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The first step of the ARCS model is to make sure you have your learner's attention. There are many ways to achieve this, including adding humor to your lessons. There is no need to force a joke, but if you can manage to add something that will make the learners laugh, go ahead and add it. Another way to keep your learner's attention is by varying your presentation. It will be difficult to hold the attention of your learner for an hour if you just stand and lecture the entire time. If you break your lecture up into sections and add videos to help present your ideas, your learners will be more inclined to pay attention.

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The second step of the ARCS model is relevance. You want to make sure your instruction is relevant to your learners. One way to make this happen is to relate your new lessons to previous lessons. This way, learners know there is importance in the lesson, and it serves a purpose. Another way to ensure relevance in your instruction, is to offer a choice. For instance, you can allow learners to complete an assignment by submitting an essay or doing a project.

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The third step of the ARCS model is Confidence.  This focus’s on increasing a learners self confidence and decreasing his or her anxiety or doubting habits on their ability to learn or succeed. The best way to make this happen is providing opportunities for success. This is offering opportunities for learners to get practice and apply their new skills in an environment that supports them the most so that they can build their confidence.

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The fourth and last step of the ARCS model is Satisfaction. This focus’s on making a positive learning experience for learners by providing opportunities to make the learner feel accomplished and successful. This can be achieved through a strategy called Offering Incentives. This will provide all learners with a sense of success and will motivate them to continue with their learning.

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The dangers of ChatGPT in Online Students

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The dangers of ChatGPT in Online Students

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ChatGPT is a tool that can help with assignments. However, most students do not use it for helping. Commonly when ChatGPT is used- it is done to do entire assignments using the help of A.I.

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When the company OpenAI launched its new artificial intelligence program, ChatGPT, in late 2022, educators began to worry. ChatGPT could generate text that seemed like a human wrote it. How could teachers detect whether students were using language generated by an AI chatbot to cheat on a writing assignment?

As a linguist who studies the effects of technology on how people read, write and think, I believe there are other, equally pressing concerns besides cheating. These include whether AI, more generally, threatens student writing skills, the value of writing as a process, and the importance of seeing writing as a vehicle for thinking.

As part of the research for my new book on the effects of artificial intelligence on human writing, I surveyed young adults in the U.S. and Europe about a host of issues related to those effects. They reported a litany of concerns about how AI tools can undermine what they do as writers. However, as I note in my book, these concerns have been a long time in the making.

Users see negative effects

Tools like ChatGPT are only the latest in a progression of AI programs for editing or generating text. In fact, the potential for AI undermining both writing skills and motivation to do your own composing has been decades in the making.

Spellcheck and now sophisticated grammar and style programs like Grammarly and Microsoft Editor are among the most widely known AI-driven editing tools. Besides correcting spelling and punctuation, they identify grammar issues as well as offer alternative wording.

AI text-generation developments have included autocomplete for online searches and predictive texting. Enter "Was Rome" into a Google search and you're given a list of choices like "Was Rome built in a day." Type "ple" into a text message and you're offered "please" and "plenty." These tools inject themselves into our writing endeavors without being invited, incessantly asking us to follow their suggestions.

Young adults in my surveys appreciated AI assistance with spelling and word completion, but they also spoke of negative effects. One survey participant said that "At some point, if you depend on a predictive text [program], you're going to lose your spelling abilities." Another observed that "Spellcheck and AI software ... can ... be used by people who want to take an easier way out."

One respondent mentioned laziness when relying on predictive texting: "It's OK when I am feeling particularly lazy."

Personal expression diminished

AI tools can also affect a person's writing voice. One person in my survey said that with predictive texting, "[I] don't feel I wrote it."

A high school student in Britain echoed the same concern about individual writing style when describing Grammarly: "Grammarly can remove students' artistic voice. ... Rather than using their own unique style when writing, Grammarly can strip that away from students by suggesting severe changes to their work."

In a similar vein, Evan Selinger, a philosopher, worried that predictive texting reduces the power of writing as a form of mental activity and personal expression.

"[B]y encouraging us not to think too deeply about our words, predictive technology may subtly change how we interact with each other," Selinger wrote. "[W]e give others more algorithm and less of ourselves. ... [A]utomation ... can stop us thinking."

