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Blombos Cave in South Africa, shown here in panoramic view, was home to prehistoric artists.

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PREHISTORY

The prehistoric period- when there was human life before records documented human activity- roughly dates from 3.5 million years ago.

It is categorised in three categories:-

1. STONE AGE

2. BRONZE AGE

3. IRON AGE

STONE AGE

It began about 3.3 million years ago

Stones were used as tools during this time

Types of tools used - bifacial tools, pebble tools, flake tools and blade tools.

It was divided into three periods- Paleolithic ➢Mesolithic ➢Neolithic

BRONZE AGE

The first period in which metal was used

4000.B.C to 2000.B.C

The beginning of the Bronze Age is sometimes called the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age, referring to the initial use of pure copper.

People used bronze to make tools

The wheel was invented

IRON AGE

It is the final technological and cultural stage

started between 1200 B.C. and 600 B.C

Metal for the most part
replaced bronze in implements and weapons

The most popular job during this period was farming

Inventions- farming tools like plowshare, coulter, and iron chisel , shield

ART

Bhimbetka Petroglyphs (290,000-700,000 BCE)

Petroglyphs means rock carving

Venus of Berekhat Ram: The World’s Oldest Piece of Art That Predates Humans

The Venus of Tan tan is an alleged artifact found in Morocco.

The Makapansgat Pebble

SOURCES

http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/prehistoric/bhimbetka-petroglyphs.htm

https://www.britannica.com/place/Kultepe

https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/cavestocathedrals/part/prehistory/

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The word “Art” is associated with a great deal of professions in today's world and your thoughts as to what it pertains will vary along with your feelings about it.

Some people admire art, study it vigorously and display it with glee. While others deny art being part of their lives.

Art plays a critical role in shaping the modern world. Innovation, evolving our knowledge, society and state of being as we evolved it.

Evolution of Art

1. Upper Paleolithic Age of Man: Survival was the primary objective.

Cave drawings  used to recount events and things early man treasured like “the hunt”.

Cave drawings had very little form or style to them.

Perfectly illustrated the meaning behind them through proportionate dimensions and understanding of self.

1. Neolithic Era: Forming settlements.

Honor ancestors with statues, totems, masks and effigies.

It can be argued for the two eras that instead of their features being classified as art, they laid the foundation since the illustrations and designs were used as primal survival mechanisms.

1. Bronze Age: Dawn of civilisations, with humans:

Creating primal works of art to honor their ancestors.

Invoke and reinforce belief in something greater than themselves.

Achieved by crafting statues, pots and masks designed to be symmetrical and durable.

Hieroglyphics formed the basis for keeping records and communication.

Can be seen as symbols allotted meaning, thus becoming a natural evolution of cave art to an extent.

Ancient Mayans, South America developed a similar carving style even after being miles apart, and also led to development of first calendars.

Ability to carve and sculpt is considered a specialized skill in ritualistic practices, recording data and expansion of civilisations.

Shift of focus to Europe

1. Age of Idealism: Rise of Greek and Roman culture.

Architecture of the period was durable and showed evidence of being grounded in mathematical beauty.

Finely illustrated pottery and murals recounted events and tales of deities, effective at conveying information and emotion.

Statues crafted were well developed, athletic and proportionally accurate.

1. Middle Age: Art focused heavily on contextualizing and depicting religious figures along with more eccentric art.

Architecture and manuscripts received upheaval in design and durability which helped shape a contained society.

Beautified and attracted followers to an ideology thus increasing detail and grandeur.

Beautify Buddhism. Thailand crafting statues of calm Buddha to allure people.

Pioneering of Calligraphy, geometric art and elaborate patterns leading to mesmerizing murals and architecture.

Importance of art evident in quality of silk embroidery, ink art and carvings.

Ultimate asset to make the unknown appear attractive.

1. Renaissance: One of the most important transitional periods in history.

Art is currently manifested in architecture, medicine, astronomy and cartography.

1. Humanism: Possibility of Artist as a career

Assisted scientific and social development for perception of art.

1. Baroque Era: Reuse of artistic forms with art of time displaying grandiose spectacle along with other events.

The Neoclassical Movement used art to show off.

Art as tool to push an agenda

1. Romantic Age: Emphasis on individuality, nature and celebration of imagination.

The Impressionist movement focused on crafting landscapes flooded with light and shadow.

