboratories, to teach advanced courses for MSc and BSc honours and taught thermodynamics as well as James Clerk Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism.

Satyendra Nath Bose, along with Saha, presented several papers in theoretical physics and pure mathematics from 1918 onwards. In 1924, while working as a Reader (Professor without a chair) at the Physics Department of the University of Dhaka, Bose wrote a paper deriving Planck's quantum radiation law without any reference to classical physics by using a novel way of counting states with identical particles. This paper was seminal in creating the important field of quantum statistics. Though not accepted at once for publication, he sent the article directly to Albert Einstein in Germany. Einstein, recognising the importance of the paper, translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift für Physik. As a result of this recognition, Bose was able to work for two years in European X-ray and crystallography laboratories, during which he worked with Louis de Broglie, Marie Curie, and Einstein.

Bose-Einstein statistics

While presenting a lecture at the University of Dhaka on the theory of radiation and the ultraviolet catastrophe, Bose intended to show his students that the contemporary theory was inadequate, because it predicted results not in accordance with experimental results.

In the process of describing this discrepancy, Bose for the first time took the position that the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution would not be true for microscopic particles, where fluctuations due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle will be significant. Thus he stressed the probability of finding particles in the phase space, each state having volume , and discarding the distinct position and momentum of the particles.

Bose adapted this lecture into a short article called "Planck's Law and the Hypothesis of Light Quanta" and sent it to Albert Einstein with the following letter:

Respected Sir, I have ventured to send you the accompanying article for your perusal and opinion. I am anxious to know what you think of it. You will see that I have tried to deduce the coefficient in Planck's Law independent of classical electrodynamics, only assuming that the ultimate elementary region in the phase-space has the content . I do not know sufficient German to translate the paper. If you think the paper worth publication I shall be grateful if you arrange for its publication in Zeitschrift für Physik. Though a complete stranger to you, I do not feel any hesitation in making such a request. Because we are all your pupils though profiting only by your teachings through your writings. I do not know whether you still remember that somebody from Calcutta asked your permission to translate your papers on Relativity in English. You acceded to the request. The book has since been published. I was the one who translated your paper on Generalised Relativity.

Einstein agreed with him, translated Bose's papers "Planck's Law and Hypothesis of Light Quanta" into German, and had it published in Zeitschrift für Physik under Bose's name, in 1924.

The reason Bose's interpretation produced accurate results was that since photons are indistinguishable from each other, one cannot treat any two photons having equal energy as being two distinct identifiable photons. By analogy if, in an alternate universe, coins were to behave like photons and other bosons, the probability of producing two heads would indeed be one-third (tail-head = head-tail).

Bose's interpretation is now called Bose-Einstein statistics. This result derived by Bose laid the foundation of quantum statistics, and especially the revolutionary new philosophical conception of the indistinguishability of particles, as acknowledged by Einstein and Dirac. When Einstein met Bose face-to-face, he asked him whether he had been aware that he had invented a new type of statistics, and he very candidly said that no, he wasn't that familiar with Boltzmann's statistics and didn't realize that he was doing the calculations differently. He was equally candid with anyone who asked.

Bose-Einstein condensate

Einstein also did not at first realize how radical Bose's departure was, and in his first paper after Bose, he was guided, like Bose, by the fact that the new method gave the right answer. But after Einstein's second paper using Bose's method in which Einstein predicted the Bose-Einstein condensate ( pictured left), he started to realize just how radical it was, and he compared it to wave/particle duality, saying that some particles didn't behave exactly like particles. Bose had already submitted his article to the British Journal Philosophical Magazine, which rejected it before he sent it to Einstein. It is not known why it was rejected.

Einstein adopted the idea and extended it to atoms. This led to the prediction of the existence of phenomena which became known as Bose-Einstein condensate, a dense collection of bosons (which are particles with integer spin, named after Bose), which was demonstrated to exist by experiment in 1995.

After his stay in Europe, Bose returned to Dhaka in 1926. He did not have a doctorate, and so ordinarily, under the prevailing regulations, he would not be qualified for the post of Professor he applied for, but Einstein recommended him. He was then made Head of the Department of Physics at Dhaka University. He continued guiding and teaching at Dhaka University.

Bose designed equipment himself for an X-ray crystallography laboratory. He set up laboratories and libraries to make the department a center of research in X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, magnetic properties of matter, optical spectroscopy, wireless, and unified field theories. He also published an equation of state for real gases with Meghnad Saha. He was also the Dean of the Faculty of Science at Dhaka University until 1945.

When the partition of India became imminent (1947), he returned to Calcutta (now known as Kolkata) and taught there until 1956. He insisted every student design his own equipment using local materials and local technicians. He was made professor emeritus on his retirement. He then became Vice-Chancellor of Visva-Bharati University in Santiniketan. He returned to the University of Calcutta to continue research in nuclear physics and complete earlier works in organic chemistry. In subsequent years, he worked in applied research such as extraction of helium in hot springs of Bakreshwar.

Apart from physics, he did some research in biotechnology and literature ( Bengali and English). He made deep studies in chemistry, geology, zoology, anthropology, engineering and other sciences. Being Bengali, he devoted significant time to promoting Bengali as a teaching language, translating scientific papers into it, and promoting the development of the region.

