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2022 (MMXXII, na numeração romana) foi um ano comum do século XXI que começou num sábado, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical foi B. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorreu a 1 de março e o domingo de Páscoa a 17 de abril. Segundo o horóscopo chinês, foi o ano do Tigre, começando a 1 de fevereiro.

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Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

2022 ( MMXXII, na numeração romana) é um ano comum do século XXI que começou num sábado, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical é B. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorre a 1 de março e o domingo de Páscoa a 17 de abril. Segundo o horóscopo chinês, é o ano do Tigre, começando a 1 de fevereiro.

Ano completo

Ano comum com início ao sábado

1 de janeiro:

Sismo de magnitude 4,4 é registrado em Olhão, Faro, Portugal.

As obras de Godofredo Rangel e outros autores brasileiros e europeus que faleceram em 1951 entram em domínio público.

A Parceria Regional Económica Abrangente, a maior área de livre comércio do mundo, entra em vigor nos seguintes países: Austrália, Brunei, Camboja, China, Japão, Laos, Nova Zelândia, Singapura, Tailândia e Vietname.

2 de janeiro:

Protestos no Cazaquistão eclodem depois de um corte dos subsídios sobre derivados de petróleo, tomando força inicialmente nas grandes cidades industriais do país; e se ampliando a cidades menores. Os protestos ganharam um conteúdo político anti-governo, denunciando o caráter oligárquico e autoritário que vêm sendo assumido pelo Estado. Confrontos entre manifestantes e forças policiais se intensificaram, causando até o momento dezenas de mortes entre policiais; e há relatos de centenas de civis assassinados.

Fortes chuvas causam inundações na Indonésia e Malásia, atingindo a ilha de Sumatra, na Indonésia, principalmente as províncias de Achém e Jambi, onde mais de 30.000 pessoas foram deslocadas; e pelo menos duas crianças morreram até o momento. Na Malásia, as chuvas também forçaram pelo menos 13.000 pessoas a buscarem abrigos, com relatos de pelo menos 50 mortes, atingindo principalmente os estados de Selangor, Johor e Melaka.

8 de janeiro:

10 de janeiro - Acontece o primeiro transplante de coração com sucesso de um porco para um humano.

19 de janeiro - Nas eleições gerais nos Barbados, o Partido Trabalhista ganha todos os 30 assentos na Câmara Baixa pela segunda vez consecutiva.

20 de janeiro - Morre a cantora Elza Soares, aos 91 anos.

21 de janeiro - Tempestade tropical Ana causa destruição e 88 mortes na África Austral.

30 de janeiro - Eleições legislativas em Portugal, com uma vitória histórica do Partido Socialista obtendo uma maioria absoluta. Resultando na reeleição de António Costa para primeiro-ministro.

Março

1 de abril - Sorteio dos grupos para a Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2022, no Catar.

10 de abril - Primeiro turno das Eleições presidenciais da França 2022.

24 de abril - Segundo turno das Eleições presidenciais da França 2022.

10 a 14 de maio - Realização do 66º Festival Eurovisão da Canção em Turim, Itália.

26 de maio - Primeiro turno das eleições presidenciais na Colômbia.

2 de junho - Jubileu de Platina da Rainha Elizabeth II que marca o 70.º aniversário da sua ascensão ao trono do Reino Unido, Canadá, Austrália e Nova Zelândia.

19 de junho - Segundo turno das eleições presidenciais na Colômbia.

15 a 24 de julho - Campeonato Mundial de Atletismo de 2022, realizado em Eugene, nos EUA.

16 e 17 de julho - Rio+30, a Conferência das Nações Unidas sobre Desenvolvimento Sustentável, será realizada no Rio de Janeiro.

26 de agosto a 11 de setembro - Campeonato Mundial de Voleibol Masculino 2022, a ser realizado na Rússia.

7 de setembro - O Brasil comemorará o bicentenário da sua Independência de Portugal.

22 de setembro a 2 de outubro - Mundial de Basquete Feminino de 2022, a ser realizado em Sydney, na Austrália.

23 de setembro a 15 de outubro - Campeonato Mundial de Voleibol Feminino 2022, a serem realizados na Holanda e Polônia.

2 de outubro - Eleições gerais no Brasil - Primeiro turno para presidente da República e governadores, além da votação para senadores, deputados federais, estaduais e distritais.

30 de outubro - Eleições gerais no Brasil - Segundo turno das eleições para presidente da República e governadores.

21 de novembro a 18 de dezembro - Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2022, a ser realizada no Catar.

Agosto a dezembro - A OMS deverá decretar o fim da Pandemia de Covid-19.

Epacta gregoriana

27 (XXVII)

Idade da Lua

Letra H

Por tema

Referências

Ligações externas

Media relacionados com 2022 no Wikimedia Commons

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Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. 2022 ( MMXXII, na numeração romana) é um ano comum do século XXI que começou num sábado, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical é B. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorre a 1 de março e o domingo de Páscoa a 17 de abril.

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Regina Silveira

Walls, 2022

NFT

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2018 (MMXVIII, na numeração romana) foi um ano comum do século XXI que começou numa segunda-feira, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical foi G. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorreu a 13 de fevereiro e o domingo de Páscoa a 1 de abril. Segundo o horóscopo chinês, foi o ano do Cão, começando a 16 de fevereiro.

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Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

2018 ( MMXVIII, na numeração romana) foi um ano comum do século XXI que começou numa segunda-feira, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical foi G. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorreu a 13 de fevereiro e o domingo de Páscoa a 1 de abril. Segundo o horóscopo chinês, foi o ano do Cão, começando a 16 de fevereiro.

Ano completo

Ano comum com início à segunda-feira

Março

10 de julho - O time de futebol amador Javalis Selvagens, foi resgatado, após 3 dias consecutivos de trabalho, do complexo de cavernas de Tham Luang, em Chiang Rai, norte da Tailândia. Por 17 dias, o treinador de 25 anos junto de mais 12 garotos da equipe, de 11 a 16 anos, ficaram aprisionados estando praticamente sem comida e na escuridão, após serem surpreendidos por uma tempestade, que inundou os túneis do complexo, deixando-os impedidos de retornarem.

15 de julho - Final da Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2018, realizada na Rússia: a França conquista seu bicampeonato.

27 de julho - Raro eclipse total da Lua é o mais longo do século XXI com 103 minutos de duração.

2 de setembro - Um incêndio de grandes proporções atingiu os três andares do prédio do Museu Nacional, no Rio de Janeiro.

6 de setembro - O deputado federal e candidato à Presidência da República do Brasil Jair Bolsonaro sofreu um atentado durante sua campanha eleitoral no município de Juiz de Fora, em Minas Gerais. O presidenciável foi atingido no abdômen por uma facada deferida por Adélio Bispo de Oliveira e necessitou realizar uma cirurgia emergencial.

19 de setembro - O Tufão Mangkhut deixou 81 mortos e muita destruição nas Filipinas. Na China, Mangkhut, faz 2,45 milhões de pessoas abandonarem suas casas.

20 de setembro - Balsa tanzaniana naufragou no Lago Vitória, matando ao menos 227 pessoas.

28 de setembro - Uma série de sismos na ilha Celebes, Indonésia, atingiram magnitude de 7,5, gerando tsunami de até 2 metros na região de Palu, resultando em mais de 2 mil mortos, mais de 10 mil feridos e mais de 5 mil desaparecidos.

Ficção

Epacta gregoriana

13 (XIII)

Idade da Lua

Letra n

Por tema

Ver também

Media relacionados com 2018 no Wikimedia Commons

Referências

1. ↑ "'Glee' Star Mark Salling Dead at 35 From Suicide by Hanging (UPDATE)". TMZ (em inglês)

2. ↑ "Vereadora Marielle Franco é assassinada no Rio". Uol. 14 de Março de 2018

3. ↑ "Pedro Pablo Kuczynski apresenta renúncia à presidência do Peru". G1. 23 de março de 2018

4. ↑ "Águas de Março expulsam seca de Portugal"

5. ↑ "Aliados fazem ataque limitado a Assad. Rússia avisa que haverá "consequências"". Público.pt

6. ↑ a b

7. ↑ "Julho de 2018: Eventos astronômicos". revistagalileu.globo.com. Arquivado do original em 17 de Julho de 2018

8. ↑ "Suprema Corte da Índia decide descriminalizar a homossexualidade no país". G1. 6 de setembro de 2018

9. ↑ Constança Rezende (6 de setembro de 2018). "Bolsonaro é esfaqueado durante ato de campanha". Estadão. Cópia arquivada em 7 de setembro de 2018

10. ↑ Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell Arquivado em 13 de agosto de 2018, no Wayback Machine. Universidade de Cardiff. Acessado em 5 de maio de 2012.

11. ↑ Universe - Jocelyn Bell Burnell Arquivado em 13 de agosto de 2018, no Wayback Machine. BBC. Retrieved 27 October 2011.

12. ↑ "Calendário Eleitoral 2018 | Eleições 2018 Brasil TSE Apuração e Resultados". www.2018eleicoes.com.br (em inglês). TSE. Arquivado do original em 24 de novembro de 2017

13. ↑ Chou, Felicia; Hawkes, Alison; Cofield, Calia (30 de outubro de 2018). "NASA Retires Kepler Space Telescope". NASA

14. ↑ Overbye, Dennis (30 de outubro de 2018). "Kepler, the Little NASA Spacecraft That Could, No Longer Can". The New York Times

15. ↑ Brown, Dwayne; Wendel, JoAnna; McCartney, Gretchen (1 de novembro de 2018). "NASA's Dawn Mission to Asteroid Belt Comes to End". NASA

16. ↑ Rodrigues, Bruno (12 de janeiro de 2015). "A maioridade de "O pequeno príncipe"". Conta uma história

17. ↑ Bom Dia Cidade (13 de dezembro de 2018). "Ataque na Catedral: quinta vítima do atirador de Campinas é velada em Indaiatuba". G1. Cópia arquivada em 13 de dezembro de 2018

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Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. 2018 ( MMXVIII, na numeração romana) foi um ano comum do século XXI que começou numa segunda-feira, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical foi G. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorreu a 13 de fevereiro e o domingo de Páscoa a 1 de abril.

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2017 (MMXVII, na numeração romana) foi um ano comum do século XXI que começou num domingo, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical foi A. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorreu a 28 de fevereiro e o domingo de Páscoa a 16 de abril. Segundo o horóscopo chinês, foi o ano do Galo, começando a 28 de janeiro.

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2017 ( MMXVII, na numeração romana) foi um ano comum do que começou num domingo, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical foi A. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorreu a 28 de fevereiro e o domingo de Páscoa a 16 de abril. Segundo o horóscopo chinês, foi o ano do Galo, começando a 28 de janeiro.