Elicit raw emotion from the observer. Contrast to neoclassical style utilizing chiaroscuro.

Global View

Tribal art transforming at a steady pace across the world.

Native Americans saw totems and pottery as part of culture with symbolism and style being influenced.

Masks and statues in Africa continue to be core part of countless tribes with innovation of art slowly resulting due to evolution of ritualistic behaviors.

The Ndebele tribe of South Africa developed the most stylistically different African art and fostered art as culture.

Color always has a role in drawing emotion in art, Ndebele specifically utilized a wide array of colors to convey specific meaning as part of life.

Japan strayed off realism movements and worked with line work and intelligent use of color to add flair.

Inspired Van Gogh to craft art with emphasis of effective use of brush strokes and color as opposed to blending.

Artistic styles coming together: Japanese Ukiyo-e painting and geometric forms of African art shaping neo-western styles.

Thoughts on art fragmented in Europe during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Emergence of more expressive styles was frowned upon due to perceived lack of effort and skill in creating stylised pieces. Dividing those who used art to express their emotions and thoughts.

Gradual birth of wealth of anti and neo art movements after the end of realism.

Realism vs Style

Some believe realism should prevail as it shows artists’ true technical capacity and skill like Picasso.

Realism is not the epitome of art.

Today has become less about style of an age or society rather about artists discovering and expressing their own style, regardless of medium, ability or style.

Across history, Art- Powerful tool to push agendas, promote ideologies , fabric and bridge between cultures and people.

. This is the video to know more about pre history of art

https://youtu.be/bkWHrWw5yTg

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AUS Cave Paintings.

Cave paintings in Australia

Cave paintings in Australia are a form of rock art that can be found throughout the country. The paintings were created by Indigenous Australians and are thought to be some of the oldest examples of rock art in the world, with some dating back over 60,000 years.

The paintings were made using natural pigments such as ochre, charcoal, and clay, and were often created on the walls and ceilings of caves and rock shelters. The paintings depict a range of subjects, including animals, humans, and spiritual and mythological figures.

Many of the cave paintings in Australia have significant cultural and spiritual meaning for Indigenous communities, and some are still used in traditional ceremonies today. However, the exact meanings and interpretations of the paintings are often closely guarded secrets and are only known to members of the communities who have the appropriate knowledge.

Some of the most famous examples of cave paintings in Australia can be found in places such as the Kimberley region of Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and the Grampians in Victoria. These sites are often protected and managed by the traditional owners of the land, as well as by government agencies, to ensure their preservation for future generations.

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Prehistoric Art:
Around 500 000 years ago, one of our early ancestors took a shark’s tooth and engraved a zig-zag pattern on the surface of a seashell. Although the reason for its creation is unknown, it is considered to be the earliest existing example of art.

ASIA:
The prehistoric art history of Asia is specifically unique because the written language was adopted early on the continent, especially in China. Mesopotamian  art is rarely defined as prehistoric, as written language took roots relatively early in the region, but the surrounding cultures such as the Persian, the Urartu, and Luristan cultures have all had impactful and highly detailed art traditions.

In Azerbaijan, dated to be around 12, 000 years old, there are approximately 6000 or more rock engravings that represent the figures of humans and animals engaged in various hunting scenarios, which are located at the National Park in Gobustan.

EUROPE:
At sites such as Roca dels Moros, the art is mostly found on cliff faces exposed to the open-air environment. Containing the image of 45 figures, the subject seems to be mainly focused on the human form rather than animal figures. Figures can also be seen to be wearing noticeable garments of clothing and depict daily scenes like food gathering, hunting, engaged in a battle against feuding tribes, and dancing.

AFRICA:
Saharan Africa had its unique style and techniques, with depictions of fauna carved onto walls. Weirdly formed human figures were prominent throughout this period as well as a few animal depictions. As lifestyles changed for the people towards the end of this period, focus on the subject turned towards the depiction of domesticated animals, as well as decorative headdresses and ornate clothing.

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PREHISTORIC ART

Human history before the invention of writing systems and documentation.