In literate societies, writing has long been recognized as a way to help people think. Many people have quoted author Flannery O'Connor's comment that "I write because I don't know what I think until I read what I say." A host of other accomplished writers, from William Faulkner to Joan Didion, have also voiced this sentiment. If AI text generation does our writing for us, we diminish opportunities to think out problems for ourselves.

One eerie consequence of using programs like ChatGPT to generate language is that the text is grammatically perfect. A finished product. It turns out that lack of errors is a sign that AI, not a human, probably wrote the words, since even accomplished writers and editors make mistakes. Human writing is a process. We question what we originally wrote, we rewrite, or sometimes start over entirely.

Challenges in schools

When undertaking school writing assignments, ideally there is ongoing dialogue between teacher and student: Discuss what the student wants to write about. Share and comment on initial drafts. Then it's time for the student to rethink and revise. But this practice often doesn't happen. Most teachers don't have time to fill a collaborative editorial - and educational - role. Moreover, they might lack interest or the necessary skills, or both.

Conscientious students sometimes undertake aspects of the process themselves - as professional authors typically do. But the temptation to lean on editing and text generation tools like Grammarly and ChatGPT makes it all too easy for people to substitute ready-made technology results for opportunities to think and learn.

Educators are brainstorming how to make good use of AI writing technology. Some point up AI's potential to kick-start thinking or to collaborate. Before the appearance of ChatGPT, an earlier version of the same underlying program, GPT-3, was licensed by commercial ventures such as Sudowrite. Users can enter a phrase or sentence and then ask the software to fill in more words, potentially stimulating the human writer's creative juices.

A fading sense of ownership

Yet there's a slippery slope between collaboration and encroachment. Writer Jennifer Lepp admits that as she increasingly relied on Sudowrite, the resulting text "didn't feel like mine anymore. It was very uncomfortable to look back over what I wrote and not really feel connected to the words or ideas."

Students are even less likely than seasoned writers to recognize where to draw the line between a writing assist and letting an AI text generator take over their content and style.

As the technology becomes more powerful and pervasive, I expect schools will strive to teach students about generative AI's pros and cons. However, the lure of efficiency can make it hard to resist relying on AI to polish a writing assignment or do much of the writing for you. Spellcheck, grammar check and autocomplete programs have already paved the way.

Writing as a human process

I asked ChatGPT whether it was a threat to humans' motivation to write. The bot's response:

"There will always be a demand for creative, original content that requires the unique perspective and insight of a human writer."

It continued: "[W]riting serves many purposes beyond just the creation of content, such as self-expression, communication, and personal growth, which can continue to motivate people to write even if certain types of writing can be automated."

I was heartened to find the program seemingly acknowledged its own limitations.

My hope is that educators and students will as well. The purpose of making writing assignments must be more than submitting work for a grade. Crafting written work should be a journey, not just a destination.

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How ChatGPT robs students of motivation to write and think for themselves

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People who have used AI to help with writing report a loss of pride and ownership in what they produce.

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Some parents say that online learning has been more difficult than ever, while others say that it is much easier for their children to learn. Is there a background reason for this?

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Blavatnik School of Government and Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

Department of Psychology, Universtiy of York, York, United Kingdom

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced millions children worldwide to learn at home. Recent reports showed that this had a negative impact on children's motivation to learn. The current study investigated what factors were associated with a child's motivation during the pandemic and how parents motivated their children to learn at home. A total of 1,041 parents from India filled out a close-ended survey to help shed light on the issues. The results confirmed that children in India were significantly less motivated to learn during (vs before) the pandemic and revealed that a child's motivation to learn at home was associated with multiple factors, such as household income, parents' employment status, child's academic achievement, and parent's enjoyment in homeschooling. In contrast, the availability and usage of various technological resources bore no relation to a child's motivation. Finally, the current data showed that Indian parents most frequently used TV time, words of encouragement, and play/game time as motivators; the least popular motivators were money, new toys, and physical punishment. Exploratory analyses showed that a child's motivation to learn tended to be lower when parents used more physical punishment to "motivate" their children. These findings were discussed in relation to public/education policies.

Introduction

On January 30, 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic was declared as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the World Health Organisation. Governments worldwide responded to this by implementing travel bans, lockdowns, and facility closures. In 172 countries, schools, colleges, and universities were forced to closed, impacting 98.5% of the world's student population ( UNESCO, 2020). To ensure education continues, remote learning at home becomes more than a trend but rather a necessity.