In 1937, Rabindranath Tagore dedicated his only book on science, Visva-Parichay, to Satyendra Nath Bose. Bose was honoured with title Padma Vibhushan by the Indian Government in 1954. In 1959, he was appointed as the National Professor, the highest honour in the country for a scholar, a position he held for 15 years. In 1986, the S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences was established by an act of Parliament, Government of India, in Salt Lake, Calcutta.

Bose became an adviser to the then newly formed Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. He was the president of the Indian Physical Society and the National Institute of Science. He was elected general president of the Indian Science Congress. He was the vice-president and then the president of Indian Statistical Institute. In 1958, he became a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was nominated as member of Rajya Sabha.

Bose's work stood at the transition between the 'old quantum theory' of Planck, Bohr and Einstein and the new quantum mechanics of Schrödinger, Heisenberg, Born, Dirac and others.

S.N. Bose was nominated by K. Banerji (1956), D.S. Kothari (1959), S.N. Bagchi (1962), and A.K. Dutta (1962) for the Nobel Prize in Physics, for his contribution to Bose-Einstein statistics and the unified field theory. For instance, Kedareswar Banerjee, head of the Physics Department, University of Allahabad, in a letter of 12 January 1956 wrote to the Nobel Committee as follows: "(1). He (Bose) made very outstanding contributions to physics by developing the statistics known after his name as Bose statistics. In recent years this statistics is found to be of profound importance in the classifications of fundamental particles and has contributed immensely to the development of nuclear physics. (2). During the period from 1953 to date, he has made a number of highly interesting contributions of far-reaching consequences on the subject of Einstein's Unitary Field Theory." Bose's work was evaluated by an expert of the Nobel Committee, Oskar Klein, who did see his work worthy of a Nobel Prize.

Bosons, a class of elementary subatomic particles in particle physics were named by Dirac after Satyendra Nath Bose to commemorate his contributions to science.

Although seven Nobel Prizes were awarded for research related to S N Bose's concepts of the boson, Bose-Einstein statistics and Bose-Einstein condensate, Bose himself was not awarded a Nobel Prize.

In his book The Scientific Edge, physicist Jayant Narlikar observed:

SN Bose's work on particle statistics (c. 1922), which clarified the behaviour of photons (the particles of light in an enclosure) and opened the door to new ideas on statistics of Microsystems that obey the rules of quantum theory, was one of the top ten achievements of 20th century Indian science and could be considered in the Nobel Prize class.

When Bose himself was once asked that question, he simply replied, "I have got all the recognition I deserve"- probably because in the realms of science to which he belonged, what is important is not a Nobel, but whether one's name will live on in scientific discussions in the decades to come. One of the main academic buildings of University of Rajshahi, the No 1 science building has recently been named after him.

Works (selection)

1. "S. N. Bose Biography Project". July 2012.

2. Mehra, J. (1975). "Satyendra Nath Bose 1 January 1894 - 4 February 1974". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 21: 116-126. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1975.0002. S2CID 72507392.

3. Barran, Michel, "Bose, Satyendranath (1894-1974)", Science world (biography), Wolfram.

4. ^ Mahanti, Dr Subodh. "Satyendra Nath Bose, The Creator of Quantum Statistics". IN: Vigyan Prasar.

5. ^ Farmelo, Graham, "The Strangest Man", Notes on Dirac's lecture Developments in Atomic Theory at Le Palais de la Découverte, 6 December 1945, UKNATARCHI Dirac Papers, p. 331, note 64, BW83/2/257889.

6. ^ Miller, Sean (18 March 2013). Strung Together: The Cultural Currency of String Theory as a Scientific Imaginary. University of Michigan Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-472-11866-3.

7. ^ Santimay Chatterjee; Enakshi Chatterjee (1976). Satyendra Nath Bose. National Book Trust, India. p. 12. Satyendra Nath was born in Calcutta on the first of January, 1894, in a high caste Kayastha family with two generations of English education behind him.

8. ^ Masters, Barry R. (April 2013). "Satyendra Nath Bose and Bose-Einstein Statistics" (PDF). Optics & Photonics News. 24 (4): 41. Bibcode:2013OptPN..24...40M. doi:10.1364/OPN.24.4.000040.

9. ^ Md Mahbub Murshed (2012), "Bose, Satyendra Nath", in Sirajul Islam and Ahmed A. Jamal (ed.), Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.), Asiatic Society of Bangladesh

10. Shanbhag, MR. "Scientist". Personalities. Calcutta web. Archived from the original on 2 August 2002.

11. O'Connor, JJ; Robertson, EF (October 2003). "Satyendranath Bose". The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. UK: St Andrew's.

12. ^ Shanbhag, MR. "Satyendra Nath Bose (January 1, 1894 - February 4, 1974)". Indian Statistical Institute.

13. A.Douglas Stone, Chapter 24, ^ The Indian Comet, in the book Einstein and the Quantum, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 2013.

14. Singh, Rajinder (2016) ^ India's Nobel Prize Nominators and Nominees - The Praxis of Nomination and Geographical Distribution, Shaker Publisher, Aachen, pp. 26-27. ISBN 978-3-8440-4315-0

15. Singh, Rajinder (2016) ^ Die Nobelpreise und die indische Elite, Shaker Verlag, Aachen, pp. 24-25. ISBN 978-3-8440-4429-4

16. Singh, Rajinder (2016) ^ Chemistry and Physics Nobel Prizes - India's Contribution, Shaker Verlag, Aachen. ISBN 978-3-8440-4669-4

17. ^ Narlikar, Jayant V (2003), The Scientific Edge: The Indian Scientist from Vedic to Modern Times, Penguin Books, p. 127, ISBN 978-0-14-303028-7 . The work of other 20th century Indian scientists which Narlikar considered to be of Nobel Prize class were Srinivasa Ramanujan, Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman and Megh Nad Saha.