PREHISTORY can be divided into 3 periods:

1. Paleolithic period (30,000- 10,000 BCE)

2. Mesolithic period (10,000- 8,000 BCE)

3. Neolithic period (8,000- 3,000 BCE)

KEYWORKS

Nude woman (Venus of Wilendorf) (c. 24,000 BCE)

Lion-Human (c. 30- 26,000 BCE)

Star Carr Pendant (10,000- 8,000 BCE)

Catalhuyuk (7400- 6200 BCE)

Goddess Figurine Catalhuyuk (7400- 6200 BCE)

Stonehenge (c. 2750- 1500 BCE)

TWO TYPES OF PALEOLITHIC ART

1. POCKET (Mobility)- called pocket since it's portable work and generally are of small size given the nomadic lifestyle of Paleolithic people.

2. WALL (Parietal)-

permanently located works found on walls within caves.

variety of geometric motifs, many types of flora and fauna and sometimes human figures

Size: several inches to many feet in length.

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. All art that was created before culture had developed more complex form of expression and communication such as a written language.

.Pre history art can not only be described as art found on cave walls,but also prehistoric sculpture such as the venus figure.

. Artists create pre history art were limited by the resources available to them at the time they lived.

.The first art was made from tools , canvases such as cave walls, bones and pigment such as ochre and burnt wood.

https://artincontext.org/prehistoric-art/#:~:text=Prehistoric art refers to all,such as the Venus figurines.

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Prehistoric India

History

History (from the Greek word – Historia, meaning “inquiry”, knowledge acquired by investigation) is the study of the past. History is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery, collection, organisation, presentation and interpretation of information about these events.

It is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history.

1. Pre-history – Events that occurred before the invention of writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history is represented by the three stone ages.

2. Proto-history – It refers to the period between pre-history and history, during which a culture or organisation had not developed yet but has its mention in the written records of a contemporary literate civilisation. For example, the scripts of the Harappan civilization remains undeciphered, however since its existence is noted in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic civilisation from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto-history as well. Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures are also considered part of proto-history by archaeologists.

3. History – The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of literate societies based on written records and archaeological sources constitute history.

Construction of Ancient Indian History

The sources which help in reconstructing history are:

1. Non-literary sources

2. Literary sources – which include religious literature & secular literature

Non-Literary Sources

Coins: Ancient Indian currency was not issued in the form of paper but as coins. The earliest coins found in India contained only a few symbols, punch-marked coins made of silver & copper, but later coins mentioned the names of the kings, gods, dates, etc. The areas where they were found indicate the region of their circulation. This enabled to reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties, especially during Indo-Greek rule who came to India from Northern Afghanistan and ruled India in 2nd and 1st BCE. Coins throw light on the economic history of different dynasties and also provide input on different parameters involved such as the script, art, religion of that time. It also helps in understanding the progress made in terms of metallurgy and science and technology. (The study of coins is called Numismatics).

Archaeology/Material remains: The science which deals with the digging of the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers and enables to form an idea of the material life of the people is called Archaeology. Material remains recovered as a result of excavation and exploration are subjected to various kinds of examinations. Their dates are fixed according to radiocarbon dating. For example, excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period help us to know about the life of the people who lived in that era. Similarly, the Megaliths (graves in south India) throw light on the life of the people living in the Deccan and South India before 300 BCE. The history of climate and vegetation is known through an examination of plant residues, especially through pollen analysis.

Inscriptions/Prashastis – (The study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions is called epigraphy). Writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone and metals like copper which usually record some achievements, ideas, royal orders and decisions help in understanding different religions, and administrative policies of that era. For example, inscriptions detailing state policy issued by Emperor Ashoka and inscriptions recording the land grants by Satavahanas, Kings of the Deccan.

Foreign accounts: Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. To India came the Greek, Chinese and Roman visitors, either as travellers or religious converts, and left behind a rich account of our historical past. Some of the notables among them were:

Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote “Indica” and provided valuable information about the Mauryan society and administration.

“The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” and “Ptolemy’s Geography” both written in Greek give valuable information about the ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman empire.

Fa-Hein Faxien (337 CE – 422 CE), a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid account of the age of the Guptas.

Hsuan-Tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim, visited India and gave details of India under the reign of King Harshavardhana and the glory of the Nalanda University.