Since the pandemic began in early 2020, much research has taken place to shed light on how parents and children worldwide coped with remote learning. For instance, Mælan et al. (2021) explored how Norwegian students at various levels of academic achievement differed in their remote learning experience; Dong et al. (2020) surveyed how Chinese parents' attitudes towards online learning affected their children's education during the pandemic; Parczewska (2020) investigated how parents in Poland coped with the demands from homeschooling. Although these studies were conducted in different parts of the world, they all noted that school-aged children have difficulty maintaining motivation during remote learning. Similarly, in a survey with 3,000 school-aged students across the United Kingdom, Elevate Education (2020) found that motivation levels plummeted during the national school closures from March to July 2020, with 81% of the surveyed students stating that they felt unmotivated to learn during those months. As suggested by decades of psychological research, motivation is developmentally interlocked with academic achievement throughout an individual's education (e.g., Gottfried, 1985, 1990; Wilkins and Ma, 2003; Aunola et al., 2006; Denissen et al., 2007; Ryan and Deci, 2009; Viljaranta et al., 2009; Garon-Carrier et al., 2016). Despite the importance of motivation, surprisingly little research has directly examined the effect of COVID-19-related school closures on children's motivation or how parents motivated their children to learn during the pandemic. In this paper, I present findings from an Indian survey that aimed to address three research questions, all of which have the potential to inform education policies:

1) Did COVID-19-related school closures reduce learning motivation among Indian children?

2) What factors influenced a child's motivation during school closures (e.g., gender, academic achievement, their parents' employment status)?

3) How did Indian parents motivate their children to learn at home during the pandemic?

Materials and Methods

Participants

Over 3,000 respondents from India were recruited via Amazon MTurk and Qualtrics Panel. India was chosen as the target country because it was a funder's requirement. After screening out ineligible respondents (e.g., not from India, childless, failed attention checks), the final sample comprises 1,041 Indian parents ( N MTurk = 521, N Qualtrics = 520; 43.9% Female; M age = 33.5, SD age = 5.8). They had at least one child between the ages of 6 and 15. Table 1 summarises the background information of the sample.

TABLE 1. Background information of the sample.

Procedure

Data collection began in mid-March 2021 and ended in mid-June 2021. Respondents received approximately $1 USD upon completion of the survey. Written informed consent was obtained before the survey began (Reference for ethics approval: CUREC1A/BSG_C1A-20-19). The survey was hosted on Qualtrics, and respondents could complete the survey using whatever device they preferred (e.g., mobile phone, tablet, computer).

Questionnaire

The survey was drafted by the author, reviewed and refined by five other researchers within the Digital Pathways Research Group at the University of Oxford. It was then sent out to 10 parents in the United Kingdom for piloting. The survey is available in the Supplementary Table S1, and completion required 5-10 min. If a respondent had more than one child, they were asked to consider throughout the survey the one with whom they interacted the most during the pandemic (See Table 2 for details of the children being considered). All the questions, written in English, were close-ended. To safeguard data quality, three attention checks were implemented (e.g., "This is an attention check, choose Never"). Failure in any of these checks resulted in immediate termination of the survey, and data from these participants were discarded.

TABLE 2. Age and gender distribution of the children being considered in the survey.

Data Analysis

The survey data were analysed in the R statistical programming environment (version 4.0.3; R Core Team, 2020). The package ggplot2 ( Wickham, 2016) was used for data visualisation. The survey was not pre-registered. The data and the R markdown scripts associated with this study are available on the Open Science Framework. All the linear regressions reported below are simple linear regressions (i.e., only one predictor).

Results

Did COVID-19-Related School Closures Reduce Learning Motivation Among Indian Children?

We asked the respondents to rate their children's motivation levels on a scale of 0 (Not at all motivated) to 10 (Very motivated)-one for before and another for during the pandemic. The mean levels were 7.95 ( SD = 1.59) and 7.22 ( SD = 1.87), respectively. The difference was significant, as indicated by a paired t-test [ t (1,040) = −12.38, p < 0.001]. In other words, it is estimated that Indian children were on average about 10% less motivated to learn at home than at school pre-COVID-19. Interestingly, the motivational ratings for before and during the pandemic were correlated only to a modest extent ( r = +0.406, p < 0.001).