Works by or about Satyendra Nath Bose at Internet Archive

Satyendra Nath Bose at the Encyclopædia Britannica

Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord...: The Science and Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 423-34, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 .

Saha; Srivasthava, Heat and thermodynamics.

Pitaevskii, Lev; Stringari, Sandro (2003), Bose-Einstein Condensation, Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Wali, Kameshwar C (2009), Satyendra Nath Bose: his life and times (selected works with commentary), Singapore: World Scientific, ISBN 978-981-279-070-5

O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Satyendra Nath Bose", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews

"Bosons - The Birds That Flock and Sing Together", Vigyan Prasar, IN, January 2002 (biography of Bose and Bose-Einstein Condensation).

The Quantum Indians: film on Bose, Raman and Saha on YouTube by Raja Choudhury and produced by PSBT and Indian Public Diplomacy.

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Satyendra Nath Bose (1 January 1894 - 4 February 1974) was an Indian mathematician and physicist specialising in theoretical physics. He is best known for his work on quantum mechanics in the early 1920,in developing the foundation for Bose statistics and the theory of the Bose condensate.

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A palaeobotanist who studied the fossils of the Indian subcontinent.

His major contributions were in the study of the fossil plants of India and in plant evolution.

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A nuclear physicist who is widely credited as the "father of the Indian nuclear programme".

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Homi Jehangir Bhabha (30 October 1909 - 24 January 1966) was an Indian nuclear physicist, founding director, and professor of physics at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). Colloquially known as "Father of the Indian nuclear programme", Bhabha was also the founding director of the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) which is now named the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in his honour. TIFR and AEET were the cornerstone of Indian development of nuclear weapons which Bhabha also supervised as director.

Bhabha was awarded the Adams Prize (1942) and Padma Bhushan (1954). He was also nominated for the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1951 and 1953-1956.

Homi Jehangir Bhabha was born into a prominent wealthy Parsi family, through which he was related to businessmen Dinshaw Maneckji Petit, and Dorabji Tata. He was born on 30 October 1909. His father was Jehangir Hormusji Bhabha, a well known Parsi lawyer and his mother was Meheren. He received his early studies at Bombay's Cathedral and John Connon School and entered Elphinstone College at age 15 after passing his Senior Cambridge Examination with Honours.

He then attended the Royal Institute of Science in 1927 before joining Caius College of Cambridge University. This was due to the insistence of his father and his uncle Dorabji, who planned for Bhabha to obtain a degree in mechanical engineering from Cambridge and then return to India, where he would join the Tata Steel or Tata Steel Mills in Jamshedpur as a metallurgist.

Bhabha's father understood his son's predicament, and he along with his wife agreed to finance his studies in mathematics provided that he obtain first class on his Mechanical Sciences Tripos exam. Bhabha took the Tripos exam in June 1930 and passed with first class. Afterwards, he excelled in his mathematical studies under Paul Dirac to complete the Mathematics Tripos. Meanwhile, he worked at the Cavendish Laboratory while working towards his doctorate in theoretical physics. At the time, the laboratory was the centre of a number of scientific breakthroughs. James Chadwick had discovered the neutron, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton transmuted lithium with high-energy protons, and Patrick Blackett and Giuseppe Occhialini used cloud chambers to demonstrate the production of electron pairs and showers by gamma radiation.

During the 1931-1932 academic year, Bhabha was awarded the Salomons Studentship in Engineering. In 1932, he obtained first-class on his Mathematical Tripos and was awarded the Rouse Ball travelling studentship in mathematics. During this time, nuclear physics was attracting the greatest minds and it was one of the most significant emerging fields as compared to theoretical physics, the opposition towards theoretical physics attacked the field because it was lenient towards theories rather than proving natural phenomenon through experiments. Conducting experiments on particles which also released enormous amounts of radiation, was a lifelong passion of Bhabha, and his leading-edge research and experiments brought great laurels to Indian physicists who particularly switched their fields to nuclear physics, one of the most notable being Piara Singh Gill.

Work in nuclear physics

In January 1933, Bhabha received his doctorate in nuclear physics after publishing his first scientific paper, " The Absorption of Cosmic radiation". In the publication, Bhabha offered an explanation of the absorption features and electron shower production in cosmic rays. The paper helped him win the Isaac Newton Studentship in 1934, which he held for the next three years. The following year, he completed his doctoral studies in theoretical physics under Ralph H. Fowler. During his studentship, he split his time working at Cambridge and with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen. In 1935, Bhabha published a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering. Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honour of his contributions in the field.