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Regina Silveira

Odisseia, 2017

ambiente imersivo em realidade virtual

dimensões variáveis

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Odisseia
2017
Ambiente imersivo em realidade virtual
Regina Silveira
em colaboração com:
Marcos Cuzziol - Coordenação Técnica e Algoritmo Genético
Ambiente Virtual - Odair Gaspar
Ambientação Sonora - Eduardo Verderame
Programação - Kenzo Okamura
Estudos em 3D - Rodrigo Barbosa

_________________________________________________

Odisseia

O convite para criar uma simulação imersiva derivou da parceria celebrada entre o Itaú Cultural e o HLRS- High Performance Computing Center, da Universidade de Stuttgart, em meados de 2016. Em termos técnicos, o desafio implicado no convite foi o de ir além das possibilidades locais, com os recursos estendidos por este centro de excelência internacional em pesquisas cientificas envolvendo alta tecnologia. Em termos artísticos, o desafio era propôr uma invenção que pudesse ousar mais, auxiliada por esses recursos, em obra que deveria ser, antes de tudo, uma experiência reflexiva e poética.
Longamente imaginada e minuciosamente composta em conjunto com diversas mentes, sensibilidades e competências - uma circunstância comum a obras desta natureza- a virtualidade proposta é Odisseia, desenvolvida em termos de estreita colaboração técnico-criativa com o Itaú Cultural.
Odisseia propõe uma jornada sem retorno, ambientada em céu diurno, aberto e infinito, onde um grande cubo opera como nave espacial transparente. Com entradas e saídas em cada face e uma disponibilidade alternada de caminhos, Odisséia pretende ser a experiência de uma passagem - física e ao mesmo tempo subjetiva - pelo interior de um espaço vítreo e labiríntico, onde é possível caminhar sem gravidade em direção às possíveis saídas do cubo/nave.
Desde os primeiros sketches e modelos em 3D, elaborados para investigar as possibilidades de percorrer virtualmente hipercubos labirínticos, até chegar à narrativa que a obra agora propõe, o projeto técnico foi gradualmente mostrando a necessidade de usar o poder de processamento proporcionado pela conexão com Stuttgart. A definição dos labirintos, sua localização e tamanho, uma escolha de natureza estética, ficou a cargo de algoritmos genéticos executados no supercomputador Cray XC-40 do HLRS. Em Odisseia, a aplicação desses algoritmos às possibilidades de uma narrativa que constantemente muda os acessos e os corredores do cubo/nave, responde por características que são em si mesmas indagações sobre a consciência e decisões autônomas dos computadores.
A condição de não poder voltar aos espaços já percorridos é causada pelos próprios participantes, cujos passos inapelavelmente trituram, quebram e esfacelam as superfícies transparentes que subdividem os espaços interiores dos labirintos percorridos, em busca de uma saída que os leve de volta ao céu, sempre entrevisto através da quadricula que recobre tudo.
Não haverá outra alternativa que seguir adiante, pois voltar atrás será ficar em suspensão inquietante no interior do grande invólucro transparente e vazio, onde permanecem apenas fragmentos de corredores quebrados. O jogo é simples, mas difícil: entrar no céu, cruzar o labirinto e sair dele para o céu...

Regina Silveira

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Odisseia 2017 Ambiente imersivo em realidade virtual Regina Silveira em colaboração com: Marcos Cuzziol - Coordenação Técnica e Algoritmo Genético Ambiente Virtual - Odair Gaspar Ambientação Sonora - Eduardo Verderame Programação - Kenzo Okamura Estudos em 3D - Rodrigo Barbosa _________________________________________________ Odisseia O convite para criar uma simulação imersiva derivou da parceria celebrada entre o Itaú Cultural e o HLRS- High Performance Computing Center, da Universidade de Stuttgart, em meados de 2016.

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Regina Silveira
15 Laberintos, 1971
serigrafia sobre papel
39 x 45,5 cm (cada)

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15 Laberintos 1971 Serigrafia sobre papel / serigraphy on paper 39 x 45,5 cm

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Regina Silveira

Borders, 2018

ambiente imersivo em realidade virtual, placas de linóleo e LED

140 x 140 m

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Borders
2018
Ambiente imersivo em realidade virtual, placas de linóleo e LED/ Immersive virtual reality environment, linoleum tiles with LED
140 x 140m
Coleção Itaú Cultural/ Itaú Cultural Collection
Foto/ Photo: Eduardo Verderame

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Regina Silveira

Infinities, 2017

ambiente imersivo em realidade virtual

dimensões variáveis

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Maurits Cornelis Escher (1898-1972) is one of the world’s most famous graphic artists. His art is admired by millions of people worldwide, as can be seen by the many websites on the internet.

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Maurits Cornelis Escher (1898-1972) is one of the world's most famous graphic artists. His art is admired by millions of people worldwide, as can be seen by the many websites on the internet.

He is born in Leeuwarden as the fourth and youngest son. After five years the family moves to Arnhem, where he spends most of his youth. After he has failed his final exam, and after a short interlude in Delft, M.C. Escher starts with his lessons in architecture at the School of Architecture and Decorative Arts in Haarlem.
Already after a week he informs his father that he wants to quit his architecture lessons and focus on studying graphic arts. He is supported in this by his teacher Samuel Jesserun de Mesquita, to whom he has shown his drawings and linocuts.

After completing his school, he travels for a long time through Italy, where he meets his wife Jetta Umiker and whom he marries in 1924. They go to Rome, where they live until 1935. During these 11 years M.C. Escher travels every year through Italy where he makes drawings and sketches that he later uses in his studio for his lithographs, woodcuts and wood engravings.

For example, the background in the lithograph Waterfall (1961) comes from his Italian period. The trees that are reflected in the woodcut Puddle(1952) are also the same trees that he uses in his woodcut Pineta by Calvi, made in 1932.

During the time that he lives and works in Italy, he makes beautiful, also more realistic works such as the Castrovalva litho in which one can see already his fascination for perspective: close, far, high and low. Likewise is the lithograph Atrani, a small town on the Amalfi coast in Italy, which he makes in 1931 and comes back in his masterpieces Metamorphosis I and II.

He is most famous for his so-called impossible drawings, such as Ascending and Descending and Relativity, but also for his metamorphoses, such as Metamorphosis I, II and III, Air and Water I and Reptiles.

During his lifetime, Escher made 448 lithographs, woodcuts and wood engravings and more than 2000 drawings and sketches. Just like some of his famous predecessors - Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Dürer and Holbein - Escher is left-handed.
In addition to his work as a graphic artist, he illustrates books, designs carpets and banknotes, stamps, murals, intarsia panels etc.
M.C. Escher is fascinated by the regular geometric figures of the wall and floor mosaics in the Alhambra, a fourteenth-century castle in Granada, Spain, which he visits in 1922 and 1936.

During his years in Switzerland and throughout the Second World War, he works with great energy on his hobby. He then makes 62 of the 137 symmetrical drawings he will make in his life. He also expands his hobby by using these symmetrical drawings for cutting wooden balls.

He plays with architecture, perspective and impossible spaces. His art continues to amaze and wonder millions of people around the world. In his work we recognize his excellent observation of the world around us and the expression of his own fantasy. M.C. Escher shows us that reality is wonderful, understandable and fascinating.

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Maurits Cornelis Escher (1898-1972) is one of the world's most famous graphic artists. His art is admired by millions of people worldwide, as can be seen by the many websites on the internet. He is born in Leeuwarden as the fourth and youngest son.

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Nascido em Veneza em 1720, filho de um construtor, Piranesi recebeu formação em cenografia e perspectiva com o gravador Carlo Zucchi. Arquiteto e amante da arqueologia, dedicou-se à gravação dos grandes monumentos da Antiguidade romana, realizando um trabalho de grande magnitude e força expressiva num estilo livre, cenográfico e impetuoso. Suas gravuras são modeladas pela luz, em perspectiva manipulada, que trasborda por vezes a quadratura das mesmas.

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Homme de lettres, membre de l'Académie française, auteur et réalisateur de films, Alain Robbe-Grillet est né en 1922 (Brest) et décédé en 2008. Avant de se consacrer aux lettres et à la réalisation de films, Alain Robbe-Grillet, diplômé de l'Institut national agronomique, est chargé de mission à l'Institut national de la statistique à Paris (1945-1948), et ingénieur à l'Institut de fruits et agrumes coloniaux (au Maroc, en Guinée française, à la Martinique et à la Guadeloupe). Par ailleurs, en parallèle à son activité d'auteur et de réalisateur, il est conseiller littéraire des éditions de Minuit (1955-1985) ; membre du Haut Comité pour la défense et l'expansion de la langue française (1966-1968) ; professeur à New York University, à Washington University, et directeur du Centre de sociologie de la littérature à l'université de Bruxelles (1980-1988). Grand nom de la littérature française du XXe siècle, Alain Robbe-Grillet fut le chantre et le pape du Nouveau Roman, courant littéraire des années 1950-1970. Officier de la Légion d'honneur, de l'ordre national du Mérite et des Arts et des Lettres, l'Académie française lui ouvre ses portes en 2004.

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Homme de lettres, membre de l’Académie française, auteur et réalisateur de films, Alain Robbe-Grillet est né en 1922 (Brest) et décédé en 2008....

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Julio Cortázar. (Bruselas –Bélgica–, 26 de agosto de 1914 - París –Francia–, 12 de febrero de 1984). Escritor, profesor y guionista.

Hijo de padres argentinos. Su padre fue destinado a la Embajada de Argentina en Bélgica. Su familia se refugia en Suiza durante la Primera Guerra Mundial hasta 1918, que regresan a Buenos Aires (Argentina). Obtiene el título de maestro en 1932.

Se identifica con el Surrealismo a través del estudio de autores franceses. Sus obras se reconocen por su alto nivel intelectual y por su forma de tratar los sentimientos y las emociones. Fue un gran seguidor de Jorge Luis Borges.

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Julio Cortázar. (Bruselas -Bélgica-, 26 de agosto de 1914 - París -Francia-, 12 de febrero de 1984). Escritor, profesor y guionista.

Hijo de padres argentinos. Su padre fue destinado a la Embajada de Argentina en Bélgica. Su familia se refugia en Suiza durante la Primera Guerra Mundial hasta 1918, que regresan a Buenos Aires (Argentina). Obtiene el título de maestro en 1932.

Se identifica con el Surrealismo a través del estudio de autores franceses. Sus obras se reconocen por su alto nivel intelectual y por su forma de tratar los sentimientos y las emociones. Fue un gran seguidor de Jorge Luis Borges.

En 1935 comienza la carrera de Filosofía y Letras, da clases y publica estudios de crítica literaria. De esta época es conocida su colección de sonetos Presencia (1938), que publica bajo el seudónimo de Julio Denis.

En los años cuarenta, por problemas políticos, tiene que abandonar su puesto de profesor en la universidad, y comienza la publicación de artículos y relatos en revistas literarias. Tras conseguir el título de traductor oficial de inglés y francés se traslada a París, donde trabaja como traductor de la UNESCO.

En 1951 comienza su exilio. Dedica su vida a viajar, pero reside principalmente en París. Las traducciones que realiza de Edgar Allan Poe (entre otros) influyen en su obra, como por ejemplo en su colección de relatos Bestiario (1951).

A pesar de haber realizado distintas publicaciones durante todos estos años, no se hace famoso hasta la publicación de Rayuela (1963), su obra maestra que refunda el género.

Cortázar destaca por sus misceláneas o del género "almanaque", donde mezcla narrativa, crónica, poesía y ensayo, como por ejemplo en La vuelta al día en ochenta mundos (1967) y 62, modelo para armar (1968).

El viaje que realiza a Cuba en los sesenta, le marca tanto que comienza su andadura política. Apoya a líderes políticos como Fidel Castro, Salvador Allende o Carlos Fonseca Amador. Forma parte del Tribunal Internacional Russell, que estudiaba las violaciones de Derechos Humanos en Hispanoamérica. En su Libro de Manuel (1973), queda reflejado su compromiso político.

En los años siguientes se destacan los poemas Pameos y meopas (1971), los relatos de Octaedro (1974) y Queremos tanto a Glenda (1980) o Un tal Lucas (1979) y Los autonautas de la cosmopista (1983) de su obra miscelánea. Éste último fue escrito en colaboración con su tercera y última esposa, Carol Dunlop. En 1984, recibe el Premio Konex de Honor en Argentina.

Poco antes de fallecer, publica su libro de poemas Salvo el crepúsculo (1984) y los artículos Argentina, años de alambradas culturales (1984).

En 1996, se publica póstumamente su ensayo Imagen de John Keats y en el 2009 aparece Papeles inesperados, una obra miscelánea encontrada por su primera esposa, Aurora Bernárdez.
Fecha de actualización: agosto de 2015

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Julio Cortázar. Departamento de Bibliotecas y Documentación del Instituto Cervantes

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Cursos de español, cultura española, información en español, Todo sobre el español en España y en el mundo, Instituto Cervantes, Julio Cortázar

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Jorge Luis Borges Acevedo. (Buenos Aires, 24 de agosto de 1899 - Ginebra, Suiza, 14 de junio de 1986). Poeta, ensayista y escritor argentino.

