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Summary
The accusatorial model of interrogation uses a guild presumptive model which assumes the suspect is guilty before the interview takes place. This way of interrogating a suspect has the officers using confrontational strategies towards the suspect to get them to confession to the crimes they are being accused of and also uses psychological manipulation towards the suspect. However the information gathering approach is based on scientific principles which allows the officers to build a rapport with the suspect they are interviewing. In this model the officers are trained to ask open ended questions to the suspect to allow for the suspect to get their point across and defend themselves in less of a confrontational environment.

The Reid technique
The Reid technique is a nine step method utilising coercion and deceit to promote confessions from suspects being interviewed. The use of the Reid technique is problematic to juveniles as it can cause high levels of false confessions which can then result in high wrongful convictions

The PEACE method
The PEACE method is inquisitorial and information seeking approach (Snook et al., 2010) it is effective in generating information while avoiding the pitfalls associated with other methods of interviewing such as false confessions (Meissner et al., 2014). This method is also currently considered the best practice for interviewing suspects (Bull, 2018).

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The Reid Technique

(Spierer, 2017):

The Reid Technique is a guilt-presumptive, nine-step method whereby interrogators use coercion and deceit to extract confessions, regardless of the costs. When used with juvenile suspects, this method becomes all the more problematic, in that the integration of the psychological manipulation techniques and the vulnerabilities/susceptibility of children has led to an unacceptably high rate of false confessions amongst juvenile suspects. This is because the Reid Technique is founded on the belief that a suspect will not confess unless it is in their best interest to do so, meaning interrogators seek to frame confessing as the suspect’s best option – a framing, of which, children are particularly vulnerable to. This is particularly problematic when considering that confessions are crucial in the criminal justice system, in that an addition of a false confession to a steam of evidence is likely to result in the conviction of an innocent person (95) and the freedom of a guilty person. Juveniles often do not realise that such long-lasting consequences may follow, and such, may suffer from detrimental effects to their wellbeing.

PEACE Model

(Archer & Ellison, 2023):

PEACE is a five-stage model used to interview suspects and witnesses in England and Wales (Walsh & Bull, 2010). The structure lends itself to allow individuals to discuss the incident and to seek their version of what occurred (Walsh & Bull, 2010). Research into the effectiveness of the PEACE model has been conducted; findings suggest that police officers need adequate training and practice in all elements of the model to ensure effective interviews are conducted (Archer & Ellison, 2023). Neal (2019) also noted that the PEACE model was the most reliable of 3 different techniques (the Reid Technique, Cognitive Interview and the PEACE model), enabling police officers to gather testimonies in great detail without having to diminish the statements’ accuracy. However, the main issues with the PEACE model are the overall lack of research on it’s effectiveness (both in general, and when used with vulnerable groups), as well as a requirement for copious amounts of training, which may discourage police officers to adopt this method of interviewing (Neal, 2019).

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1. Both accusatorial and information-gathering approaches are examples of macro-level interrogation models, which represent broad-based dichotomised methods of interrogation (Kelly et al., 2013). For instance, the most popular method of interrogation in the US is the accusatorial model, whereas the UK frequently adopts the information-gathering model (Meissner et al., 2014).

The accusatorial method is a guilt-presumptive model, which uses confrontational strategies and psychological manipulation to evoke confessions from the suspect (Kassin et al., 2010). An example of this model is the Reid Technique, which consists of 2 phases – the interview and the interrogation (Inbau et al., 2013). The initial phase relies on behavioural cues to detect deceit in suspects, whereas the interrogation relies on confronting the suspect with the primary goal of gaining a confession (Meissner et al., 2014). Due to the nature of this method, electronic recording of interrogations are sometimes obstructed by law enforcement (Miller et al., 2018).

On the other hand, the information-gathering approach is based on scientific principles, and aims to establish rapport between the interviewer and the suspect to elicit information, rather than a confession (Walsh et al., 2016). As opposed to the accusatory approach, this technique relies on open questions and actively refrains from the use of psychological manipulation (Miller et al., 2018). The standard model of interviewing suspects in England and Wales is the PEACE method, which integrates Conversation Management and the Cognitive Interview. In addition to this, videotaping police-suspect interactions is often recommend or mandated (Schollum, 2005).