Literary Sources

Religious Literature: The religious literature throws light on the social, economic as well as cultural conditions of the ancient Indian period. Some of the sources are:

The Four Vedas – The Vedas may be assigned to c.1500 – 500 BCE. The Rigveda mainly contains prayers while the later Vedic texts (Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) comprise not only prayers but rituals, magic and mythological stories. Read more on the four Vedas in the linked article.

Upanishads – The Upanishads (Vedanta) contain philosophical discussions on “Atma” and “Paramatma”.

Epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana – Of the two epics, the Mahabharata is older in age and possibly reflects the state of affairs from the 10th century BCE to the 4th century CE. Originally it consisted of 8800 verses (called Jaya Samhita). The final compilation brought the verses to 1,00,000 which came to be known as the Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material. The Ramayana originally consisted of 12000 verses which were later raised to 24000. This epic also has its didactic portions which were added later.

Sutras – Sutras contain ritual literature such as Shrautasutras (which include sacrifices, royal coronation) and Grihya Sutras (which include domestic rituals like birth, naming, marriage, funeral, etc.)

Buddhist religious texts – The early Buddhist texts were written in Pali language and are commonly known as Tripitaka (three baskets) – Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. These texts throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of that era. They also make references to political events in the age of the Buddha. Read more on Buddhism.

Jaina’s religious texts – The Jaina texts commonly called “angas”, were written in the Prakrit language, and contain philosophical concepts of the Jainas. They contain many texts which help to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The Jaina texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. Read more on Jainism.

Secular Literature: There is also a large body of secular literature such as:

Dharmashastras/Law books – These lay down the duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribe the rules according to which property is to be held, sold and inherited. They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft, murder, etc.

Arthashastra – Arthashastra of Kautilya reflects the state of society and economy in the age of the Mauryas.

Literary work of Kalidasa – The works of the great poet Kalidasa comprises kavyas and dramas, the most important being Abhijnanasakuntalam. Besides being creative composition, they give an insight into the social and cultural life of northern and central India in the age of the Guptas.

Rajatarangini – This is the famous book written by Kalhana and depicts the social and political life of 12th century CE Kashmir.

Charitas/Biographies – Charitas are the biographies written by court poets in admiration of their rulers such as Harshacharita written by Banabhatta in praise of King Harshavardhana.

Sangam literature – This is the earliest south Indian literature, produced by poets who assembled together (Sangam), and provides valuable information about the social, economic and political life of the people living in deltaic Tamil Nadu. This Tamil literature contains literary gems such as ‘Silappadikaram’ and ‘Manimekalai’. Read more on Sangam Literature in the linked article.

Prehistoric Periods in India – According to Tools

Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then.

1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE

2. Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE

3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6000 BCE – 1000 BCE

4. Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): 3000 BCE – 500 BCE

5. Iron Age: 1500 BCE – 200 BCE

Stone Age

The stone age is the prehistoric period, i.e., the period before the development of the script, therefore the main source of information for this period is the archaeological excavations. Robert Bruce Foote is the archaeologist who discovered the first palaeolithic tool in India, the Pallavaram handaxe.

On the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone tools, and subsistence base, the Indian stone age is classified primarily into three types-

Palaeolithic age (old stone age): Period – 500,000 – 10,000 BCE

Mesolithic age (late stone age): Period – 10,000 – 6000 BCE

Neolithic age (new stone age): Period – 6000 – 1000 BCE

Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’ which means old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the old stone age. The old stone age or palaeolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age, which is a geological period of the age when the earth was covered with ice and the weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the tropical region, where ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist.

Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age –

1. The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race, and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters.

2. They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on hunting.

3. There was no knowledge of houses, pottery, agriculture. It was only in later stages they discovered fire.

4. In the upper palaeolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of paintings.

5. Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and scrapers.

Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite’ men in India as the stone tools were made of a hard rock called quartzite.

The old stone age or palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of the change of climate.

1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

2. Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC

3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

Lower Palaeolithic Age (Early Palaeolithic Age)

It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.

Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools were rough and heavy.

One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra.

Limestone was also used to make tools.

Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age

Soan valley (in present Pakistan)

Sites in the Thar Desert

Kashmir

Mewar plains

Saurashtra

Gujarat

Central India

Deccan Plateau

Chotanagpur plateau

North of the Cauvery River

Belan valley in UP

There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters.