Estudia en Ginebra e Inglaterra. Vive en España desde 1919 hasta su regreso a Argentina en 1921. Colabora en revistas literarias, francesas y españolas, donde publica ensayos y manifiestos.

De regreso a Argentina, participa con Macedonio Fernández en la fundación de las revistas Prisma y Prosa y firma el primer manifiesto ultraísta. En 1923 publica su primer libro de poemas, Fervor de Buenos Aires, y en 1935 Historia universal de la infamia, compuesto por una serie de relatos breves (formato que utilizará en publicaciones posteriores).

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Jorge Luis Borges Acevedo. (Buenos Aires, 24 de agosto de 1899 - Ginebra, Suiza, 14 de junio de 1986). Poeta, ensayista y escritor argentino.

Estudia en Ginebra e Inglaterra. Vive en España desde 1919 hasta su regreso a Argentina en 1921. Colabora en revistas literarias, francesas y españolas, donde publica ensayos y manifiestos.

De regreso a Argentina, participa con Macedonio Fernández en la fundación de las revistas Prisma y Prosa y firma el primer manifiesto ultraísta. En 1923 publica su primer libro de poemas, Fervor de Buenos Aires, y en 1935 Historia universal de la infamia, compuesto por una serie de relatos breves (formato que utilizará en publicaciones posteriores).

Durante los años treinta su fama crece en Argentina y publica diversas obras en colaboración con Bioy Casares, de entre las que cabe subrayar Antología de la literatura fantástica. Durante estos años su actividad literaria se amplía con la crítica literaria y la traducción de autores como Virginia Woolf, Henri Michaux o William Faulkner.

Es bibliotecario en Buenos Aires de 1937 a 1945, conferenciante y profesor de literatura inglesa en la Universidad de Buenos Aires, presidente de la Sociedad Argentina de Escritores, miembro de la Academia Argentina de las Letras y director de la Biblioteca Nacional de Argentina desde 1955 hasta 1974. En 1961 comparte con Samuel Beckett el Premio Formentor, otorgado por el Congreso Internacional de Editores. Desde 1964 publica indistintamente en verso y en prosa.

Borges utiliza un singular estilo literario, basado en la interpretación de conceptos como los de tiempo, espacio, destino o realidad. La simbología que utiliza remite a los autores que más le influencian -William Shakespeare, Thomas De Quincey, Rudyard Kipling o Joseph Conrad-, además de la Biblia, la Cábala judía, las primigenias literaturas europeas, la literatura clásica y la filosofía.

Publica libros de poesía como El otro, el mismo, Elogio de la sombra, El oro de los tigres, La rosa profunda, La moneda de hierro y cultiva la prosa en títulos como El informe de Brodie y El libro de arena. En estos años Borges también publica libros en los que se mezclan prosa y verso, libros que aúnan el teatro, la poesía y los cuentos; ejemplos de esta fusión son títulos como La cifra y Los conjurados.
La importancia de su obra se ve reconocida con el Premio Miguel de Cervantes en 1979.
Fecha de actualización: mayo de 2022.

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Jorge Luis Borges. Departamento de Bibliotecas y Documentación del Instituto Cervantes

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Cursos de español, cultura española, radio Cervantes, información en español,español en España y en el mundo, Instituto Cervantes, Jorge Luis Borges

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Dennis Oppenheim (September 6, 1938 – January 21, 2011) was an American conceptual artist, performance artist, earth artist, sculptor and photographer. Dennis Oppenheim's early artistic practice is an epistemological questioning about the nature of art, the making of art and the definition of art: a meta-art that arose when strategies of the Minimalists were expanded to focus on site and context. As well as an aesthetic agenda, the work progressed from perceptions of the physical properties of the gallery to the social and political context, largely taking the form of permanent public sculpture in the last two decades of a highly prolific career, whose diversity could exasperate his critics.

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Born in 1931 in Kansas City, Missouri, Robert Morris turned to art and art criticism after studying engineering, eventually writing a 1966 master’s thesis on Constantin Brancusi at Hunter College, New York. Since then, Morris has continued to write influential critical essays, four of which serve as a thumbnail chronology of his most important work: task-oriented dance (“Some Notes on Dance,” 1965), Minimalist sculpture (“Notes on Sculpture,” 1968), Process art (“Anti Form,” 1968), and Earthworks (“Aligned with Nazca,” 1975).

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Visit the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed Guggenheim Museum in NYC, part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. See the renowned permanent collection and special exhibitions.

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Joe Tilson is a British artist and fellow of the Royal Academy. He is one of the leading figures associated with the British Pop Art movement in the 1960s and was an enthusiastic proponent of political activism, sexual liberation, and social change.

Tilson studied at St. Martin’s School of Art and at the Royal College of Art in the 1950s alongside Peter Blake, Allen Jones, Patrick Caulfield and David Hockney. In 1955 the Royal College awarded Tilson the Rome Prize, taking him to live in Italy for a year, a country from which he has drawn a lifetime of inspiration.

Exhibiting globally since the 1960s, Tilson's work is held in collections including the Tate, London; Museum of Modern Art, New York; Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Moderna, Rome; The Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon; and Walker Art Center, Minneapolis.

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Sir Richard Julian Long, (born 2 June 1945) is an English sculptor and one of the best-known British land artists.

Long is the only artist to have been short-listed four times for the Turner Prize. He was nominated in 1984, 1987 and 1988, and then won the award in 1989 for White Water Line. He lives and works in Bristol, the city in which he was born.

Long studied at Saint Martin's School of Art before going on to create work using various media including sculpture, photography and text. His work is on permanent display in Britain at the Tate and Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery as well as galleries in America, Switzerland, and Australia.

Long's work has broadened the idea of sculpture to be a part of performance art and conceptual art. His work typically is made of earth, rock, mud, stone and other nature-based materials. In exhibitions his work is typically displayed with the materials or through documentary photographs of his performances and experiences.

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Sir Richard Julian Long, (born 2 June 1945) is an English sculptor and one of the best-known British land artists.

Long is the only artist to have been short-listed four times for the Turner Prize. He was nominated in 1984, 1987 and 1988, and then won the award in 1989 for White Water Line. He lives and works in Bristol, the city in which he was born.

Long studied at Saint Martin's School of Art before going on to create work using various media including sculpture, photography and text. His work is on permanent display in Britain at the Tate and Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery as well as galleries in America, Switzerland and Australia.

Long's work has broadened the idea of sculpture to be a part of performance art and conceptual art. His work typically is made of earth, rock, mud, stone and other nature based materials. In exhibitions his work is typically displayed with the materials or through documentary photographs of his performances and experiences.

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Artist page for Richard Long CBE (born 1945)

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Terry Fox (b. 1943 Seattle – d. 2008 Cologne) was one of the leading pioneers of American Body Art and Conceptual art. He became famous in the Seventies with performances in which he used his own body as a medium for exploring often extreme physical and psychological experiences. In numerous installations, actions and street events he directed a heightened attention to everyday phenomena and aspects of social interactions. Fox researched both unknown and little regarded aspects of energy in substances, and the transformative qualities of materials. And from the 1980s on, language, as both substance and meaning, would play an increasingly important role in his space related works and objects.

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Regina Scalzilli Silveira (Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 1939). Artista multimídia, gravadora, pintora e professora. Com diferentes linguagens, sua obra explora temas que passam pela composição da imagem, pela reinvenção da representação, pelo poder e pela política.

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Regina Scalzilli Silveira (Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 1939). Artista multimídia, gravadora, pintora e professora. Com diferentes linguagens, sua obra explora temas que passam pela composição da imagem, pela reinvenção da representação, pelo poder e pela política.

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1971 (MCMLXXI, na numeração romana) foi um ano comum do século XX que começou numa sexta-feira, segundo o calendário gregoriano. A sua letra dominical foi C. A terça-feira de Carnaval ocorreu a 23 de fevereiro e o domingo de Páscoa a 11 de abril. Segundo o horóscopo chinês, foi o ano do Porco, começando a 27 de janeiro.

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Páginas para editores sem sessão iniciada

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Ancient and medieval labyrinths embody paradox, according to Penelope Reed Doob. Their structure allows a double perspective—the baffling, fragmented prospect confronting the maze-treader within, and the comprehensive vision available to those without. Mazes simultaneously assert order and chaos, artistry and confusion, articulated clarity and bewildering complexity, perfected pattern and hesitant process. In this handsomely illustrated book, Doob reconstructs from a variety of literary and visual sources the idea of the labyrinth from the classical period through the Middle Ages.

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Professor Emerita of Dance, English and Women’s Studies at York University. The recipient of Woodrow Wilson, Kent and Guggenheim Fellowships, her teaching and research included medieval and Renaissance studies, dance history and criticism, sexual stereotypes in opera, literature and dance, and non-fiction writing.

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For over 50 years, Artforum has remained the leading contemporary art magazine. In addition to exploring contemporary art, Artforum covers fashion, film, photography, architecture, and music, lending a unique perspective to the broad range of today's popular culture.

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ONE MORNING this past spring, a small volume arrived in my mailbox. At first I was mystified by the unexpected gift. The book isn't a catalogue. It isn't a memoir. It isn't strictly prose. Nor is it wholly poetry. Across its ninety-seven pages, Directions to My House includes diaristic fragments, poems, family photographs, and reproductions of artworks. These scattered components, alternately deadpan and personal, add up to a provisional portrait of their elusive author: the "Indian" artist Zarina (surname: Hashmi-though she prefers to be known by her given name).

Zarina's book, written with

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ONE MORNING this past spring, a small volume arrived in my mailbox. At first I was mystified by the unexpected gift. The book isn't a catalogue. It isn't a memoir. It isn't strictly prose. Nor is it wholly poetry. Across its ninety-seven pages, Directions to My House includes diaristic fragments, poems, family photographs, and reproductions of artworks.

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Labyrinths: Tradition and Contemporary Works

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Labyrinths: Tradition and Contemporary Works

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Since the late 1960s an astonishing number of artists, especially in the U.S. and England, have dealt with the concept of the labyrinth. These artistic formulations have been followed by attempts at scientific reconstruction through exhibitions and essays. These tentative starts remain unsatisfactory because, among other reasons, the authors possessed no clear concept of the labyrinth and no overall view of the labyrinth symbol’s different manifestations in its 5000-year history. But such knowledge is necessary since we are not, after all, being confronted with original, new creations in contemporary labyrinth works, but rather. with the more or less conscious, more or less creative continuation of ancient tradition. The recent work can be understood and assessed only against the background of that tradition.

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SINCE THE LATE 1960s an astonishing number of artists, especially in the U.S. and England, have dealt with the concept of the labyrinth. ¹ These artistic formulations have been followed by attempts at scientific reconstruction through exhibitions ² and essays. ³ These tentative starts remain unsatisfactory because, among other reasons, the authors possessed no clear concept of the labyrinth ⁴ and no overall view of the labyrinth symbol's different manifestations in its 5000-year history. But such knowledge is necessary since we are not, after all, being confronted with original, new creations in contemporary labyrinth works, but rather. with the more or less conscious, more or less creative continuation of ancient tradition. The recent work can be understood and assessed only against the background of that tradition.