2. To be finished! :)

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Within the accusatorial model of interrogation the interviewee is subjected to accusations made my the interviewer. While the information-gathering style concentrates on more open style questions rather than confronting the interviewee with the prospect that the interviewer belief that they are guilty prior to the interview (Vriji et al., 2006). It is already identified within literature that the accusational style is used more within the United States (Inbau et al., 2001) while the information-gathering style is used more in England & Wales (Williamson, 1993).

An accusatory interview will put an interviewee under pressure to answer questions, these types of interviews are viewed as being more psychologically demanding on the interviewee, however less cognitively demanding. Answers given during accusatory interviews are often short and to the point while information-gathering answers may be more detailed and could contain information that is not relevant (Vriji et al., 2006). Though it is noted that, a 'liar' who is part of an accusatory interview will be more likely to 'slip-up' than someone who is telling the truth, therefore it can be concluded that accusatory interviews work very effectively when dealing with the actual persecutor of a crime (Kassin and Gudjonsson, 2004). Though to work under this assumption could be problematic for a case.

Information-gathering interview styles are considered easier for the interviewees, as they will have less pressure put on them and are allowed to go into more detail, allowing them to rethink the experience of their crime and possible pick up on details that they may not have thought of originally. This interview style encourages interviewees to talk, which allows for the police force to gather more information on a crime in an easier way (Fisher et al., 2002). Additionally, due to the lack of false accusations within this interview style it reduces the likelihood of a false confession due to pressure placed on the interviewee (Gudjonsson, 2003). Overall, this approach is seen as far more ethical than accusatory interviews (Williamson, 1993). However, a drawback of information-gathering interviews is that police officers may see it as a 'too easy' of a route and would prefer the interview style that allows them to exercise their power (Sear & Stephenson, 1997).

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The accusatorial model is often referred to as a guilt-presumptive model, adopting confrontational approaches, manipulative techniques, and closed/confirmatory questions to prompt confessions (Kassin et al., 2014). In contrast, information-gathering approaches are founded within scientific principles, creating a rapport between the suspect and interviewer + prompting information rather than eliciting confessions (Walsh et al., 2016). Accusatorial models use controlling and manipulative tactics to obtain a confession. Whereas the information gathering approach utilises positive confrontations to instigate information, and clearly explains the charge to the suspect following a formal procedure. A study by Vrij et al. (2006) compared information-gathering and accusatorial styles of interviewing investigating respondents’ perceptions of their degree of uncomfortableness and cognitive demand, and the extent to which they felt listened too. Information-gathering interviews were perceived as more cognitively demanding and participants felt more heard, whereas accusatorial were perceived as making participants uncomfortable.

The Reid Technique

The Reid Technique is predominately used within the United States, following a guilt-presumptive nine-step method utilising coercion and deceit to prompt confessions (Spierer, 2017). Spierer (2017) study highlighted using the Reid Technique is particularly problematic among juvenile suspects – leading to high rates of false confessions resulting from coercive interrogation tactics, ultimately leading to an increase in wrongful convictions.

The PEACE Model

The PEACE Model is made up of five stages of managing the process of an interview: Preparation and Planning; Engage and Explain; Account, Clarification, Challenge; Closure; and Evaluation (Snook et al., 2014). The PEACE model is a non-accusatory, information-gathering approach to investigative interviewing and is the most efficient practice and is suitable for any interviewee – interviewers are encouraged to be fair and open-minded (Snook et al., 2014). Though, it is crucial that the model is continuously monitored to ensure development. Implications of the PEACE Model demonstrated that officers trained in the method used more engage and explain behaviours to gain information, rather than coercive tactics (Barron, 2017). Trained interviewers were found to use more open-ended questions, more clarifications, and fewer leading questions – leading to a decrease in false confessions and wrongful convictions (Barron, 2017).