In 1936, with Walter Heitler, he co-authored a paper, "The Passage of Fast Electrons and the Theory of Cosmic Showers" in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which they used their theory to describe how primary cosmic rays from outer space interact with the upper atmosphere to produce particles observed at the ground level. Bhabha and Heitler then made numerical estimates of the number of electrons in the cascade process at different altitudes for different electron initiation energies. The calculations agreed with the experimental observations of cosmic ray showers made by Bruno Rossi and Pierre Victor Auger a few years before. Bhabha later concluded that observations of the properties of such particles would lead to the straightforward experimental verification of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. In 1937, Bhabha was awarded the Senior Studentship of the 1851 exhibition, which helped him continue his work at Cambridge until the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

In September 1939, Bhabha was in India for a brief holiday when World War II started, and he decided not to return to England for the time being. He accepted an offer to serve as the Reader in the Physics Department of the Indian Institute of Science, then headed by renowned physicist C. V. Raman. He received a special research grant from the Sir Dorab Tata Trust, which he used to establish the Cosmic Ray Research Unit at the Institute. Bhabha selected a few students, including Harish-Chandra, to work with him. Later, on 20 March 1941, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. With the help of J. R. D. Tata, he played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Mumbai.

Starting his nuclear physics career in Britain, Bhabha had returned to India for his annual vacation before the start of World War II in September 1939. War prompted him to remain in India and he accepted a post of reader in physics at the Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru, headed by Nobel laureate C.V. Raman. During this time, Bhabha played a key role in convincing the Congress Party's senior leaders, most notably Jawaharlal Nehru who later served as India's first Prime Minister, to start the ambitious nuclear programme. As part of this vision, Bhabha established the Cosmic Ray Research Unit at the Institute, began to work on the theory of point particles movement, while independently conducting research on nuclear weapons in 1944. In 1945, he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Bombay, and the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948, serving as its first chairman. In 1948, Nehru led the appointment of Bhabha as the director of the nuclear program and tasked Bhabha to develop the nuclear weapons soon after. In the 1950s, Bhabha represented India in IAEA conferences, and served as President of the United Nations Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva, Switzerland in 1955. During this time, he intensified his lobbying for the development of nuclear weapons. Soon after the Sino-Indo war, Bhabha aggressively and publicly began to call for the nuclear weapons.

Bhabha gained international prominence after deriving a correct expression for the probability of scattering positrons by electrons, a process now known as Bhabha scattering. His major contribution included his work on Compton scattering, R-process, and furthermore the advancement of nuclear physics. He was awarded Padma Bhushan by Government of India in 1954. He later served as the member of the Indian Cabinet's Scientific Advisory Committee and provided the pivotal role to Vikram Sarabhai to set up the Indian National Committee for Space Research. In January 1966, Bhabha died in a plane crash near Mont Blanc, while heading to Vienna, Austria to attend a meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency's Scientific Advisory Committee.

When Homi Jehangir Bhabha was working at the India Institute of Science, there was no institute in India which had the necessary facilities for original work in nuclear physics, cosmic rays, high energy physics, and other frontiers of knowledge in physics. This prompted him to send a proposal in March 1944 to the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust for establishing 'a vigorous school of research in fundamental physics'. In his proposal he wrote:

There is at the moment in India no big school of research in the fundamental problems of physics, both theoretical and experimental. There are, however, scattered all over India competent workers who are not doing as good work as they would do if brought together in one place under proper direction. It is absolutely in the interest of India to have a vigorous school of research in fundamental physics, for such a school forms the spearhead of research not only in less advanced branches of physics but also in problems of immediate practical application in industry. If much of the applied research done in India today is disappointing or of very inferior quality it is entirely due to the absence of sufficient number of outstanding pure research workers who would set the standard of good research and act on the directing boards in an advisory capacity ... Moreover, when nuclear energy has been successfully applied for power production in say a couple of decades from now, India will not have to look abroad for its experts but will find them ready at hand. I do not think that anyone acquainted with scientific development in other countries would deny the need in India for such a school as I propose. The subjects on which research and advanced teaching would be done would be theoretical physics, especially on fundamental problems and with special reference to cosmic rays and nuclear physics, and experimental research on cosmic rays. It is neither possible nor desirable to separate nuclear physics from cosmic rays since the two are closely connected theoretically.

The trustees of Sir Dorabji Jamsetji, Tata Trust, decided to accept Bhabha's proposal and financial responsibility for starting the Institute in April 1944. Bombay was chosen as the location as the Government of Bombay showed interest in becoming a joint founder of the proposed institute. The institute, named Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, was inaugurated in 1945 in 540 square meters of hired space in an existing building. In 1948 the Institute was moved into the old buildings of the Royal Yacht club.

When Bhabha realised that technology development for the atomic energy programme could no longer be carried out within TIFR he proposed to the government to build a new laboratory entirely devoted to this purpose. For this purpose, 1200 acres of land was acquired at Trombay from the Bombay Government. Thus the Atomic Energy Establishment Trombay (AEET) started functioning in 1954. The same year the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was also established. He represented India in International Atomic Energy Forums, and as President of the United Nations Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, in Geneva, Switzerland in 1955. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958.

Bhabha is generally acknowledged as the father of Indian nuclear power. Moreover, he is credited with formulating a strategy of focussing on extracting power from the country's vast thorium reserves rather than its meagre uranium reserves. This thorium focused strategy was in marked contrast to all other countries in the world. The approach proposed by Bhabha to achieve this strategic objective became India's three stage nuclear power programme.

Bhabha paraphrased the three-stage approach as follows:

The total reserves of thorium in India amount to over 500,000 tons in the readily extractable form, while the known reserves of uranium are less than a tenth of this. The aim of long range atomic power programme in India must therefore be to base the nuclear power generation as soon as possible on thorium rather than uranium... The first generation of atomic power stations based on natural uranium can only be used to start off an atomic power programme... The plutonium produced by the first generation power stations can be used in a second generation of power stations designed to produce electric power and convert thorium into U-233, or depleted uranium into more plutonium with breeding gain... The second generation of power stations may be regarded as an intermediate step for the breeder power stations of the third generation all of which would produce more U-238 than they burn in the course of producing power.