In referring to the labyrinth as symbol, and in referring to its history, I have addressed a problem that is crucial not only for the authors and artists concerned, but also for contemporary art in general: the relation of artistic innovation and communication to the linguistic functions of the work of art. Beginning with the earliest roots of modernism, since Cézanne at the latest, artists have been judged more or less favorably according to the degree of innovation in their work; that is to say, judged according to the scope and significance of their newly formulated perceptions. Thus, an artist ⁵ is considered important if his or her work allows for expansion, for the construction of new areas of reality through a new visual vocabulary, a new visual syntax. The more radically the artist accomplishes this, the less understandable the work-until the audience has learned the new language. On the other hand, whenever artists revert to traditional symbols, they can be understood immediately, but they tread within the domain of anonymous, generalized visual language, and the question of authorship and personal merit-so important in the contemporary art scene-is raised to no greater extent than in the case of a folk song or fairy tale. This fact appears to be a major problem in contemporary approaches to primary symbols, and to cultural tradition in general. To return to the topic under scrutiny here, it seems to me that the expressive power of the labyrinth far exceeds the formulative faculty of most artists.

Clearly, I have anticipated a conclusion, and owe the reader some substantiation for it. I will therefore first take up the question of what, exactly, a labyrinth is. ⁶ References to certain historical manifestations will follow this definition, to facilitate understanding of contemporary formulations, which will then be discussed. It goes without saying that within the constraints of this format I cannot go into elaborate historical detail. ⁷

In current usage, the word "labyrinth" has three different meanings:

1. Metaphor: Used to refer to a difficult, complex or confusing situation. The concept of the labyrinth was used in this figurative, proverbial sense in the languages of antiquity as early as the 4th century B.C.; it can be traced back to the concept of the . . .

2. Maze: Many reports in antiquity about labyrinths provide a basis for this concept of the labyrinth (a system of tangled paths) as a literary motif. The visitor to this kind of structure (building or garden) has a choice of many paths that can subsequently lead into blind alleys and confusion. The earliest visual formulation of a maze is not to be found until 1550 A.D. ⁸ In remarkable contrast to the widespread literary evidence in antiquity and the Middle Ages, all visual representations of labyrinths until the time of Mannerism show but a single path-that is, they offer no possibility of confusion. The present discussion is devoted to this visual formulation, to the . . .

3. Labyrinth in the true sense of the word: In literature this visually unequivocal term has had the concept of "maze" superimposed on it since antiquity. The two concepts, extremely different in form and content, have been thus intermingled, and not until the 20th century has there been an attempt to untangle the conceptual confusion.

The labyrinth as graphic, linear figure can best be formally defined as a geometric figure, with a round or rectangular external border, that makes sense only when regarded as an architectural plan, from above. In so doing, the observer would interpret the lines as boundary walls and the strip left open between them as a path (in mythology, Ariadne's thread). The walls themselves are not essential; their function is only to outline the path, to determine choreographically the pattern of movement. Movement begins at a small opening in the outer wall and proceeds, after many detours that entail traversing the entire inner space, to the center. In contrast to the maze, the labyrinth path has no intersections and offers no possibility of choice; it therefore leads inevitably to the center, and ends there. The only blind alley in a labyrinth thus lies at its center. There, visitors must reverse their walking direction and can return to the outside only if they turn around and retrace, as their exit path, the path by which they entered.

This concept, demonstrable in the Mediterranean area since the Third Millennium B.C. (and also found later elsewhere in Europe; in India, Java and Sumatra; and in the southwestern part of the U.S. among the Hopi, Pueblo, Navaho, Pima and Papago), has been expressed in three forms:

1. As dance figuration-a fixed element of group choreography whereby a chain of dancers whose individual members, holding hands or grasping a rope (Ariadne's thread), proceed through the windings of the labyrinth. I am convinced that the renowned labyrinth of Crete was nothing other than Ariadne's ingenious dancing place, described by Homer in the Iliad, chapter 18; its labyrinthine walls and paths could well have been inlaid in the (marble) floor.

2. As literary tradition. ⁹

3. As visual formulation-the subject of this essay.

The labyrinth is probably the most perfect embodiment of the initiation process. An inner space is isolated from its surroundings by a separating wall that runs all around it. There is only a single, small entrance. The inner space is visible on the plan, but at first glance it seems terrifyingly complex. Understanding the configuration and making the decision to enter requires a certain degree of maturity. Physical discipline and social adaptability (for the group dance) are also needed to master the complexity of the movement pattern. Beyond the entrance, the "detour principle" begins. The available inner space is filled with the greatest possible number of paths, thus maximizing the time lost and the physical strain endured on the way to the goal. There is, as well, psychic stress involved in the recognition that one approaches within striking distance of the goal over and over again, only to be led away from it. The path to the center leaves no choice; anyone who can withstand the strain inevitably reaches the center. The experience is thus based on rules, and is not hinged upon the subjective or the arbitrary. Alone at the center each person encounters himself or herself, a divine principle, a Minotaur, or whatever else the "center" may stand for.

The center signifies the place and opportunity for a perception so fundamental that it demands a basic change in direction. To get out of the labyrinth, one must first turn around, and then return along the very path by which one entered. A change in direction of 180° means the greatest possible disassociation from the past. This is not just a negation, or the cancellation of the inward path. Such an interpretation would be adequate only if one could perceive the way out from the same orientation as one perceived the way in. The crucial experience, however, occurs in between. Turning around at the center not only means abandoning a previous existence, but also it means making a new beginning. Anyone leaving the labyrinth leaves it not as the old Adam, but as a being reborn in a new existence (phase, level). Death and rebirth occur at the center, and symbolize the transition from one form of existence to another (higher) one.

One of the most important transition rites ¹⁰ is initiation, the "entirety of rites and oral instructions, intended to change basically the religious and social life of the person waiting for initiation." ¹¹ The principal instances of initiation are puberty rites, which give access to a certain age/class, to the ranks of sexually mature, socially responsible adults. Initiations also give admission to secret societies, and take place prior to the consecration of priests or to the enthronement of monarchs. Elements of initiation have been retained in Christian baptism, but without the ordeals that would determine if the novice is equal to the requirements of the new status. Death, as symbolized in the ritual, means the end of a previous existence: the novice is reborn in a new form of being.

The death and rebirth aspect of the labyrinth concept is also evident in the swing of the pendulum-the constant change in direction from left (against the supposed solar movement, i.e., death) to right (with the sun, i.e., life). Anyone entering the labyrinth is enclosed, isolated, shut off from previous surroundings-in a sense, dead. The path away from the previous existence, into confinement, signifies the path toward death. It is no accident that the earliest examples of labyrinths-rock drawings from the Bronze Age-are to be found in a grave (Luzzanas, Sardinia), and in connection with mining (Tintagel, England and Galicia, Spain). In all these the subjects must tread the dangerous way back to the bosom of Mother Earth. Return to the womb, regression to embryo, re-emergence through narrow passages, through the narrow portal: such birth symbolism is implicit in the very form and narrowness of the passage. This is not an arbitrary association-it is clear that in India the labyrinth is supposed, magically, to facilitate birth, and that in the U.S. among the Hopi it symbolizes birth and rebirth.

Initiation signifies symbolic death and rebirth. But even actual physiological death can be understood as a transformation, as a transition to a new existence. The way into the labyrinth represents the path to the underworld, whereby the return to Mother Earth is combined with the hope for rebirth. The way inward, into the labyrinth, then also means the way downward, into the viscera terrae. In this duality, I see one of the ways in which ideas from cave cults might have been transmitted to the idea of the labyrinth. Considering this close relationship to both death and rebirth, it seems only plausible that the Trojan game-of Etruscan-Roman culture-of moving on horseback in a labyrinthine pattern was celebrated on two kinds of occasions: at the founding (birth) of a city, and at funeral ceremonies. ¹² Also in support of this is the purported depiction by Daedalus of a labyrinth on the portal of the Temple of Apollo at Cumae, ¹³ where the huge grotto, the abyss and genital cleft of Mother Earth, revealed the entrance to Hades. Thus, if the labyrinth stands as symbol for death and rebirth, this must mean that we should expect the labyrinth concept to occur only in cultures that hope for life after death.

Reference has already been made to the fact that, according to Vergil, the Trojan game with its labyrinthine riding tracks was celebrated when cities were founded-to be more precise, when their walls were erected. Here, too, an interior space is meticulously separated from its surroundings; here, too, a kind of "birth" is involved, that of a community. The process of delineation, self-recognition, and self-definition is no longer restricted to the individual but pertains to the community as well. When the labyrinth figure was performed by equestrians upon completion of the walls, the defensive function of those walls was supposedly then strengthened with magic. The importance of this concept to the Romans can be deduced from the fact that almost all Roman mosaics of labyrinths show, in various decorative depictions of the Trojan game, a fortified city. In addition, these mosaics were often placed in the vicinity of house entrances to ward off evil influences. This kind of protective magic is found again in the placement of labyrinths near the west portals of northern French cathedrals, in Indian threshold drawings, as amulets, as an order of battle ( cakra vyūha) and as tattooing patterns. Hildburgh is certainly right, then, when he refers to the labyrinth as "one of the oldest apotropaic symbols." ¹⁴ At its root is the notion that evil spirits can fly only straight ahead and cannot find their way through the windings of a labyrinth, implying that an attacker would be confused, fatigued, deceived, and diverted by the complexity. This idea seems subsequently to have influenced the Italian architects Filarete (ca. 1400-ca. 1469) and Francesco de 'Marchi (1599), who proposed the building of fortifications on the ground plan of a labyrinth. The figure of an enclosing prison, cited even earlier by Plutarch, ¹⁵ corresponds to this positive protective action, and it is to be found again in the "fortress" of the demon prince Ravana who imprisons Sītā, wife of the Indian god Rama within this labyrinth. In a metaphoric sense, we also find this idea in the use of the labyrinth as a secretive device, whereby strategy remains concealed in a person's breast, just as the Minotaur is hidden in the labyrinth.

Seen in this framework, the "City/Labyrinth" motif appears to be but a special case of the general protective magic of the labyrinth. However, judging from the Roman mosaics and medieval Jericho labyrinths, the labyrinth becomes the symbol for the "city" itself, implying far more than simply protection. In Roman pagan times the labyrinth was identified with Troy, the archetypal city; in Judaic tradition it is identified with the archetypal city of Jericho. The remarkable circumstances of Joshua's conquest of Jericho, ¹⁶ and the reinterpretation of this tradition in late antique Judaic-Syriac thought, make it possible to conclude that the labyrinthine movement was understood as potentially harmful magic. A late reference to this antique notion of the city occurred in the 13th century, when the Arabic geographer Al-Qazwīnī asserted that the city of Constantinople once had a labyrinth as its ground plan. When it is also remembered that the four sectors of Roman mosaic labyrinths correspond to the Roma quadrata, that the city, as sacred territory, represents an image of the world, then a cosmological perspective opens up not only for the city/labyrinth, but for the figure of the labyrinth in general.

In the 9th and 10th centuries the pagan labyrinth figure was adopted by Christianity in various phases, as can be seen in numerous manuscript representations. At the conclusion of this development there is a pathway, which I will call the "Chartres" type after its most beautiful example. This labyrinth formation is found not only on the floor of the central nave of the cathedral of Chartres, but in numerous other Gothic churches in Italy and Northern France; and in England it was cut into lawns. Instead of the seven windings of the Cretan type, there are now 11, a number that, according to medieval numeric symbolism, refers to "sin." ¹⁷ Its orientation-the entrance is always on the west, facing the sunset (death)-also shows the significance of the labyrinth as the image of a sinful, God-alienated world. The cross, of axes and semi-axes laid over concentric circles, symbolizes the Christian hope for salvation. Accordingly, the path through the labyrinth can be understood as a path through the sinful world toward salvation. There are numerous emblems that have this meaning, including the notable micrographic drawing by H.R. Seyrl. The labyrinth also became the symbol for private and public dilemmas, the "Love Labyrinths" alluding to erotic involvements, and the "Labyrinth of Alchemy" referring to the perils of the "Great Work" of alchemical transmutation.