An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

Middle Palaeolithic age

Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.

The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.

There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools.

Important middle Palaeolithic age sites

Belan valley in UP

Luni valley (Rajasthan)

Son and Narmada rivers

Bhimbetka

Tungabhadra river valleys

Potwar Plateau (between Indus & Jhelum)

Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan)

Upper Palaeolithic age

The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the climate became comparatively warmer and less humid.

Emergence of Homo sapiens.

The period is marked by innovation in tools and technology. A lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools and burin tools.

Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age

Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) – hand axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and a few burins have been found here.

Belan

Son

Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)

Maharashtra

Orissa and

The Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh

Bone tools have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.

Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)

The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek words – ‘meso’ and ‘lithic’. In Greek ‘meso’ means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence, the Mesolithic stage of prehistory is also known as the ‘Middle Stone Age’.

Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene era. In this era, there was a rise in temperature, the climate became warm which resulted in melting of ice and also brought changes in flora and fauna.

Characteristic Features of the Mesolithic Era

The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering initially but later on they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture.

The first animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.

The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent settlements along with occupying caves and open grounds.

The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they buried the dead with food items and other goods.

The characteristic tools of this era were microliths – the miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes. They were not only used as tools but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. These microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds.

The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin.

The Mesolithic people were art lovers and initiated rock art. The subject matter of these paintings was mostly wild animals and hunting scenes, dancing and food collection were also depicted in such paintings. These rock paintings give an idea about the development of religious practices and also reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender.

The first human colonization of the Ganga Plains happened during this period.

Important Mesolithic Sites

Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India. Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths along with animal bones and shells have been excavated.

Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals.

There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich concentration in Central India such as Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).

Microliths have also been found in some valleys of river Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi.

Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites. Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from Langhnaj. Several human skeletons and a large number of microliths have been recovered from these places.

Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, they have been found in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).

Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)

The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘neo’ which means new and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age refers to the ‘New Stone Age’. It is also termed as ‘Neolithic revolution’ since it introduced a lot of important changes in man’s social and economic life. The Neolithic age saw man turning into a food producer from food gatherer.

Characteristic Features of the Neolithic Age

Tools and Weapons – The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stones. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished hand axes. They also used tools and weapons made of bones – such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. The use of new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner.

Agriculture – The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also domesticated cattle, sheep and goats.

Pottery – With the advent of agriculture, people were required to store their food grains as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s why it is said that pottery appeared in this phase on a large scale. The pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat impressed ware. In the initial stages of the Neolithic age, handmade pottery was made but later on, foot wheels were used to make pots.

Housing and Settled Life – The people of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular houses which were made of mud and reeds. Neolithic men also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton, wool and weave cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a more settled life and paved the way for the beginning of civilization.

The neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They inhabited mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the hills, since they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made of stone.

Important Neolithic Sites

Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad) – This site provides evidence of circular huts along with crude hand made pottery. There is also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice, not only in India but anywhere in the world.

Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) – The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in houses built of sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.

Burzahom (Kashmir) – The domestic dogs were buried along with their masters in their graves; people lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones as well as bones.

Gufkral (Kashmir) – This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses.

Chirand (Bihar) – The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones.

Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka) – The people were cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash mounds have been found.

Belan Valley (which is located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of Narmada valley) – All the three phases i.e., palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic ages are found in sequence.

Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age)

The Chalcolithic Age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with stone tools. The first metal to be used was copper. The chalcolithic age largely applied to the pre-Harappan phase, but in many parts of the country, it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture.

Characteristics of the Chalcolithic Age

Agriculture & cattle rearing – The people living in the stone-copper age domesticated animals and cultivated food grains. They domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pig and buffaloes and hunted deer. It is not clear whether they were acquainted with the horse or not. People ate beef but did not take pork on any considerable scale. The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and rice, they also cultivated bajra. They also produced several pulses such as lentil (masur), black gram, green gram, and grass pea. Cotton was produced in the black cotton soil of the Deccan and ragi, bajra and several millets were cultivated in the lower Deccan. The people belonging to the stone-copper phase in the eastern regions lived mainly on fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in that part of the country.

Pottery – The people of the stone-copper phase used different types of pottery, one of which is called black and red pottery and seems to have been widely prevalent in that era. The ochre-coloured pottery was also popular. The potter’s wheel was used and painting with white linear designs was also done.