Is Children's Motivation During School Closures Related to

Their Gender?

Four hundred and twenty-three (or 40.5%) of the children being considered were girls while 613 (or 58.8%) were boys. Motivation levels were numerically higher in girls than in boys ( M girl = 7.36 vs M boy = 7.15). This was, however, not statistically significant according to an independent t-test [ t (881.47) = 1.78, p = 0.075].

Household Income?

Respondents indicated their annual household income among 12 income brackets. Figure 1A showed how a household's annual income is related to a child's motivation to learn during the pandemic. A simple linear regression revealed that children from more financially advantaged households are generally more motivated ( p s < 0.035). However, caution is warranted in interpreting this finding, as our sample is composed mainly of parents from low- to middle-income backgrounds.

FIGURE 1. Caption: How (A) a household's annual income, (B) academic achievement, and (D) parents' enjoyment in homeschooling related to the child's motivation to learn at home during the pandemic. (C) showed the frequency with which each technological gadget was used by the children to access learning materials during the pandemic. (E) showed the association between parents' enjoyment in homeschooling and their satisfaction with the support provided by their children's school.

Employment Status of the Parents?

Respondents indicated their employment status in the period of March 2020 to June 2020. 698 (67.0%) of them were employed full-time, 142 (13.6%) employed part-time, 48 (4.6%) were housewives/husbands, and the remaining 14.6% respondents were students, unemployed, or self-employed. A simple linear regression showed that children whose parents worked full-time were rated more motivated than those with parents who worked part-time ( p = 0.001), were housewives/husbands ( p = 0.005), or were unemployed ( p = 0.05).

Their Academic Achievement Before COVID-19?

Respondents indicated their children's academic achievement prior to the pandemic among six options: Much better than their peers [290], Better than their peers [426], Very similar to their peers [246], Slightly below their peers [65], Significantly below their peers [5], and Not sure [9] (Note: numbers in square brackets represent the number of respondents who chose that option). After excluding the 14 respondents who chose Significantly below their peers and Not sure, a simple linear regression revealed that children with better academic achievement before the pandemic were significantly more motivated during school closures ( ps < 0.02; see Figure 1B).

The Availability of Various Technological Devices?

Respondents indicated what technological devices (e.g., computer, Internet, mobile phone, radio, tablet, TV) their children had access to during the pandemic and how often each of these devices was used by the children on an regular day to facilitate learning: 0, <1, 1-2, 2-4, and >4 h. The data showed that Indian children most frequently used the Internet and mobile phone to learn (see Figure 1C). A simple linear regression revealed no evidence that having access to a certain device or having more frequent usage increased motivation to learn in the children ( p s > 0.08).

How Much a Parent's Enjoyed Homeschooling?

Among the 1,041 respondents, 977 (or 93.8%) of them were involved in homeschooling their children during the pandemic. These parents were asked to rate how much they enjoyed homeschooling on a scale of 0 (No Enjoyment) to 10 (A Lot of Enjoyment), in increment of 0.1. The mean level of enjoyment was 6.98 ( SD = 2.15). This correlated moderately with their perceived motivation level of their children during the pandemic ( r = +0.619, p < 0.001).

Additionally, I explored whether the level of enjoyment is predicted by how satisfied the parents were with the amount of support provided by their children's schools. The respondents indicated their satisfaction by selecting one of the four options: Definitely Yes [325], Probably Yes [513], Probably Not [88], and Definitely Not [33]. A simple linear regression showed that parents who were more satisfied with the amount of school support generally found homeschooling more enjoyable (see Figure 1E).

The Number of Homeschooling Hours?

Respondents estimated how many hours a day they spent on homeschooling their children during the pandemic. The average was 3.4 h ( SD = 1.3). This bears little relation to a child's motivation during the pandemic ( r = +0.168, p < 0.001).

How Did Indian Parents Motivate Their Children to Learn at Home During the Pandemic?