So much for historical evidence. When one looks at the contemporary situation, it is astonishing how strong the interest still is in a concept that one could assume had, in the course of millennia, been exhaustively explored. On the contrary, this labyrinth concept continues to proliferate, and the interest it holds for artists has, as usual, only anticipated the attention of a broader public. There are probably numerous reasons for this phenomenon. The labyrinth is surrounded by an aura of the mysterious and has probably been carried along by the interest in the occult with its rising flood of publications on all possible (and impossible) "secrets" and "mysteries." ¹⁸ Interest in ancient cultures in general has also increased, as is demonstrated by (among other things) the unbelievable success of large-scale cultural exhibitions. One can also recognize in this a criticism by the public of current conditions, a turning away from thoroughly rationalized life structures, in which human existence disintegrates into thousands of separate categories. At any rate, I see in this preoccupation with the labyrinth a great yearning for sense-enhancing unity; the labyrinthine way is seen as the way of individuation, as regeneration, as sense-enhancement through unification and concentration.

Assessing contemporary production is not easy. One generalization can be made right away-that most of the works, except those of Ugo Dossi and Terry Fox, have a pronounced referential character. The observer is confronted with a formulation that is familiar, in this or in a similar form. Appeal is made initially to historical awareness, to the pleasure of erudition and recognition, to interest in the meanings conveyed by the labyrinth concept. This is a positive mode of reception, but one that does not have very much to do with art-that is, with creative visual thinking. By contrast, anyone interested in the artistic aspect of the work will look for specific differences: How does this contemporary formulation differ from older ones? In what way is it contemporary? Which current questions and experiences have contributed to the result? To what extent do artists have the right to call labyrinth works their own?

We are living in an era of Alexandrian learning. one with almost unrestricted access to even the most remote sources. Artists, too, make use of this cultural inheritance, but, naturally, they achieve their own results.

Some works show at first glance that they are nothing but reproductions or, at best, expanded older works. Their intellectual nutritive value is correspondingly low, and it is even doubtful that they are original works-as defined by contemporary art ideas-at all. When Richard Long, whom I otherwise esteem, lays out a stone labyrinth like Connemara Sculpture, 1971, that corresponds, stone for stone, to the "Troy Town" on St. Agnes, ²⁰ he has not made a work of art, but of craft. ²¹ Hundreds of such "Troy Towns"-that is, labyrinths made of fist-to-head-sized stones set down side by side-can be found to this day in the Baltic region, particularly on the coasts of Scandinavia. They can be traced back to the late Middle Ages, though typologically they may reach as far back as the Bronze Age, or possibly even the Neolithic period.

In the case of Joe Tilson the dependence on prototypes is not quite as great, but his numerous labyrinth works also adhere to older formulations. ²² But he translates them into wooden reliefs or paintings that recall Jasper Johns' palette, and sometimes also that of Frank Stella. Tilson has been involved with alchemy and Oriental philosophy since 1970, and was inspired to make his labyrinth works by visits to Chartres and to Crete, where he made the association of labyrinth and cave ²³ (hence his reference to "EARTH").

Robert Morris does not present any invention of his own either, but rather a composite of older originals. His labyrinth construction of 1974 ²⁴ is nothing more than a church labyrinth of the (modified) Chartres type, in which the walls have been elevated to the third dimension, as was proposed by Maso Finiguerra around 1460 ²⁵ and by the Master of the Cassoni Campana around 1500. Inevitably the visitor has a feeling of isolation, a feeling of being imprisoned; associations also can be made with Bruce Nauman, who as early as 1970-71 created the impressive "Corridor Pieces." ²⁶

Three-dimensional, large labyrinths or mazes, as kinetic experiences for the visitor, have been realized or proposed by Alice Aycock, ²⁷ Haral Oroschakoff, Richard Fleischner ²⁸ and John Willenbecher; of these, Willenbecher ²⁹ has advanced farthest toward a new formal solution.

So much for the composite paraphrases and variations on an old theme. With Dennis Oppenheim there is a new aspect. He, too, adheres to an established type; namely, to the scheme of a laboratory maze, ³⁰ whereby the faculty for orientation and learning ability of animals or humans can be examined. In the artist's words:
I congealed this notion of trenches by constructing a maze with hay bales on a country field. I took a very basic laboratory structure from a psychology text, repeated it with hay bales, and magnified it incredibly-I think it was 500'x1000'. Instead of using mice, I used cattle. My interest was in systems, employing in this case cattle, because this maze would function almost as a laboratory set up on a grandiose scale. The interesting thing was that the structure-a very definite series of connecting lines and shapes-like a drawing-would be partially internalized by cattle. The food source, corn, was contained in one area. The cows stampeded through the maze in search of it. In solving the maze they learned it. They digested the information that they were housed in essentially.³¹
The enlargement of this scheme to dimensions of around 500 feet by 1000 feet is as minor a creative gesture as is the use of cattle instead of mice as test objects. What is interesting, however, is the concept that energy-flows motivate this experimental arrangement:

. . . My concern was the distribution of energy. I was dealing with the notion of energy in a sculptural sense-the distribution of energy and time in Maze, when in fact the real work was that other thing. It was a kind of camouflage.

Patrick Ireland ³² calls the work that is illustrated here Labyrinth. In reality, though, it is neither a labyrinth nor a maze, but his use of a mirror connects the work to fun-house mirror labyrinths.

Ugo Dossi, who lives in Munich and Milan, proceeds from a completely different notion of the labyrinth. He is interested in systems of conceptual association within the stream of consciousness. He is concerned with compartmentalization, with the network-forming structures of association, which he concretized in 1975 in a work involving 190 separate sheets, ³³ a "garden of paths, which branch off." ³⁴ This concept of the labyrinth as combination-game is first found in late antiquity, and later with particular clarity in the "Metric Labyrinth" of the 17th century. This kind of labyrinth is close in concept to the improvisatory music of John Cage. It does not appear to me to be conclusively formulated.

The labyrinth works of Terry Fox are also happily unconventional, a successful conversion of old structures. In 1972-1978 he worked almost exclusively with the Chartres-type model, which he made the point of departure for a great variety of works. ³⁵ He did not restrict himself by assuming and reproducing a finished structure, but rather broke it down into components-11 circular passages, 34 turning points, 552 steps-that he incorporated as characteristics into his formally varied works. His labyrinth became a musical score, through which he did justice to the implied movement of the figure and to its choreographic function, setting up a new basis for discussion. Fox describes his procedure as follows:
While in Europe in 1972, he adopted the design of the Labyrinth of the Cathedral of Chartres as the blueprint for all objects and drawings and most performances and sound work from 1972-1978. In 1978 he finished this series of work by placing a labyrinth cut in stone in the pavement of a public square, the "Podio del Mondo, per L'arte," in Middleberg, Holland. This stone was placed with the aid of a local dowser who found the exact spot for it over subterranean moving water, like the actual labyrinth at Chartres. All the objects made in this period concerning the labyrinth are in the collection of the University Art Museum in Berkeley. . . . Two sound works based specifically on the configuration of the labyrinth were "The labyrinth scored for the purrs of 11 cats" and "552 steps through 11 pairs of strings," both from 1976. For the former Fox recorded 8 continuous minutes of purring from 11 different cats. These were then mixed to follow the exact path of the labyrinth, by allowing 10 seconds of time to represent each of the 552 steps into the labyrinth, with one cat representing each of the 11 concentric rings and 10 seconds of overlapping purrs to represent the 34 turns. The tape follows in stereo the path of the labyrinth with the center represented by the simultaneous purring of all 11 cats. This 90 minute tape was produced in New York at Z.B.S. The other work, "552 steps through 11 pairs of strings" was a performance in the artist's loft in San Francisco in which he stretched 11 pairs of piano wire of 11 different thicknesses across the wooden floor of his studio. These were anchored by turnbuckles for tuning and stretched over wooden bridges. The whole took the shape of a giant harp with the longest pair of strings being 34 feet and the shortest 3 feet. These pairs of wires represented the 11 concentric rings of the labyrinth and were played with a mallet in one hand, and a score in the other. The score was a 34 foot string tied with 552 knots, each knot representing an actual step in the labyrinth with the 34 turns indicated by either a piece of wire on a knot (meaning a move to the next longer pair of strings) or a rubber band around a knot (a move to the next shorter pair). This 41/2-hour performance was done with the audience in the dark loft below, the sound coming in waves from their ceiling which was also Fox's floor.³⁶
With respect to his labyrinth object, Fox states:
In order to grasp the object, you need to make a few visual adjustments. Imagine the lower stool to be half embedded in the earth and pretend an underground river flows along the floor and through the center of the stool. A well rises from the river along the string to ground level, half way up the stool. This well is covered by a dolmen made of large stones. Its vertical stone walls support a single massive stone as roof, under such tremendous pressure that it is taut and resonant. This dolmen is in turn covered by an enormous mound of earth whose apex lies under the object at the center of the string. On top of this mound is a huge stone bell, the Cathedral of Chartres, whose vault reaches to the seat of the top stool. The string connects the vault with the water table of the underground river. In the center of the string, exactly 37 meters from the top of the vault and 37 meters from the water table of the well, is the labyrinth. This labyrinth is connected by the string to the powerful currents both in the underground river and in the atmosphere surrounding the roof of the cathedral. These currents pass as vibrations along the string from both ends to the center of the labyrinth. The labyrinth is 40 feet in diameter with a path of blue and white stones leading 300 yards into the center and back. This course flows in 34 turns through eleven concentric rings for 552 steps and leads to a large white stone in the center. There is a piton connected to a metal ring embedded in the first step of the labyrinth, and a red Maltese cross is painted on the vault above. Movement through the labyrinth forms a pattern in the air tracing a beautiful triptych of interconnecting crosses.³⁷
To conclude these observations, I have some information for all my jogging friends about the history of their important movement, a history that remains to be written. In the 19th century there was "labyrinth jogging." There really is nothing new under the sun.
Dr. Hermann Kern, director of the Kunstraum München, has organized numerous exhibitions on international avant-garde art and cultural history. For the past five years he has been working on an exhibition of "Labyrinths," which will open in June, 1981, in the Palazzo della Permanente in Milan. This article was translated from the German by Malcolm G. Leybourne.
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NOTES

1. I am familiar with labyrinth works by 25 artists and three maze designers.

2. "Labyrinth: Symbol and Meaning in Contemporary Art," Watson Gallery, Wheaton College, Norton, Mass., Sept 4-October 1975; subsequently shown at the Philadelphia College of Art, accompanied by a 32-page catalogue no illustrations, text by Ronald J. Onorato and Alice T. Friedman "Doolhoven en Labyrinth," Kultureel Sentrum Tilburg. Netherlands, Sept 9-Oct 4. 1978 (short catalogue with anonymous text). The excellent exhibition, "Labyrinths," Berlin/Baden-Baden/Nürnberg, 1966-1967, does not belong to this context since it did not address contemporary labyrinths, as is clear from the subtitle, "Fantastic Art from the 16th century up to the present" (104 page catalogue, numerous illustrations, text by Eberhard Roters and Heinz Ladendorf)

3. Ronald J. Onorato, "The Modern Maze," Art International, Vol. XX. No 4-5, April May 1976 pp 21-25 (text from the Catalogue of Wheaton College, 1975, somewhat supplemented). Janet Kardon, "Janet Kardon interviews some Modern Maze-Makers, ibid., pp. 64-68 The essay by Walter Gaudnek. "Polymorphism in Painting through the Use of a Labyrinth," in Leonardo, Vol. 3, 1970, pp. 149-158, refers only to the artistic experiences of the author and uses the term "labyrinth" only in a metaphorical and informal manner, not in the strict and literal sense required here.

4. As seen in the works of among others, such artists as Will Insley, Tony Smith and Charles Simonds, who have not created labyrinths, but have made various complex structures-a fact that does not lustily the designation "labyrinth."

5. At this point, I would like to leave the question open as to whether or not this frequently used epithet is not too one-sided.