Rural settlements – The people living in the stone age were characterised by rural settlements and were not acquainted with burnt bricks. They lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. This age also marked the beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs lived in rectangular houses while the commoners lived in round huts. Their villages consisted of more than 35 houses of different sizes, circular or rectangular in shape. The chalcolithic economy is considered as a village economy.

Art and Craft – The chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of copper smelting and were good stone workers as well. They knew spinning and weaving and were well acquainted with the art of manufacturing cloth. However, they did not know the art of writing.

Worship – Small clay images of earth goddesses have been found from the chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated the Mother Goddess. In Malwa and Rajasthan, stylised bull terracottas show that the bull served as a religious cult.

Infant mortality –  Infant mortality was high among the Chalcolithic people, as is evident from the burial of a large number of children in West Maharashtra. In spite of being a food-producing economy, the rate of infant mortality was very high. We can say that the Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not promote longevity.

Jewellery – The Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. They manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.

Important Chalcolithic Sites

Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern Rajasthan) – The people of this region practised smelting and metallurgy, supplied copper tools to other contemporary communities. Rice was cultivated here.

Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan) – Stone blade industry was discovered here.

Daimabad  (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) – The largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari valley. It is famous for recovery of bronze goods such as bronze rhinoceros, elephant, two wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo.

Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) – The settlements of Malwa culture are mostly located on the Narmada and its tributaries. It provides evidence of the richest chalcolithic ceramics, and also spindle whorls.

Kayatha (Madya Pradesh) – The settlement of Kayatha culture was mostly located on the Chambal River and its tributaries. Houses had mud-plastered floors, pre-Harappan elements in pottery along with copper objects with sharp cutting edges were found.

Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal) – These are the prominent chalcolithic sites in these states.

Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra) – Large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses have been discovered here.

Navdatoli (on Narmada) – It was one of the largest chalcolithic settlements in the country. It was spread over 10 hectares and cultivated almost all food grains.

Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh) – These sites are known for their non-Harappan culture.

Prehistoric Period – Iron Age

Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period

Jainism, Buddhism

Mahajanapadas: the first major civilisation on the banks of the river Ganga after the Indus Valley.

IAS aspirants are also advised to check the detailed UPSC syllabus for the prelims and mains examination before starting off with their preparation for a better understanding of the examination.

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Proposed Map of Human migrations(Stone Age)

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Proposed Map of Human migrations(Stone Age)

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"Palaeolithic" means "Old Stone Age", and begins with the first use of stone tools. The Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools by hominins c. 3.3 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene c. 11,650 BP (before the present period).

Early Homo sapiens originated some 300,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic.

Mesolithic

The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age (from the Greek mesos, 'middle', and lithos, 'stone'), was a period in the development of human technology between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic.

The Mesolithic period began with the retreat of glaciers at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, some 10,000 BP, and ended with the introduction of agriculture,

the date of which varied by geographic region. In some areas, such as the Near East, agriculture was already underway by the end of the Pleistocene,

and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. In areas with limited glacial impact, the term "Epipalaeolithic" is sometimes preferred.

Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last ice age ended have a much more evident Mesolithic era, lasting millennia.

In Northern Europe, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands fostered by the warmer climate.

Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviours that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures.

These conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 4000 BCE (6,000 BP) in northern Europe.

Neolithic

"Neolithic" means "New Stone Age", from about 10,200 BCE in some parts of the Middle East, but later in other parts of the world, and ended between 4,500 and 2,000 BCE.

Although there were several species of humans during the Paleolithic, by the Neolithic only Homo sapiens sapiens remained.

This was a period of technological and social developments which established most of the basic elements of historical cultures, such as the domestication of crops and animals, and the establishment of permanent settlements and early chiefdoms.

It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age).

The term Neolithic is commonly used in the Old World, as its application to cultures in the Americas and Oceania that did not fully develop metal-working technology raises problems.

The Neolithic period saw the development of early villages, agriculture, animal domestication, tools, and the onset of the earliest recorded incidents of warfare.[

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Indian Prehistory

History (from the Greek word – Historia, meaning “inquiry”, knowledge acquired by investigation) is the study of the past. History is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery, collection, organisation, presentation and interpretation of information about these events.