A total of 13 motivators, determined by a pilot study, were supplied to the respondents. They indicated the frequency with which each of them (e.g., TV time, new toys) was used during the pandemic. Six frequency options were available: Never, Once or Twice a Month, Once a Week, 2-4 Times a Week, Almost Every Day, and Every Day. Figure 2 summarises the frequency with which each motivator was adopted. Among all motivators, TV time, words of encouragement, and play/game time (in descending order) were the most popular. On the other hand, money, new toys, and physical punishment were the least popular.

FIGURE 2. The frequency with which a motivator was used by Indian parents during the pandemic.

I also explored whether a child's motivation levels during the pandemic was related to the frequency with which each motivator was used. A simple linear regression showed that a child's motivation to learn tends to be higher when parents more frequently used goal setting to motivate their children ( ps < 0.035). Also, it showed that a child's motivation tends to be lower when more physical punishment was adopted ( ps < 0.02). The latter echoes with prior evidence that physical punishment can be detrimental to a child's motivation (e.g., Ahmad et al., 2013). Finally, additional analyses found no evidence that the usage of various motivators is related to a child's gender, household income, or academic achievement.

Discussion

Much education research during the COVID-19 pandemic noted that school closures have significantly reduced motivation in school-aged children (e.g., Parczewska, 2021). Despite the importance of motivation in academic achievement, relatively little is known about what factors were associated with a child's motivation during the pandemic or what techniques were adopted by parents to motivate their children. To fill this research gap, a survey was designed and filled in by over 1,000 parents in India. Below, I discuss in turn the key findings from the survey.

First, the current study extended a prior study ( Elevate Education, 2020) by demonstrating that children in a developing country also experienced weak motivation during COVID-19-related school closures. This provides evidence for the universality of the issue and highlights the importance of using appropriate measures to combat poor motivation in school-aged children during protracted school closures (see e.g., Mak and Elsherif, submitted).

Second, Indian children from richer households appear to have greater motivation to learn during the pandemic. This might be because more affluent families can provide their children with more educational resources (e.g., books, educational games, online private tutorials), which might, in turn, help sustain the children's interest in learning. Interestingly, Indian parents who were employed full-time were more likely to report greater motivation in their children than parents who did not work or not as regularly. This hints that monetary resources might play a more influential role in shaping a child's motivation during the pandemic than whether a parent has more time to supervise their children.

Third, not surprisingly, children with poorer academic achievement before the pandemic generally have weaker motivation to learn during school closures. This mirrors a recent finding by Mælan et al. (2021), who observed that low- (vs high-) achieving students in Norway generally exhibited lower efforts and self-efficacy throughout the pandemic. Together, these findings highlight that low-achieving students tend to suffer more from COVID-19-related school closures and that these children may require greater and more frequent assistance from parents/teachers to make progress in their learning.

The current survey revealed that the motivation to learn among Indian children was not related to the availability or the frequency of usage of various technological devices. This means that as long as Indian children have access to some technological resources, their motivation to learn is unlikely to be enhanced by more devices or greater usage. This echoes with the findings by a recent report showing that the hardware is less important than the learning content ( Pathway for Prosperity Commission, 2019). Developing countries are therefore better advised to invest in policies that target behaviours, rather than costly and excessive investment in hardware deployment. Indeed, over a decade of evidence from the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) programme supported this view: The OLPC initiative aimed to improve education in developing countries by equipping children with educational devices; however, there was no evidence that such hardware deployment improved education outcome (e.g., De Melo et al., 2014), and in some localities such as Ghana, it even produced unfavourable consequences, such as worsened cultural divides ( Steeves et al., 2017). The reasons for its failure are a subject of debate (see Morgan, 2019), but some researchers attributed it to OLPC failing to consider vital factors such as learning outcomes and available resources (e.g., Kaloostian et al., 2020). In short, the current survey adds to the existing evidence base that hardware deployment is unlikely to be a panacea for improving education outcome or motivation levels among school-aged children in developing countries.

Next, a child's motivation to learn during the pandemic was positively related to how much their parents enjoyed homeschooling. Given the correlational nature of this finding, it is impossible to infer any kind of causality. However, there is existing evidence indicating reciprocity between parents' and children's emotional well-being (e.g., Boutelle et al., 2009); it is, therefore, reasonable to argue that a child's motivation influences how much their parent enjoys homeschooling, which, in turn, shapes the child's motivation level. This highlights the need to understand how a parent's experience in homeschooling can be enhanced and facilitated ( Thorell et al., 2021). The current survey found evidence that a parent's enjoyment in homeschooling is positively related to how satisfied they are with the amount of support provided by their children's school. This suggests that it might be possible to improve parents' enjoyment if schools could provide timely and sufficient support (e.g., regular homework, learning syllabus). A consequence of this might be increased parental enjoyment, and hence, greater motivation in children.