6. Anyone interested in further information should refer to my comprehensive "Manual of Labyrinths" which will appear first in Italian in May 1981, in a slightly abbreviated version, as the catalogue for the "Labyrinth" exhibition organized by me for the City of Milan ("Labirinti," approx 500 pp., 550 illustrations, Milan: Feltrinelli). The German edition, with approximately 600 illustrations will appear in 1981 or 1982 and the English edition, to be published by Thames and Hudson, London, will appear later. The Milan Labyrinth Exhibition, June 12-July 31. 1981, Palazzo delia Permanente, is in two parts the documentary cultural-historical exhibition was prepared by me; Achille Bonito Oliva and Duccio Berti, are responsible for the exhibition of contemporary art, which will have its own catalogue, also to be published by Feltrinelli. Both exhibitions will later travel

7. The following summary works on the labyrinth should be mentioned Ernst Krause, Die Trojaburgen Nordeuropas, Glogau, 1893; W.H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development, London, 1922 (reprint, New York Dover, 1970); Paolo Santarcangeli, Il Libro der Labirinti, Florence, 1967, and finally the picture volume by Janet Bord, Mazes and Labyrinths of the World, London, 1976. In the bibliography for my "manual" I have listed more than 2000 pertinent titles.

8. A drawing of a maze by the so-called Master of the Sketchbook of Mantua, formerly attributed to Marten Van Heemskerk, from the plan for the Palazzo del Té, Mantua, designed by Giulio Romano and built for the Gonzago family, 1525-34 Berliner Kupferstichkabinett, 79D 2A, fol. 23v.

9. There is a chapter by Paolo Santarcangeli still unpublished, that serves as an addendum to his book on the literary-metaphorical labyrinth tradition. Of particular interest is the unpublished Master's thesis (Paris, 1974-75) by Jean-Didier Wagneur, entitled "Variations sur le labyrinthe: Franz Kafka; Jorge Luis Borges; Alain Robbe-Grillet."

10. Arnold van Gennep, The Rites of Passage, 3rd ed., London, 1977.

11. Mircea Eliade, Das Mysterium der Wiedergeburt: Initiationsriten, ihre kulturelle und religiöse Bedeutung, Zurich/Stuttgart, 1961, p. 10.

12. Vergil, Aeneid, V, 545-605

13. Vergil, Aeneid, VI, 27.

14. Walter Leo Hildburgh, "Indeterminability and Confusion as Apotropaic Elements in Italy and Spain," Folk-Lore, Vol. 55, 1944, pp. 133-149 145). "The Place of Confusion and Indeterminability in Mazes and Maze-dances," ibid., Vol. 56, 1945, pp. 188-192 (p. 191).

15. Plutarch, _Life of Theseus, 16, as citation after Philochoros.

16. Six processions around the city of Jericho on six successive days, seven processions on the seventh day, as black magic, destructive ritual, all leading up to the collapse of the walls; cf. Book of Joshua, Chapter 6.

17. The number 11 signifies, on the one hand, trespass and intemperance, since it goes beyond the ten numbers of the Commandments; on the other, imperfection, since it does not reach the number 12 of the apostles, see, among others, Hincmar of Reims, "de praedestinatione dissertatir posterior," 34, Migne, Patrologia Latina, Vol. 125, Sp. 351 ff; Joseph Sauer, Symbolik des Kirchengebäudes und seiner Ausstattung in der Auftassung des Mittelalters, 2nd ed. Freiburg/Br., 1924 (reprint Münster, 1964), pp. 81 ff.

18. Symptomatic of this is the journalistic book by Paul de Saint-Hilaire Le mystère des labyrinthes, Brussels/Paris, 1977.

19. I took a position in a lecture (July 1980) at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich, "Contemporary Art as Source and Assignment of Art Theory," concerning the chances and dangers of such an attitude for contemporary art, and also on the possibility of a re-evaluation of art history through new artistic production. This was published in Neue Kunst in München, No. 3, September/October, 1980.

20. St. Agnes, Scilly Islands. The complex is not old, it was built as a hobby by T.A. Clarke, the son of a lighthouse keeper, in 1729; see R Morton Nance, "Troy Town," Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, No. 71, 1924, pp. 261-279 (p. 265).

21. In the catalogue Richard Long, Eindhoven: Stedelijk Museum, 1979, can be found not only the labyrinth but also a further labyrinthine stone arrangement by Long, Stone Dance, this work also corresponds, stone for stone, to an older type; namely, the "Scandinavian Stone Labyrinth," which Matthews published as Fig. 127 after Olof Rudbeck (1695).

On the borrowings of Long from the "Peruvian Ground Drawings" I have commented. not only in the aforementioned lecture but, earlier, in the catalogue I prepared for the Kunstraum München, Peruvian Ground Drawings, 1974, p 125.

22. For example, the work corresponds exactly in its path to the Roman mosaic from Piadena. The catalogue, Joe Tilson, Rome: Marlborough Gallery, 1975, illustrates numerous labyrinth works, whose originals can be found in Matthews.

23. Information with letter of January 1981.

24. Robert Morris/Projects, catalogue from the Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, March 23-April 27, 1974 The work belongs to Dr Panza di Biumo of Milan, as do two labyrinth drawings from 1976: cf. Germano Celant, Das Bild einer Geschichte 1956-1976: Die Sammlung Panza di Biumo, catalogue, Düsseldorf, 1980 (Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Kunstmuseum und Kunsthalle Düsseldorf), p 95, No. RM 28 C and RM 28; p. 97, No. RM 29.

25. The attribution is not certain. Florentine World Chronicle, London, British Museum, Ms. 197 d 3, fol. 29 verso and 30 recto; cf. Matthews, Fig 5.

26. Jane Livingston and Marcia Tucker, Bruce Nauman Work from 1965 to 1972, Los Angeles (catalogue for the exhibition in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; nos. 67, 69).

27. Alice Aycock: Projects and Proposals 1971-1978, catalogue, Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pa., Kardon, "Janet Kardon interviews some Modern Maze-Makers," pp. 65 ff. The work of Alice Aycock seems particularly eclectic: two of her works are simplified reconstructions of astronomical measuring instruments (but in wood) which the Mahārāja Jai Singh II erected around 1730 in Jaipur and Delhi. With "The Angels Continue Turning the Wheels of the Universe, Part II." Amsterdam, 1977, reference is made, in the title, to a medieval cosmological idea, the two large "Jai Prakās Yantras," in Jaipur (1734), are also formal inspirations. Studies for a Town, New York, 1977, is a simplified version of the "Miśra Yantra," ca. 1724; cf. Hermann Kern: Kalenderbauten: Frühe Astronomische Grossgeräte aus Indien, Mexico und Peru, 2nd ed., Munich, 1976 (Die Neue Sammlung), pp 41-43; 59-61 In the exhibition of the same name, these sculptures were thoroughly documented.

28. Kardon, pp. 66 ff.; the Sod Maze, 1974, illustrated in Onorato, "The Modern Maze," p 21, is neither a labyrinth nor a maze. Four concentric circles, with a radius projecting far outwards, are represented, it is rather an imitation of the so-called "cup and ring marks," the widely dispensed Bronze Age, or perhaps Neolithic, rock incisions, whose meanings are still unclear, and which may perhaps be regarded as embryonic precursors of the labyrinth.

29. For the numerous labyrinth works of Wilienbecher see the catalogue John Willenbecher, Allentown, Pa.: The Allentown Art Museum, Jan 14-Feb 25, 1979, text by Jean-Louis Bourgeois entitled "Auspicious Mystery: The Art of John Willenbecher"; also see Kardon, pp. 67 ff.

30. E.g., Frédéric Chapuis: Der Labyrinth-Test, Bern/Stuttgart, 1959.

31. Kardon, pp. 66 ff.

32. Kardon, p. 68.

33. See Manfred Ach and Ugo Dossi, "Der Knoten aus Wort, Ego und Welt," in the catalogue Ugo Dossi: Objekte zur kontinuierfichen Revolution, oder die doppelte Umkehrung im Möbiusband, Munich, Sept 14-Oct 20, 1974 (Städtische Galerie Im Lenbachhaus), pp. 34 ff., illustrations pp. 35-39; Udo Dossi, Relative Freedom or The Motive of Motivation, Munich, 1977.

34. The title of a narrative in Jorge Luis Borges, Labyrinthe, Munich, 1959.

35. Seven labyrinth works were shown in 1977 in an installation at the Site Gallery, San Francisco; for this see Tom Marioni, "We'll string along somehow," in San Francisco Magazine, January, 1977, p. 81; Robert Keil, "Terry Fox: Variations on a Labyrinth," Artweek, April 2, 1977, p. 5; Knute Stiles, "Terry Fox: Meanders," Artforum, Summer 1977, pp. 48 ff.

36. Excerpts from an autobiographical third-person statement, from a letter, Feb 6, 1981.

37. Marioni, p. 81.

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Labyrinths: Tradition and Contemporary Works

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SINCE THE LATE 1960s an astonishing number of artists, especially in the U.S. and England, have dealt with the concept of the labyrinth.1 These artistic formulations have been followed by attempts at scientific reconstruction through exhibitions2 and essays.3 These tentative starts remain unsatisfactory because, among other reasons, the authors possessed no clear concept of the labyrinth4 and no overall view of the labyrinth symbol's different manifestations in its 5000-year history.

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Virgil, also spelled Vergil, Latin in full Publius Vergilius Maro, (born October 15, 70 BCE, Andes, near Mantua [Italy]—died September 21, 19 BCE, Brundisium), Roman poet, best known for his national epic, the Aeneid (from c. 30 BCE; unfinished at his death).

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Where did Virgil grow up?

What was Virgil's education?

Virgil, also spelled Vergil, Latin in full Publius Vergilius Maro, (born October 15, 70 bce, Andes, near Mantua [Italy]-died September 21, 19 bce, Brundisium), Roman poet, best known for his national epic, the Aeneid (from c. 30 bce; unfinished at his death).

Virgil was regarded by the Romans as their greatest poet, an estimation that subsequent generations have upheld. His fame rests chiefly upon the Aeneid, which tells the story of Rome's legendary founder and proclaims the Roman mission to civilize the world under divine guidance. His reputation as a poet endures not only for the music and diction of his verse and for his skill in constructing an intricate work on the grand scale but also because he embodied in his poetry aspects of experience and behaviour of permanent significance.

Virgil was born of peasant stock, and his love of the Italian countryside and of the people who cultivated it colours all his poetry. He was educated at Cremona, at Milan, and finally at Rome, acquiring a thorough knowledge of Greek and Roman authors, especially of the poets, and receiving a detailed training in rhetoric and philosophy. It is known that one of his teachers was the Epicurean Siro, and the Epicurean philosophy is substantially reflected in his early poetry but gradually gives way to attitudes more akin to Stoicism.

Political background

During Virgil's youth, as the Roman Republic neared its end, the political and military situation in Italy was confused and often calamitous. The civil war between Marius and Sulla had been succeeded by conflict between Pompey and Julius Caesar for supreme power. When Virgil was 20, Caesar with his armies swooped south from Gaul, crossed the Rubicon, and began the series of civil wars that were not to end until Augustus' victory at Actium in 31 bce. Hatred and fear of civil war is powerfully expressed by both Virgil and his contemporary Horace. The key to a proper understanding of the Augustan Age and its poets lies, indeed, in a proper understanding of the turmoil that had preceded the Augustan peace.

Virgil's life was devoted entirely to his poetry and to studies connected with it; his health was never robust, and he played no part in military or political life. It is said that he spoke once in the lawcourts without distinction and that his shy and retiring nature caused him to give up any ideas he might have had of taking part in the world of affairs. He never married, and the first half of his life was that of a scholar and near recluse. But, as his poetry won him fame, he gradually won the friendship of many important men in the Roman world. Gradually, also, he became a Roman as well as a provincial. (The area in which he had spent his youth, the area around the Po River known as the province of Cisalpine Gaul, was not finally incorporated into Italy until 42 bce. Thus Virgil came, as it were, to Rome from the outside. The enthusiasm of a provincial for Rome is seen in the first eclogue, one of his earliest poems, in which the shepherd Tityrus tells of his recent visit to the capital and his amazement at its splendours.)