It is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history.

Pre-history – Events that occurred before the invention of writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history is represented by the three stone ages.
Proto-history – It refers to the period between pre-history and history, during which a culture or organisation had not developed yet but has its mention in the written records of a contemporary literate civilisation. For example, the scripts of the Harappan civilization remains undeciphered, however since its existence is noted in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic civilisation from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto-history as well. Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures are also considered part of proto-history by archaeologists.
History – The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of literate societies based on written records and archaeological sources constitute history.
Construction of Ancient Indian History
The sources which help in reconstructing history are:

Non-literary sources
Literary sources – which include religious literature & secular literature
Non-Literary Sources

Coins: Ancient Indian currency was not issued in the form of paper but as coins. The earliest coins found in India contained only a few symbols, punch-marked coins made of silver & copper, but later coins mentioned the names of the kings, gods, dates, etc. The areas where they were found indicate the region of their circulation. This enabled to reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties, especially during Indo-Greek rule who came to India from Northern Afghanistan and ruled India in 2nd and 1st BCE. Coins throw light on the economic history of different dynasties and also provide input on different parameters involved such as the script, art, religion of that time. It also helps in understanding the progress made in terms of metallurgy and science and technology. (The study of coins is called Numismatics).
Archaeology/Material remains: The science which deals with the digging of the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers and enables to form an idea of the material life of the people is called Archaeology. Material remains recovered as a result of excavation and exploration are subjected to various kinds of examinations. Their dates are fixed according to radiocarbon dating. For example, excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period help us to know about the life of the people who lived in that era. Similarly, the Megaliths (graves in south India) throw light on the life of the people living in the Deccan and South India before 300 BCE. The history of climate and vegetation is known through an examination of plant residues, especially through pollen analysis.
Inscriptions/Prashastis – (The study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions is called epigraphy). Writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone and metals like copper which usually record some achievements, ideas, royal orders and decisions help in understanding different religions, and administrative policies of that era. For example, inscriptions detailing state policy issued by Emperor Ashoka and inscriptions recording the land grants by Satavahanas, Kings of the Deccan.
Foreign accounts: Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. To India came the Greek, Chinese and Roman visitors, either as travellers or religious converts, and left behind a rich account of our historical past. Some of the notables among them were:
Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote “Indica” and provided valuable information about the Mauryan society and administration.
“The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” and “Ptolemy’s Geography” both written in Greek give valuable information about the ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman empire.
Fa-Hein Faxien (337 CE – 422 CE), a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid account of the age of the Guptas.
Hsuan-Tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim, visited India and gave details of India under the reign of King Harshavardhana and the glory of the Nalanda University.
https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/prehistoric-india-important-points/

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Prehistoric Art - An Exploration of the Prehistoric Art History Timeline

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. All art that was created before culture had developed more complex forms of expression and communication such as a written language.

. Pre history art can not only be described as art found on cave walls, but also prehistoric sculpture such as the venus figure.

. Artist creates pre history art were limited by the resources available to them at the time they lived.

. The first art was made from tools and canvas such as cave walls, bones and pigment such as ochre and burnt wood.

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Prehistoric Art - An Exploration of the Prehistoric Art History Timeline

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There was a time that humans had not yet developed any kind of written language. During this period, various art forms served as a practical method for impartin

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Aurochs, Horses and Deer cave paintings from the Lascaux caves (Montignac, Dordogne, France); lascauz, Public domain

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Prehistoric artists recorded their daily experiences in mediums that have managed to make it through centuries of harsh exposure to changing environmental conditions, giving us detailed insights into what life was like in the earliest days of our species before the development of a written form of communication.

The Origins of Prehistoric ArtAround 500 000 years ago, one of our early ancestors took a shark’s tooth and engraved a zig-zag pattern on the surface of a seashell. Although the reason for its creation is unknown, it is considered to be the earliest existing example of art. Let’s look at the various periods during which art first began to emerge in prehistoric art history.

Lower and Middle Paleolithic Era
The engraved shell was said to come from the later years of the Lower Paleolithic, but most of the evidence points to the Middle Paleolithic as having the best examples of the use of art for expressive reasons instead of being purely practical in application.