Bhabha was killed when Air India Flight 101 crashed near Mont Blanc on 24 January 1966. Misunderstanding between Geneva Airport and the pilot about the aircraft position near the mountain was stated as the official reason of the crash[citation needed ], but, many reports all over the world, including India, claimed that this accident was pre-planned by CIA to secretly assassinate the " Father of Indian Nuclear Programme" aka. Homi J. Bhabha ( an Indian Nuclear Physict).

Assassination theories

Many possible theories have been advanced for the air crash, including a claim the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was involved in order to paralyse India's nuclear program. An Indian diplomatic bag containing calendars and a personal letter was recovered near the crash site in 2012.

Gregory Douglas, a journalist who conducted telephone conversations with former CIA operative Robert Crowley for four years, published a book called Conversations with the Crow. Douglas claims that Crowley implied the CIA was responsible for assassinating Homi Bhabha. Crowley reportedly said that a bomb in the cargo section of the plane exploded mid-air, bringing down the commercial Boeing 707 airliner in Alps with few traces, describing it as "an unfortunate accident".

After his death, the Atomic Energy Establishment at Mumbai was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in his honour. In addition to being an able scientist and administrator, Bhabha was also a painter and a classical music and opera enthusiast, besides being an amateur botanist.[citation needed ] He is one of the most prominent scientists that India has ever had. Bhabha also encouraged research in electronics, space science, radio astronomy and microbiology.[citation needed ]

The famed radio telescope in Ooty, India was his initiative, and it became a reality in 1970. The Homi Bhabha Fellowship Council has been giving Homi Bhabha Fellowships since 1967. Other noted institutions in his name are the Homi Bhabha National Institute, an Indian deemed university and the Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Mumbai, India.

At Bhabha's death, his estate including Mehrangir, the sprawling colonial bungalow at Malabar Hill where he spent most of his life, was inherited by his brother Jamshed Bhabha. Jamshed, an avid patron of arts and culture, bequeathed the bungalow and its contents to the National Centre for the Performing Arts, which auctioned the property for Rs 372 crores in 2014 to raise funds for upkeep and development of the centre. The bungalow was demolished in June 2016 by the owner, Smita-Crishna Godrej of the Godrej family, despite some efforts to have it preserved as a memorial to Homi Bhabha.

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Homi Jehangir Bhabha (30 October 1909 - 24 January 1966) was an Indian nuclear physicist, founding director, and professor of physics at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). Colloquially known as "Father of the Indian nuclear programme", Bhabha was also the founding director of the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) which is now named the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in his honour.

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A British-American structural biologist.

Awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for research on the structure and function of ribosomes.

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Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (born 1952) is a British-American structural biologist. He shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada Yonath for research on the structure and function of ribosomes.

Since 1999, he has worked as a group leader at the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, UK and is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. He served as President of the Royal Society from 2015 to 2020.

Ramakrishnan was born in 1952 in Chidambaram in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, India.

His parents, Prof. C. V. Ramakrishnan and Prof. Rajalakshmi Ramakrishnan were both scientists, and his father was head of the department of biochemistry at the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. At the time of his birth, Ramakrishnan's father was away from India doing postdoctoral research with David E. Green at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the US. Ramakrishnan's mother obtained a PhD in psychology from McGill University in 1959, completing it in only 18 months, and was mentored, among others, by Donald O. Hebb.

Ramakrishnan has one sibling, his younger sister Lalita Ramakrishnan, who is professor of immunology and infectious diseases at the department of medicine, University of Cambridge, and a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

Ramakrishnan moved to Vadodara (previously also known as Baroda) in Gujarat at the age of three, where he had his entire schooling at the Convent of Jesus and Mary, except for a year and a half (1960-61) which he and his family spent in Adelaide, Australia. Following his pre-science at the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, he did his undergraduate studies in the same university on a National Science Talent Scholarship, graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in physics in 1971. At the time, the physics course at Baroda was new, and based in part on the Berkeley Physics Course and The Feynman Lectures on Physics.

Immediately after graduation he moved to the US, where he obtained his Doctor of Philosophy degree in physics from Ohio University in 1976 for research into the ferroelectric phase transition of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) supervised by Tomoyasu Tanaka. Then he spent two years studying biology as a graduate student at the University of California, San Diego while making a transition from theoretical physics to biology.

Ramakrishnan began work on ribosomes as a postdoctoral fellow with Peter Moore at Yale University. After his post-doctoral fellowship, he initially could not find a faculty position even though he had applied to about 50 universities in the United States.

He continued to work on ribosomes from 1983 to 1995 as a staff scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory.

In 1995, he moved to the University of Utah as a professor of biochemistry, and in 1999, he moved to his current position at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, England, where he had also been a sabbatical visitor during 1991-92 on a Guggenheim Fellowship.[citation needed ]

In 1999, Ramakrishnan's laboratory published a 5.5 angstrom resolution structure of the 30S subunit. The following year, his laboratory determined the complete molecular structure of the 30S subunit of the ribosome and its complexes with several antibiotics. This was followed by studies that provided structural insights into the mechanism that ensures the fidelity of protein biosynthesis. In 2007, his laboratory determined the atomic structure of the whole ribosome in complex with its tRNA and mRNA ligands. Since 2013, he has used Cryogenic electron microscopy to work primarily on eukaryotic and mitochondrial translation. Ramakrishnan is also known for his past work on histone and chromatin structure.