Literary career

Some of Virgil's earliest poetry may have survived in a collection of poems attributed to him and known as the Appendix Vergiliana, but it is unlikely that many of these are genuine. His earliest certain work is the Eclogues, a collection of 10 pastoral poems composed between 42 and 37 bce. Some of them are escapist, literary excursions to the idyllic pastoral world of Arcadia based on the Greek poet Theocritus (flourished c. 280 bce) but more unreal and stylized. They convey in liquid song the idealized situations of an imaginary world in which shepherds sing in the sunshine of their simple joys and mute their sorrows (whether for unhappy love or untimely death) in a formalized pathos. But some bring the pastoral mode into touch with the real world, either directly or by means of allegory, and thus gave a new direction to the genre. The fifth eclogue, on the death of Daphnis, king of the shepherds, clearly has some relationship with the recent death of Julius Caesar; the 10th brings Gallus, a fellow poet who also held high office as a statesman, into the pastoral world; the first and ninth are lamentations over the expulsion of shepherds from their farms. (It was widely believed in antiquity that these poems expressed allegorically Virgil's own loss of his family farm when the veteran soldiers of Antony and Octavian-later the emperor Augustus-were resettled after the Battle of Philippi in 42 bce. It was thought that he subsequently recovered his property through the intervention of his powerful friends. However that may be, it is certain that the poems are based on Virgil's own experience, whether in connection with his own farm or with those of his friends; and they express, with a poignant pathos that has come to be regarded as specially Virgilian, the sorrow of the dispossessed.)

But one eclogue in particular stands out as having relevance to the contemporary situation, and this is the fourth (sometimes called the Messianic, because it was later regarded as prophetic of Christianity). It is an elevated poem, prophesying in sonorous and mystic terms the birth of a child who will bring back the Golden Age, banish sin, and restore peace. It was clearly written at a time when the clouds of civil war seemed to be lifting; it can be dated firmly to 41-40 bce, and it seems most likely that Virgil refers to an expected child of the triumvir Antony and his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian. But, though a specific occasion may be allocated to the poem, it goes beyond the particular and, in symbolic terms, presents a vision of world harmony, which was, to some extent, destined to be realized under Augustus.

One of the most disastrous effects of the civil wars-and one of which Virgil, as a countryman, would be most intensely aware-was the depopulation of rural Italy. The farmers had been obliged to go to the war, and their farms fell into neglect and ruin as a result. The Georgics, composed between 37 and 30 bce (the final period of the civil wars), is a superb plea for the restoration of the traditional agricultural life of Italy. In form it is didactic, but, as Seneca later said, it was written "not to instruct farmers but to delight readers." The practical instruction (about plowing, growing trees, tending cattle, and keeping bees) is presented with vivid insight into nature, and it is interspersed with highly wrought poetical digressions on such topics as the beauty of the Italian countryside (Book II. line 136 ff.) and the joy of the farmer when all is gathered in (II.458 ff.).

The Georgics is dedicated (at the beginning of each book) to Maecenas, one of the chief of Augustus' ministers, who was also the leading patron of the arts. By this time Virgil was a member of what might be called the court circle, and his desire to see his beloved Italy restored to its former glories coincided with the national requirement of resettling the land and diminishing the pressure on the cities. It would be wrong to think of Virgil as writing political propaganda; but equally it would be wrong to regard his poetry as unconnected with the major currents of political and social needs of the time. Virgil was personally committed to the same ideals as the government.

In the year 31 bce, when Virgil was 38, Augustus (still known as Octavian) won the final battle of the civil wars at Actium against the forces of Antony and Cleopatra and from that time dates the Augustan Age. Virgil, like many of his contemporaries, felt a great sense of relief that the senseless civil strife was at last over and was deeply grateful to the man who had made it possible. Augustus was anxious to preserve the traditions of the republic and its constitutional forms, but he was in fact sole ruler of the Roman world. He used his power to establish a period of peace and stability and endeavoured to reawaken in the Romans a sense of national pride and a new enthusiasm for their ancestral religion and their traditional moral values, those of bravery, parsimony, duty, responsibility, and family devotion. Virgil, too, as a countryman at heart, felt a deep attachment to the simple virtues and religious traditions of the Italian people. All his life he had been preparing himself to write an epic poem (regarded then as the highest form of poetic achievement), and he now set out to embody his ideal Rome in the Aeneid, the story of the foundation of the first settlement in Italy, from which Rome was to spring, by an exiled Trojan prince after the destruction of Troy by the Greeks in the 12th century bce. The theme he chose gave him two great advantages: one was that its date and subject were very close to those of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, so that he could remodel episodes and characters from his great Greek predecessor; and the other was that it could be brought into relationship with his contemporary Augustan world by presenting Aeneas as the prototype of the Roman way of life (the last of the Trojans and the first of the Romans). Moreover, by the use of prophecies and visions and devices such as the description of the pictures on Aeneas' shield or of the origins of contemporary customs and institutions, it could foreshadow the real events of Roman history. The poem, then, operates on a double time scale; it is heroic and yet Augustan.

The enthusiasm that Virgil felt for the reborn Rome promised by Augustus' regime is often reflected in the poem. The sonorous and awe-inspiring prophecy by Jupiter (I.257 ff.), giving a picture of Rome's divinely inspired destiny, has a moving patriotic impact: "To these I set no bounds in space or time-I have given them rule without end" (278-279); and again, under Augustus, "Then shall the harsh generations be softened, and wars shall be laid aside" (291). The speech ends with a memorable image depicting the personified figure of Frenzy in chains, gnashing its bloodstained teeth in vain. At the end of the sixth book, Aeneas visits the underworld, and there pass before his eyes the figures of heroes from Roman history, waiting to be born. The ghost of his father ( Anchises) describes them to him and ends by defining the Roman mission as one concerned with government and civilization (compared with the Greek achievement in art and literature and theoretical science). "Rule the people with your sway, spare the conquered, and war down the proud": this is the vision of Rome's destiny that the emperor Augustus and the poet Virgil had before them-that Rome was divinely appointed first to conquer the world in war and then to spread civilization and the rule of law among the peoples. As Horace told the Romans in one of his odes, "Because you are servants of the gods, you are masters on earth."

The vision of Rome that the Aeneid expresses is a noble one, but the real greatness of the poem is due to Virgil's awareness of the private, as well as the public, aspects of human life. The Aeneid is no panegyric; it sets the achievements and aspirations of the giant organization of Roman governmental rule in tension with the frustrated hopes and sufferings of individuals. The most memorable figure in the poem-and, it has been said, the only character to be created by a Roman poet that has passed into world literature-is Dido, queen of Carthage, opponent of the Roman way of life. In a mere panegyric of Rome, she could have been presented in such a way that Aeneas' rejection of her would have been a victory to applaud; but, in fact, in the fourth book she wins so much sympathy that the reader wonders whether Rome should be bought at this price. Again, Turnus, who opposes Aeneas when he lands in Italy, resists the invader who has come to steal his bride. It is clear that Turnus is a less civilized character than Aeneas-but in his defeat Virgil allows him to win much sympathy. These are two examples of the tension against Roman optimism; in many other ways, too, Virgil throughout the poem explores the problems of suffering and the pathos of the human situation. Yet in the end, Aeneas endures and continues to his goal; his devotion to duty ( pietas) prevails, and the Roman reader would feel that this should be. "So great a task it was to found the Roman nation" (I.33).

The Aeneid occupied Virgil for 11 years and, at his death, had not yet received its final revision. In 19 bce, planning to spend a further three years on his poem, he set out for Greece-doubtless to obtain local colour for the revision of those parts of the Aeneid set in Greek waters. On the voyage he caught a fever and returned to Italy but died soon after arrival at Brundisium. Whether the Aeneid would have undergone major changes cannot be guessed; the story goes that Virgil's dying wish was for his poem to be burned, but that this request was countermanded by the order of Augustus. As it stands, the poem is a major monument both to the national achievements and ideals of the Augustan Age of Rome and to the sensitive and lonely voice of the poet who knew the "tears in things" as well as the glory.

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Virgil, also spelled Vergil, Latin in full Publius Vergilius Maro, (born October 15, 70 bce, Andes, near Mantua [Italy]-died September 21, 19 bce, Brundisium), Roman poet, best known for his national epic, the Aeneid (from c. 30 bce; unfinished at his death).

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Jericho, Arabic Arīḥā, town located in the West Bank. Jericho is one of the earliest continuous settlements in the world, dating perhaps from about 9000 BCE. Archaeological excavations have demonstrated Jericho’s lengthy history. The city’s site is of great archaeological importance; it provides evidence of the first development of permanent settlements and thus of the first steps toward civilization.

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Jericho, Arabic Arīḥā, town located in the West Bank. Jericho is one of the earliest continuous settlements in the world, dating perhaps from about 9000 bce. Archaeological excavations have demonstrated Jericho’s lengthy history. The city’s site is of great archaeological importance; it provides ev…

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Francesco De Marchi (Bologna, 1504 – L'Aquila, 15 febbraio 1576) è stato un alpinista, speleologo e ingegnere italiano nel campo militare, oggi ricordato soprattutto per aver compiuto la prima scalata ufficiale della cima maggiore del Gran Sasso d'Italia (Corno Grande).

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Francesco De Marchi

Francesco De Marchi ( Bologna, 1504 - L'Aquila, 15 febbraio 1576) è stato un alpinista, speleologo e ingegnere italiano nel campo militare, oggi ricordato soprattutto per aver compiuto la prima scalata ufficiale della cima maggiore del Gran Sasso d'Italia ( Corno Grande).

Il De Marchi nacque a Bologna da una famiglia di umile ascendenza, originaria della città di Crema. Dopo aver compiuto studi da autodidatta, partecipò o fu testimone, fin dalla giovinezza, di alcuni eventi bellici di grande rilevanza, quali la Battaglia di Pavia del 24 febbraio 1525, e l' assedio di Firenze del 1529- 1530. In ogni caso, entrambi questi avvenimenti furono successivamente descritti nei suoi diari con dovizia di particolari. Ciò induce alcuni storici a supporre che il De Marchi abbia militato nelle truppe dell'Imperatore Carlo V d'Asburgo.

Nel 1533, a seguito della restaurazione dei Medici in Firenze - effettuata dall'Imperatore allo scopo di farsi perdonare il terribile sacco di Roma del 1527, il De Marchi entrò a servizio del nuovo duca di Firenze, Alessandro de' Medici, detto "il Moro". Nel 1536 questi convolò a nozze con Margherita d'Austria, figlia naturale dell'Imperatore Carlo V, lasciandola però presto vedova, appena un anno dopo le nozze, assassinato dal cugino Lorenzino de' Medici.

Da questo momento in poi il De Marchi rimarrà fedelmente nel seguito della figlia naturale dell'Imperatore, per i successivi quattro decenni.

Il De Marchi fu un individuo avventuroso e animato da una curiosità scientifica tipicamente rinascimentale. Il suo ruolo nel seguito di Margherita d'Austria, Governatrice imperiale delle Fiandre, nonché Governatrice perpetua dell' Aquila, gli consentì di spostarsi con frequenza fra Roma, Napoli, l' Abruzzo e il mar Tirreno.

Appassionato studioso di ingegneria militare, scrisse il ponderoso trattato Della Architettura Militare e nei secoli scorsi veniva ricordato principalmente per i suoi contributi nell'architettura dei sistemi bastionati, dei barbacani, dei controspalti e, in generale, dei sistemi di fortificazione. Una sua tavola, rappresentante un sistema d'attacco alla Vauban, è conservata ancora oggi al Museo del Genio di Castel Sant'Angelo.