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Summary
Both the accusatorial model and the information-gathering model aim to collect information from
suspects; however, each are based on different principles to illicit such information. The accusatorial
model of interrogation is described as a guilt-presumptive model, which uses confrontational
strategies and psychological manipulation to elicit confessions (Kassin, Appleby, & Perillo, 2010;
Meissner et al., 2014). In contrast, the information-gathering approach (Meissner et al., 2014) aims
to establish rapport between the interviewer and suspect, and elicit information rather than
obtaining confessions (Walsh et al., 2016).
Techniques
Accusatorial model – uses the Reid Technique Interrogation
The Reid Technique (Inbau et al, 1986; 2001; Holmberg, 2012) is used largely within the accusative
interviewing process and is the predominant model of interrogation used in the United States
(Borum et al., 2009). This approach wrongly assumes that innocent suspects can be distinguished
from their guilty counterparts, as deceit can overshadow this. This could lead to innocent suspects
being attributed as guilty, and guilty suspect showcasing their deceptive innocence. This can also
encourage the production of an “internalised false confession” whereby the individual may come to
believe/accept that they are guilty, despite being innocent, as a result of this interviewing technique
(Moore & Fitzsimmons, 2011).
Information-gathering model – uses the PEACE approach
An initial evaluation of the PEACE model found certain improvements in police officers' interviewing
skills such as questioning and listening skills (McGurk, 1993). However, a later study suggested
concerns in interviewer performance particularly in regard to (i) rapport building, (ii) empathic
approaches towards suspects, (iii) summarizing, and (iv) conversation management, the latter being
one of the foundattion of the PEACE model (Bull and Cherryman, 1996). Whilst these two studies
provide useful findings, they were conducted during the time of the implementation of the new
training in England and Wales. It might be argued therefore that learned skills had not had sufficient
time to be fully embedded into regular police practice. However, more recent research has also
suggested flaws in the application of this interviewing technique (Griffiths, 2008). Therefore, in
theory, this technique appears to be initially more effective in reducing false confessions. However,
the ambiguities surrounding the efficacy of the training provided undermines the effectiveness with
which this approach is used across police forces.

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Miller et al. (2018)

The accusatorial and the information-gathering approaches to suspect interviewing are both macro-level interrogation models, despite them sharing this model there are more differences between the two than commonalities. The accusatorial approach to suspect interviewing is deemed a ‘guilt-presumptive model’ whereby methods of questioning and psychological manipulation are used to obtain confessions. It is suggested that this approach is commonly used in the United States of America. In contrast, the information-gathering approach, which is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, focuses on gathering information through open-ended methods of questioning rather than obtaining confessions through manipulation. This approach is based on scientific evidence and highlights an importance in rapport building between the interviewer and the suspect.

The Reid Technique

I was unable to find research on this technique for some reason? I searched, but all papers I looked at were critical reviews/book chapters. I have taken something from those though to try and answer the question 😊

The Reid Technique appears to oppose most of the recommendations for successful interviewing; it is not empirically supported, there is a strong emphasis on interrogating the suspect if the interviewer believes they are not being honest, and it allows the interviewer to exaggerate the amount(s) of evidence that the police have in order to try and elicit confessions (Oxburgh et al., 2011). This technique focuses on body language, however it has been suggested that individuals being able to correctly detect deception from non-verbal cues is not as strong as it may appear (Hood & Hoffman, 2019). This form of interviewing is not commonplace in the United Kingdom due to the levels of deception involved (Gudjonsson, 2012). Moreover, this has the potential to explain why in the United States of America the wrongful conviction rate is so high (3200 in 2019; Possley et al., 2022).

The PEACE Model of interviewing

Walsh and Bull (2010) conducted research that compared interviewing skills against interviewing outcomes, specifically seeking to understand if following the PEACE model when interviewing alters the outcome. Findings demonstrate that when following the PEACE model in suspect interviewing the outcomes are more effective. Additionally, those who exceed in the preparation and planning stage of the model generally see better results and are somewhat more likely to obtain a confession. This highlights the positive contributions being made by the PEACE model, especially since previous criticisms in police interviewing including a lack of preparation (Clarke & Milne, 2001).

Paper: Walsh, D., & Bull, R. (2010). What really is effective in interviews with suspects? A study comparing interviewing skills against interviewing outcomes. Legal And Criminological Psychology, 15(2), 305-321. DOI:10.1348/135532509X463356