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Twisted perspective: a "flattened' representation of a subject (usually a human or an animal) that shows a
'composite view of the subject's features. Some features may be pictured frontally, while others are shown
in three-quarter view or profile

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Pre-History
Events that occurred before the invention of writing are considered prehistory.

Stone Age:

1. Stone tools and weapons: During the Stone Age, people relied on stone tools and weapons to hunt, gather food, and defend themselves. These included flint knives, spears, arrowheads, scrapers, and chisels.

2. Jewelry: People in the Stone Age created jewelry from materials such as shells, bones, and stones.

3. Pottery: Later in the Stone Age, people began to create pottery vessels for storing and cooking food.

4. Fishing equipment: They created fish hooks and nets made from plant fibers or animal tendons.

The Bronze Age:

1. Bronze tools and weapons: The most important products of the Bronze Age were bronze tools and weapons. These included axes, knives, swords, spears, and armor.

2. Chariots: The Bronze Age saw the development of wheeled vehicles, including chariots, which were used for transportation and warfare.

3. Musical instruments: Some Bronze Age communities created musical instruments such as horns, bells, and drums.

4. Metalworking tools: People in the Bronze Age used specialized tools such as hammers, tongs, and anvils to work with metal.

5. Agricultural tools: The Bronze Age saw the development of new agricultural tools such as plows, sickles, and hoes, which helped to increase food production.

Iron Age:

1. Iron tools and weapons: Iron was the most important product of the Iron Age, and it was used to make a wide range of tools and weapons, such as axes, knives, swords, and spears.

2. Pottery: Pottery was used extensively during the Iron Age for storing and cooking food. It was also used to create decorative objects such as figurines.

3. Jewelry: The Iron Age saw the emergence of elaborate metal jewelry, including bracelets, necklaces, and earrings, often made from bronze or gold.

4. Wooden objects: Despite the widespread use of iron, many everyday objects such as bowls, spoons, and furniture were still made from wood during the Iron Age.

5. Glass: Glass was used during the Iron Age to create decorative objects such as beads, as well as for windows in high-status buildings.

6. Building materials: Stone and brick were commonly used to construct buildings during the Iron Age, although the use of mud and wattle-and-daub techniques was also widespread.

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An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools - Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except

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Neolithic: ~8,000 - 2,300 BCE
Sculpture
O
Fixed settlements = larger, more
monumental sculptures
O
Statues begin to incorporate more media
(paint, shell, inlay)
Human figure from Ain
Ghazal, c. 6500 BCE
menhir
Architecture
O
Neolithic period marks beginnings of
architecture
Menhir: large stone erected on its
own or in rows
Megalith: rectangular prism-shaped
menhir used to construct a complex
Post and Lintel construction
Post

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Prehistory cave art
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/history-101-cave-art/

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The Bronze Age is the earliest period in which some civilizations have reached the end of prehistory, by introducing written records.

The Bronze Age or parts thereof are thus considered to be part of prehistory only for the regions and civilizations who adopted or developed a system of keeping written records during later periods.

The invention of writing coincides in some areas with the early beginnings of the Bronze Age. Soon after the appearance of writing,

people started creating texts including written accounts of events and records of administrative matters.

The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use)

included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of ores, and then combining them to cast bronze.

These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper and tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before 3000 BCE.

The Bronze Age forms part of the three-age system for prehistoric societies. In this system, it follows the Neolithic in some areas of the world.

While copper is a common ore, deposits of tin are rare in the Old World, and often had to be traded or carried considerable distances from the few mines, stimulating the creation of extensive trading routes.

In many areas as far apart as China and England, the valuable new material was used for weapons but for a long time apparently not available for agricultural tools.

Much of it seems to have been hoarded by social elites, and sometimes deposited in extravagant quantities, from Chinese ritual bronzes and Indian copper hoards to European hoards of unused axe-heads.

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The last Ice Age occurred about 120,000 years ago, but the study's date suggests humans started wearing clothes in the preceding Ice Age 180,000 years ago, according to temperature estimates from ice core studies
The first known humans to make clothing, Neanderthal man, survived from about 200,000 B.C.E. to about 30,000 B.C.E. During this time the earth’s temperature rose and fell dramatically, creating a series of ice ages throughout the northern areas of Europe and Asia where the Neanderthal man lived.