Animato, oltre che dall'approfondimento per l'ingegneria militare, anche dall'amore per l'avventura, il De Marchi compì, nel 1535, un'impresa straordinaria, per i suoi tempi: l'immersione, nel lago di Nemi, protetto da un rudimentale scafandro, alla ricerca delle enormi navi dell'Imperatore Caligola, effettivamente presenti nelle acque del lago

Inseguito dai corsari a Ponza, naufrago alla foce del Tevere, testimone di un'eruzione nel Golfo di Napoli, quella di Francesco De Marchi sembra a tratti più un'epopea alla Guerin Meschino che un'esistenza reale.

Infine, i monti. Già presente più volte in Abruzzo fra il 1535 e il 1547, De Marchi nota presto il Gran Sasso, tanto che nella sua Cronaca dell'ascensione racconterà: "Il detto Monte era trenta du'anni che io desiderava di montarci sopra", mentre altrove aveva già annotato "e io alle raddici de esso son stato più volte del che considerai il sito al meglio ch'io puoti". Affascinato dalle montagne, studioso delle leggende dei Monti Sibillini, alla veneranda età di 69 anni Francesco De Marchi si imbarca quindi in un'altra avventura: la prima scalata del Corno Grande.

Accompagnato dal milanese Cesare Schiafinato e da Diomede dell'Aquila, nell'agosto del 1573 De Marchi si recò ad Assergi ("Sercio") alla ricerca di qualche montanaro che potesse fargli da guida. Individuò un cacciatore di camosci, Francesco Di Domenico, che aveva già scalato la cima e che si aggregò volentieri. Volle reclutare anche due fratelli, Simone e Giovampietro Di Giulio, e "a preghi e premi" li convinse a fargli da portatori. Così, il 19 agosto 1573, con non poco sforzo, in cinque ore e un quarto, fu raggiunta la cima del Corno Grande (il "Corno Monte"), attraverso quella che oggi è la Via normale al Gran Sasso: "mirand'all'intorno, pareva che io fussi in aria".

Il giorno successivo, 20 agosto, il gruppetto, ampliato di altre persone del luogo, esplorò la Grotta a Male ("grotta Amare") e altre caverne nei dintorni di Assergi, "delli luoghi che con la panza per terra bisogna passare". Il De Marchi incise sul fondo della grotta una croce, tuttora visibile. Si trattò della prima visita in senso speleologico mai fatta in Italia e probabilmente nel mondo.

Francesco De Marchi morirà tre anni dopo, nel 1576, all'Aquila, e sarà sepolto a Piazza Palazzo, nella Chiesa di San Francesco, oggi demolita.

Daniela Lamberini, DE MARCHI, Francesco , in Dizionario biografico degli italiani, vol. 38, Roma, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, 1990.

Il Corno Monte - cronaca della prima ascensione ufficiale di Francesco De Marchi (1573) (PDF), su lupacchiotti.it. URL consultato il 22 settembre 2010 (archiviato dall'url originale il 20 giugno 2015).

Lagagransasso.it - Francesco De Marchi: note biografiche di Alessandro Clementi , su lagagransasso.it.

Sito dedicato al Gran Sasso d'Italia , su ilgransasso.com.

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Francesco De Marchi ( Bologna, 1504 - L'Aquila, 15 febbraio 1576) è stato un alpinista, speleologo e ingegnere italiano nel campo militare, oggi ricordato soprattutto per aver compiuto la prima scalata ufficiale della cima maggiore del Gran Sasso d'Italia ( Corno Grande).

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Die Kunst von Ugo Dossi kreist um die Kreativität des Unbewussten, um Sinnliches und Übersinnliches.

Sie spielt mit archetypischen und kollektiven Bildern, mit automatischen Zeichnungen, mit topologischen Modellen, mit paranormalen Phänomenen. Typisch für sein Werk ist sein Umgang mit Darstellungsformen des Grenzenlosen, die das Denken in die Wahrnehmung des hinter allem liegenden Unendlichen und Unfassbaren führen.

Seine Installationen wurden zweimal auf der Documenta gezeigt (Documenta 6 und Documenta 8), auf den Biennalen von Venedig (1986 und 2011), Paris (1975) und Buenos Aires (2000), sowie in zahlreichen Einzelausstellungen in internationalen Museen und Instituten.

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2018

Galleria Comunale, Bolzano

2017

Osthaus Museum, Hagen

2016

Kunststiftung Petra Benteler, Murnau

2015

Stiftung Kunst und Kultur, Bonn

2012

Galerie Lisi Hämmerle, Bregenz

2012

2nd LIFE, Bastion Kunst, Kassel

2011

Galerie March, Stuttgart

2010

Prom Galerie, München

2009

Märkisches Museum, Witten

2008

Schach Weltmeisterschaft, BundesKunsthalle, Bonn

2008

Kunststiftung Erich Hauser, Rottweil

2008

ArtAffair, Regensburg

2008

Kunsthalle Göppingen, Göppingen

2008

Galerie Baecker, Bad Münstereifel

2007

ChessChallenge, BundesKunsthalle, Bonn

2007

Felix Nussbaumhaus, Osnabrück

2007

Galerie March, Stuttgart

2007

Bastion Kunst, Kassel

2006

Rheinisches Landes Museum, Bonn

2006

Prom Galerie, München

2006

La Galleria, Barcelona

2005

Stella Art Gallery, Moskau

2005

Tretjakov Galerie, Moskau

2005

Prom Galerie, Quinta do Lago

2004

Segni e oracoli, Dispari e Dispari, Reggio Emilia

2004

Galerie Hämmerle, Bregenz

2004

Subliminal, Haus der Kunst, München

2004

Resonanz, Max Planck Haus, München

2004

Zeitmaschine, Galerie March, Stuttgart

2003

Schach, Märkisches Museum, Witten

2003

Brunnenburg, Meran

2002

Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin

2001

Galerie Hämmerle, Bregenz

2001

Galerie March, Stuttgart

2000

Art Scarpulin, Merano

2000

Galerie Samuelis Baumgarte, Bielefeld

2000

Forum Kunsthalle, Bonn

2000

Galerie March, Stuttgart

1999

Galerie Claudia Böer, Hannover

1998

Galerie Samuelis Baumgarte, Bielefeld

1997

Kunstverein Friedrichshafen, Friedrichshafen

1997

Zeppelin- Museum, Friedrichshafen

1996

Sommerpalais Harrach, Wien

1996

Lindinger + Schmid, Regensburg

1996

Neue Galerie, Bad Marienberg

1996

Städtische Kunstsammlungen, Augsburg

1996

Städt. Planetarium, Augsburg

1995

Kopernikus Planetarium, Augsburg

1995

Galerie Hämmerle, Bregenz

1995

Museo Carrara Arte Moderna, Bergamo

1995

Galerie Brigitte March, Stuttgart

1995

Studenski Kulturni Centar, Belgrad

1995

Galeriile National Artexpo, Bucharest

1995

Galerie Dambier Masset, Paris

1994

Stadtmuseum Ratingen

1994

Museum Moderner Kunst, Sammlung Ludwig, Wien

1994

Ricerche Espressive 4, Milano

1994

Galerie Patricia Dorfmann, Paris

1993

Kunstraum Wuppertal, Wuppertal

1993

Galerie Hämmerle, Bregenz

1993

Lindinger + Schmid, Regensburg

1993

Galerie Brigitte March, Stuttgart

1993

Galleria Raffi, Merano

1992

Galerie Dambier Masset, Paris

1992

Wewerka Pavillion, Münster

1992

Die Spur des Lichts, Glyptothek, München

1991

Galerie 54, München

1991

Märkisches Museum, Witten

1991

Galerie Brigitte March, Stuttgart

1990

Kunstraum Lothringerstraße, München

1990

Galerie Inge Baecker, Köln

1989

Gesellschaft Aktuelle Kunst, Bremen

1989

Kunstverein, Göttingen

1989

Ruine der Künste, Berlin

1987

Galerie Brigitte March, Stuttgart

1987

Galerie Wilma Tolksdorf, Hamburg

1987

Galerie Wewerka, Hannover

1987

Galerie Inge Baecker, Köln

1986

Künstlerhaus, Stuttgart

1985

Galerie Brigitte March, Stuttgart

1982

Galerie Art in Progress, München

1982

Galerie Maurer, Zürich

1982

Forum Kunst, Rottweil

1981

Galerie Dürr, München

1980

Galerie Brigitte March, Stuttgart

1979

Galerie Maeght, Zürich

1978

Galerie Herta Klang, Köln

1976

Galerie Inge Baecker, Bochum

1976

Museo Communale Palazzo dei Diamanti, Ferrara

1975

Galeria Bocchi, Milano

1975

Städtisches Museum Morsbroich, Leverkusen

1974

Galerie Scheidegger & Mauer, Zürich

1974

Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, München

1974

Galleria Arturo Schwarz, Milano

1973

Galleria Arturo Schwarz, Art 4, Basel

1971

Eat Art Gallery, Düsseldorf

1970

Studio Apollinaire, Milano

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2018 Galleria Comunale, Bolzano 2017 Osthaus Museum, Hagen 2016 Kunststiftung Petra Benteler, Murnau 2015 Stiftung Kunst und Kultur, Bonn 2012 Galerie Lisi Hämmerle, Bregenz 2012 2nd LIFE, Bastion Kunst, Kassel 2011 Galerie March, Stuttgart 2010 Prom Galerie, München 2009 Märkisches Museum, Witten 2008 Schach Weltmeisterschaft, BundesKunsthalle, Bonn 2008 Kunststiftung Erich

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In the 13th century, Chartres Cathedral was the first in a series of "classic" cathedrals with tall windows. The quality of its sculpted décor makes it one of the finest examples of Gothic art. The exceptional harmony between the cathedral's architecture, sculpture and stained glass windows, celebrated by Péguy and Claudel, caused it to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

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A masterpiece of a cathedral. In the 13th century, Chartres Cathedral was the first in a series of "classic" cathedrals with tall windows. The quality of its sculpted décor makes it one of the finest examples of Gothic art.

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Doutor em Comunicação e Semiótica pela PUC-SP, onde é professor vinculado ao Departamento de Artes, desde 2003, e ao programa de pós-graduação em Tecnologias da Inteligência e Design Digital, desde 2012. Tem experiência docente nas graduações em "Comunicação e Multimeios", "Arte: História, Crítica e Curadoria", "Jornalismo", "Publicidade e Propaganda", "Tecnologias e Mídias Digitais" e na pós-graduação em "Tecnologias da Inteligência e Design Digital". Também é professor da pós em "Musica e Imagem", das Faculdades Santa Marcelina. Publicou os livros Audiovisual ao vivo: tendências e conceitos (Intermeios, 2020), Limiares das redes (Intermeios, 2014) e Cultura da reciclagem (Noema, 2007, ebook), além de organizar Audiovisual experimental: arqueologias, tendências e desdobramentos (com Natália Aly, Pontocom 2018), Cinema apesar da imagem (com Gabriel Menotti e Patricia Moran, Intermeios 2016) e Mediações, tecnologia, espaço público: panorama crítico da arte em mídias móveis (com Lucas Bambozzi e Rodrigo Minelli, Conrad, 2010). Dirigiu o documentário Radicais livre(o)s (Prêmio Petrobrás Cultural, 2004) e o webdocumentárioCidades visíveis (Prêmio Rumos Itaú Cultural, 2009-2011). É autor de 15 artigos em periódicos e 21 capítulos de livro. Fez o Curso Abril de Jornalismo em Revistas com especialização em design, tendo atuado como designer das revistas Casa Claudia e Quatro Rodas. Foi diretor de arte de diversos projetos gráficos e audiovisuais, com clientes como Platô Produções e Goethe-Institut.