Presidency of the Royal Society

Ramakrishnan's term as president of the Royal Society from 2015-2020 was dominated by Brexit and, in his final year, the COVID-19 pandemic and its response. In an interview in July 2018, he said that Britain's decision to leave the European Union was hurting Britain's reputation as a good place to work in science, commenting "It's very hard for the science community to see any advantages in Brexit. They are pretty blunt about that." He saw advantages to both the UK and the EU for Britain to continue to be engaged in Galileo and Euratom, which, unlike the European Medicines Agency, are not EU agencies.

Ramakrishnan argued that a no-deal Brexit would harm science. Ramakrishnan wrote, "A deal on science is in the best interests of Europe as a whole and should not be sacrificed as collateral damage over disagreements on other issues. If we are going to successfully tackle global problems like climate change, human disease and food security, we can't do so in isolation. There is no scenario where trashing our relationships with our closest scientific collaborators in the EU gets us closer to these goals."

Awards and honours

Ramakrishnan at the Nobel Prize Press conference in 2009

The President, Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting Padma Vibhushan Award to Dr. Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, at the Civil Investiture Ceremony-I, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on March 31, 2010

Ramakrishnan was elected a Member of the European Molecular Biology Organization in 2002, a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2003, and a Member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 2004.

In 2007, Ramakrishnan was awarded the Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine and the Datta Lectureship and Medal of the Federation of European Biochemical Societies (FEBS).

Ramakrishnan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009, along with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada Yonath. He received India's second highest civilian honor, the Padma Vibhushan, in 2010.

In 2008, Ramakrishnan won the Heatley Medal of the British Biochemical Society, and became a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge and a foreign Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy. He has been a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina and an Honorary Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences (Hon FMedSci) since 2010.

He has received honorary degrees from the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, University of Utah and University of Cambridge. He is also an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Somerville College, Oxford, and The Queen's College, Oxford.

Ramakrishnan was knighted in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to molecular biology, but does not generally use the title "Sir". That same year, he was awarded the Sir Hans Krebs Medal by the FEBS. In 2014, he was awarded the XLVI Jiménez-Díaz Prize by the Fundación Conchita Rábago (Spain).

In 2017, Ramakrishnan received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

Ramakrishnan was included as one of 25 Greatest Global Living Indians by NDTV Channel, India on 14 December 2013.

His certificate of election to the Royal Society reads:

Ramakrishnan is internationally recognised for determination of the atomic structure of the 30S ribosomal subunit. Earlier he mapped the arrangement of proteins in the 30S subunit by neutron diffraction and solved X-ray structures of individual components and their RNA complexes. Fundamental insights came from his crystallographic studies of the complete 30S subunit. The atomic model included over 1500 bases of RNA and 20 associated proteins. The RNA interactions representing the P-site tRNA and the mRNA binding site were identified and the likely modes of action of many clinically important antibiotics determined. His most recent work goes to the heart of the decoding mechanism showing the 30S subunit complexed with poly-U mRNA and the stem-loop of the cognate phenylalanine tRNA. Anti-codon recognition leaves the " wobble" base free to accommodate certain non-Watson/Crick basepairs, thus providing an atomic description of both codon:anti-codon recognition and "wobble". He has also made substantial contributions to understanding how chromatin is organised, particularly the structure of linker histones and their role in higher order folding.

In 2020, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society and became a board member of The British Library.

Ramakrishnan was made a Member of the Order of Merit (OM) in 2022.

In 1975, Ramakrishnan married Vera Rosenberry, an author and illustrator of children's books. He has a step-daughter, Tanya Kapka, a physician specializing in public health and health-care delivery to under-served communities; and a son, Raman Ramakrishnan, a cellist specializing in chamber music.

1. ^

2. (Subscription or ^ Anon (2015). "Ramakrishnan, Sir Venkatraman". Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). A & C Black. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U45543. UK public library membership required.)

3. Ramakrishnan, Venkatraman; Tanaka, Tomoyasu (1977). "Green's-function theory of the ferroelectric phase transition in potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP)". Physical Review B. 16 (1): 422-426. Bibcode:1977PhRvB..16..422R. doi:10.1103/physrevb.16.422.

4. Cerf, Corinne; Lippens, Guy; Muyldermans, Serge; Segers, Alain; Ramakrishnan, V.; Wodak, Shoshana J.; Hallenga, Klaas; Wyns, Lode (1993). "Homo- and heteronuclear two-dimensional NMR". Biochemistry. 32 (42): 11345-11351. doi:10.1021/bi00093a011. PMID 8218199.

5. "No. 60009". The London Gazette (Supplement). 31 December 2011. p. 1.

6. Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine, jeantet.ch. Accessed 30 December 2022.

7. ^ Rodnina, Marina V.; Wintermeyer, Wolfgang (2010). "The ribosome goes Nobel". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 35 (1): 1-5. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2009.11.003. PMID 19962317.

8. ^ "Venkatraman_Ramakrishnan". University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 19 April 2015.

9. ^ Venkatraman Ramakrishnan Audio Interview Official Nobel Foundation website telephone interview

10. ^ Nair, Prashant (2011). "Profile of Venkatraman Ramakrishnan". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (38): 15676-15678. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10815676N. doi:10.1073/pnas.1113044108. PMC 3179092. PMID 21914843.