In relation to the above, the current survey found no evidence that the number of hours dedicated to homeschooling has any association with a child's motivation in the Indian context. This suggests that Indian parents should focus on the quality of homeschooling, as opposed to placing a strict quota on the number of homeschooling hours. Schools may give guidance to parents on how best to routinise homeschooling.

Finally, in terms of motivators, our respondents most frequently used TV time, words of encouragement, and play/game time during the pandemic. The fact that TV time is the most frequently used motivator suggests that governments in India could invest more in educational TV programmes. This will not only increase the prevalence and accessibility of education in India (e.g., Rani, 2006), but it will also give parents the peace of mind that their children are being exposed to TV content that is both child-appropriate and intellectually enriching. On the other hand, the current data showed that Indian parents least frequently used money, new toys, and physical punishment as motivators. Some empirical studies (e.g., Deci et al., 1999; Elbla, 2012; Ahmad et al., 2013) have shown that these techniques often hamper, instead of enhance, children's motivation to learn. And indeed, the data from the current survey showed that a child's motivation level during the pandemic is negatively related to the frequency of physical punishment. Note, however, that it is impossible to tell whether our respondents under-reported the usage of these potentially detrimental motivators, which might be considered socially undesirable ( Grimm, 2010). In addition, despite being the least popular, these motivators are still regularly employed by some respondents. Local governments and schools should consider, for instance, distributing leaflets to parents to educate them on what motivators are better suited for motivating children (e.g., goal setting).

Limitations

The current study focused on one nation (i.e., India), so it remains an empirical question as to whether the key findings apply to a different country. Second, although the current sample size is not small in an absolute sense (i.e., 1,041 Indian parents), it is minuscule relative to the 1.3 billion population in India. This study, therefore, had only scratched the surface, and the results are unlikely to be generalisable to, for example, rural areas in India. Third, while the use of quantitative survey allows a large amount of data to be collected relatively quickly, the current survey did not speak to the qualitative aspect of the issue at hand; future studies should explore how protracted school closures affect students' motivation from a qualitative perspective. Fourth, the current survey only considered a limited number of factors that may influence a child's motivation; future studies can expand the scope to, for example, the role of the digital environment and the skill level of educators (see e.g., Rasmitadila et al., 2020; Toto and Limone, 2021). Finally, the current survey asked parents to rate their children's motivation levels for before and during the pandemic. Undoubtedly, this is subject to recall bias. Future studies may complement parents' ratings with children's.

Summary and Policy Implications

The current survey revealed that Indian children were on average 10% less motivated to learn during the COVID-19 pandemic (vs pre-pandemic). Multiple factors appeared related to a child's motivation during the pandemic, including, but not limited to, household income, parents' employment status, academic achievement before the pandemic, and how much a parent enjoyed homeschooling. Furthermore, the survey found that Indian parents most frequently used TV time to motivate their children and least likely to use physical punishment, which seems to have a demotivating effect on Indian children.

Overall, the current study suggests that 1) students with poor academic achievement and those from low-income families are likely to require greater assistance to catch up and to sustain their motivation. Given this, schools and teachers may consider prioritising these students for intervention if resources are limited. 2) The availability and usage of technological devices appeared to play a limited role in a child's motivation in the Indian contexts; developing countries might therefore benefit more from investment in policies that target behaviours, instead of investment in expensive hardware deployment. 3) Schools should aim to provide timely and sufficient homeschooling support to parents and to give them guidance on the what motivators to use/avoid.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets presented in this study can be found on the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/8ugs2/).

Ethics Statement

The study was reviewed and approved by the University of Oxford, CUREC-Social Science Division. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

MM designed the survey, collected and analysed the data, wrote the manuscript.