11. ^ "Biologist Venki Ramakrishnan to lead Royal Society". BBC News. London. 18 March 2015. Archived from the original on 10 October 2015.

12. ^ James, Nathan Rhys (2017). Structural insights into noncanonical mechanisms of translation. cam.ac.uk (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. doi:10.17863/CAM.13713. OCLC 1064932062. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.725540.

13. Venki Ramakrishnan ^ Official website

14. ^ Ramakrishnan, Venki (2018). Gene machine. The race to decipher the secrets of the ribosome. London: Oneworld. ISBN 9781786074362. OCLC 1080631601.

15. ^ Peplow, M. (2015). "Structural biologist named president of UK Royal Society". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2015.17153. S2CID 112623895.

16. ^ "Common root: Tamil Nadu gets its third laureate". Times of India. TNN. 8 October 2009.

17. ^ Ramakrishnan, Rajalakshmi (1959). Comparative Effects of Successive and Simultaneous Presentation on Transfer in Verbal Learning (PhD thesis). McGill University. ProQuest 301865011.

18. ^ "Lalita Ramakrishnan Home page in Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge".

19. ^ Ramakrishnan, Venkatraman (1976). The Green function theory of the ferroelectric phase transition in KDP (PhD thesis). Ohio University. OCLC 3079828. ProQuest 302809453.

20. ^

21. ^

22. ^

23. ^ "Nobel laureate Venkat Ramakrishnan failed IIT, medical entrance tests". The Times of India. 5 January 2010.

24. ^

25. ^ Fernández, Israel S.; Bai, Xiao-Chen; Hussain, Tanweer; Kelley, Ann C.; Lorsch, Jon R.; Ramakrishnan, V.; Scheres, Sjors H. W. (15 November 2013). "Molecular architecture of a eukaryotic translational initiation complex". Science. 342 (6160): 1240585. doi:10.1126/science.1240585. ISSN 1095-9203. PMC 3836175. PMID 24200810.

26. ^ Amunts, Alexey; Brown, Alan; Bai, Xiao-Chen; Llácer, Jose L.; Hussain, Tanweer; Emsley, Paul; Long, Fei; Murshudov, Garib; Scheres, Sjors H. W. (28 March 2014). "Structure of the yeast mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit". Science. 343 (6178): 1485-1489. Bibcode:2014Sci...343.1485A. doi:10.1126/science.1249410. ISSN 1095-9203. PMC 4046073. PMID 24675956.

27. ^ Venki Ramakrishnan publications indexed by Google Scholar

28. ^ Ramakrishnan, V.; Carter, Andrew P.; Clemons, William M.; Brodersen, Ditlev E.; Morgan-Warren, Robert J.; Wimberly, Brian T. (2000). "Functional insights from the structure of the 30S ribosomal subunit and its interactions with antibiotics". Nature. 407 (6802): 340-348. Bibcode:2000Natur.407..340C. doi:10.1038/35030019. PMID 11014183. S2CID 4408938.

29. ^ Ramakrishnan, V. (2002). "Ribosome Structure and the Mechanism of Translation". Cell. 108 (4): 557-572. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(02)00619-0. PMID 11909526. S2CID 2078757.

30. ^ Brodersen, Ditlev E.; Clemons, William M.; Carter, Andrew P.; Morgan-Warren, Robert J.; Wimberly, Brian T.; Ramakrishnan, V. (2000). "The Structural Basis for the Action of the Antibiotics Tetracycline, Pactamycin, and Hygromycin B on the 30S Ribosomal Subunit". Cell. 103 (7): 1143-1154. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)00216-6. PMID 11163189. S2CID 7763859.

31. ^ Ogle, James M.; Murphy, Frank V.; Tarry, Michael J.; Ramakrishnan, V. (2002). "Selection of tRNA by the Ribosome Requires a Transition from an Open to a Closed Form". Cell. 111 (5): 721-732. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(02)01086-3. PMID 12464183. S2CID 10784644.

32. ^ Clive Cookson (20 November 2020). "'Voice of British science fights for future of UK research'". The Financial Times.

33. ^ Ian Tucke (15 July 2018). "Venkatraman Ramakrishnan: 'Britain's reputation has been hurt'". The Guardian.

34. ^ A no-deal Brexit would be a disaster for the UK science community, The Independent. Accessed 30 December 2022.

35. ^ "The EMBO Pocket Directory" (PDF). European Molecular Biology Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2015.

36. ^ "Sir Venki Ramakrishnan FRS". London: Royal Society. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015.

37. ^ "This Year's Padma Awards announced" (Press release). Ministry of Home Affairs. 25 January 2010.

38. ^ "Honorary Fellows".

39. ^ "Emeritus and Honorary Fellows". Somerville College, Oxford.

40. ^ "Honorary & Supernumary Fellows". The Queen's College, Oxford.

41. ^

42. ^ "Venkatraman Ramakrishnan: Certificate of Election EC/2003/31". London: The Royal Society. 2003. Archived from the original on 5 May 2017.

43. ^ "The American Philosophical Society Welcomes New Members for 2020".

44. ^

45. ^ Amit Roy (17 October 2009). "'Venki' makes light of India link - Winner says not to treat science like cricket; league of misses grows". The Telegraph (Kolkata). Archived from the original on 22 October 2009.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (born 1952) is a British-American structural biologist. He shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada Yonath for research on the structure and function of ribosomes. Since 1999, he has worked as a group leader at the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, UK and is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

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An Indian physicist and astronomer who initiated space research and helped to develop nuclear power in India.

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Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai (12 August 1919 - 30 December 1971) was an Indian physicist and astronomer who initiated space research and helped develop nuclear power in India. He was honoured with Padma Bhushan in 1966 and the Padma Vibhushan (posthumously) in 1972. He is internationally regarded as the Father of the Indian Space Program.

Son of Ambalal Sarabhai, he came from the famous Sarabhai family of India who were major industrialists committed to the Indian independence movement. Vikram Sarabhai married the classical dancer Mrinalini in 1942. The couple had two children. His daughter Mallika gained prominence as an actress and activist, and his son Kartikeya too became an active person in science. During his lifetime, he practiced Jainism. He attended Gujarat College, Ahmedabad, but later moved to the University of Cambridge, England, where he took his tripos in natural sciences in 1940. In 1945 he returned to Cambridge to pursue a doctorate and wrote a thesis, "Cosmic Ray Investigations in Tropical Latitudes," in 1947.

Known as the cradle of space sciences in India, the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) was founded in 1947 by Vikram Sarabhai. PRL had a modest beginning at his residence, the "RETREAT", with research on cosmic rays.

The institute was formally established at the M.G. Science Institute, Ahmedabad, on 11 November 1947 with support from the Karmkshetra Educational Foundation and the Ahmedabad Education Society. Prof. Kalpathi Ramakrishna Ramanathan was the first Director of the institute. The initial focus was research on cosmic rays and the properties of the upper atmosphere. Research areas were expanded to include theoretical physics and radio physics later with grants from the Atomic Energy Commission.

He led the Sarabhai family-owned business conglomerate. His interests varied from science to sports to statistics. He set up the Operations Research Group (ORG), the first market research organization in the country. Most notable among the many institutes he helped set up are the Nehru Foundation for Development in Ahmedabad, the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (IIMA), the Ahmedabad Textile Industry's Research Association (ATIRA) and the (CEPT). Along with his wife Mrinalini Sarabhai, he founded the Darpana Academy of Performing Arts. Other projects and institutions initiated or established by him include the Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) in Kalpakkam, Variable Energy Cyclotron Project in Calcutta, Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) in Hyderabad and Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) in Jaduguda, Jharkhand.

Sarabhai started a project for the fabrication and launch of an Indian satellite. As a result, the first Indian satellite, Aryabhata, was put in orbit in 1975 from a Russian cosmodrome. He was the founder of Indian Space Research Organisation.

On 30 December 1971, Sarabhai was to review the SLV design before his departure for Bombay the same night. He had spoken to A. P .J. Abdul Kalam on the telephone. Within an hour of the conversation, Sarabhai died at the age of 52 due to cardiac arrest in Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram). His body was cremated in Ahmedabad.

The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, (VSSC), which is the Indian Space Research Organization's lead facility for launch vehicle development located in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), capital of Kerala state, is named in his memory.

Along with other Ahmedabad-based industrialists, he played a major role in setting up of the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

Indian Postal Department released a commemorative Postal Stamp On his first death anniversary (30 December 1972)

In 1973, the International Astronomical Union decided that a lunar crater, Bessel A, in the Sea of Serenity will be known as the Sarabhai crater.

The lander on India's moon mission Chandrayaan-2 which was to land near the South Pole of the moon on Sep 20, 2019 was named Vikram in his honour.

Vikram A Sarabhai Community Science Centre (VASCSC) located in Ahmedabad, Gujarat is named after him. Vikram Sarabhai established this institute around the 1960s.

Former World Quiz Champion Vikram Joshi was named after him.

A Space Museum was dedicated to him at B M Birla Science Centre, Hyderabad on 26 July 2019. The museum was curated by Pranav Sharma.

On 12 August 2019, Google's Doodle for India commemorated Sarabhai's 100th birth anniversary.

On his 100th birthday on 12 August 2019, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) announced an award in the name of Vikram Sarabhai. The Vikram Sarabhai Journalism award in Space Science Technology and Research will be given to those journalists who have contributed to the fields of space science, applications, and research.

On 30 September 2020, ACK Media along with ISRO released a book namely, Vikram Sarabhai: Pioneering India's Space Programme. It was released in Amar Chitra Katha's digital platform and merchandise, ACK Comics.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai (12 August 1919 - 30 December 1971) was an Indian physicist and astronomer who initiated space research and helped develop nuclear power in India. He was honoured with Padma Bhushan in 1966 and the Padma Vibhushan (posthumously) in 1972. He is internationally regarded as the Father of the Indian Space Program.

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An Indian-American biochemist.

He shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for research that showed the order of nucleotides in nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code of the cell and control the cell's synthesis of proteins.

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An astronaut and aerospace engineer who was the first woman of Indian origin to fly to space.

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A British professor of Leukocyte and Stem Cell Biology at Imperial College London.

She is neurodivergent - dyslexic and dyspraxic.

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A British Nobel Prize-winning chemist who advanced the technique of X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of biomolecules, which became essential for structural biology.

She suffered from rheumatoid arthritis, which led to her needing to use a wheelchair.

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A British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author.

The first person to set out a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics.

Hawking suffered an early-onset, slow-progressing form of motor neurone disease.