Funding

This research was financially supported by EdTech Hub ( https://edtechhub.org/; Project Number: 29920). EdTech Hub was not involved in designing the survey, analysing the data, or writing the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

I thank Raluca, Bea, Matt, and Noran from the Digital Pathways for their inputs on the survey. I also thank Mahmoud Elsherif for his research assistance.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2021.744686/full#supplementary-material

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Children's Motivation to Learn at Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Insights From Indian Parents

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The COVID-19 pandemic has forced millions children worldwide to learn at home. Recent reports showed that this had a negative impact on children's motivation to learn. The current study investigated what factors were associated with a child's motivation during the pandemic and how parents motivated their children to learn at home.

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Data shows college student motivation down

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Data shows college student motivation down

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College student motivation is down compared to high schoolers. This may be because of covid, or is it because of the bigger class load?

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There are many different things an instructor can do to help motivate learners. However, there are many different ways that individuals prefer to learn. So, that makes it a bit more difficult.

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Teachers and parents recognize the power of motivation in enhancing learning outcomes and helping students to achieve their best at school. A motivated student might do his or her homework without being asked to, go above and beyond the requirements of assignments and participate in classroom discussions without being prompted.

More importantly, he or she may be more able to view a bad grade or poor exam result as a learning opportunity instead of as an academic failure. So what motivates students to learn and how can we encourage them?

Students may be motivated by their interest in a topic, their prior success in a specific subject, a desire to please parents or teachers or simply by their own drive to succeed. However, motivation works best when children also have a healthy self-image, are confident in their abilities and know how to take a step-by-step approach to problem solving.

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

There are two main types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsically motivated individuals learn because of a desire that comes from within. Extrinsic motivation is when an outside force is involved in encouraging students to learn.

Whereas adults are more autonomous and can make decisions about what they want to study, children are often forced to learn whatever is in the school curriculum. This can mean they are not always intrinsically motivated to master a specific subject and may rely on extrinsic motivation, including rewards or negative consequences based on performance.

However, there are ways to help foster more intrinsic motivation in kids. See below for a list of ideas for teachers and learn more in our posts on the importance of motivation and motivating kids to read.

Ideas for fostering motivation and engagement

One step at a time

Feeling overwhelmed at school is a common sentiment among students that can cause them to lose motivation, no matter how passionate they are about a topic. While adults tend to be good at seeing the big picture and breaking a task down into logical steps, this skill may not be as intuitive for younger learners.

Teachers can help by doing some of the work for students and structuring assignments in a step-by-step manner.

Revisiting yesterday's task, introducing today's lesson and briefly mentioning tomorrow's, helps kids develop strong planning skills and be more self-efficacious in their learning. It's also a good way to motivate students to focus on one thing at a time, so they don't feel overwhelmed.

Let students choose

To the extent that it is possible, allow students some say in what and how they learn.

When you are in control of your learning, you are more invested in the outcome. Many teachers have a set school curriculum they must cover, but there is usually a way to customize lesson content by providing examples and/or anecdotes that both reinforce learning and are of particular interest to students.

It can also be useful to introduce children to a variety of learning styles as they may discover they are more successful taking a visual, auditory or kinesthetic approach. This is particularly true for students who struggle with specific learning difficulties.

Success fosters motivation to learn so the more accommodating teachers can be, the better. To learn more, see our tips for teachers on helping students with dyslexia and dyspraxia in the classroom.

Praise effort over result

Whether or not a student is particularly successful in a task, remind them that trying their hardest is what counts, and praise their efforts. This helps students build healthy self-esteem, so they maintain a positive view of themselves, regardless of how well they do at school.

Children with healthy self-esteem are often more confident in the classroom and more willing to take on new challenges. They may find it easier to embrace their successes and see their failures as performance issues which are separate from their self-worth. Learn more about helping students build self-confidence.

In addition, when teachers concentrate on honing a student's approach to problem solving and developing their skills vs. completing a particular task successfully, they help students see the big picture and take a more healthy approach to learning. Education is a lifelong pursuit and it's easier to remain motivated to learn when you understand this.

Focus attention through engagement

Some children have trouble paying attention at school. This may be due to a learning difficulty such as ADHD, or events at home that are causing emotional distress and/or distraction. Telling a student to pay attention is often the least effective way to engage them in the task at hand.

Instead, try free writing assignments or group activities that ask learners to brainstorm personal connections to the material before they begin a lesson. This will make it easier for them to engage with the content and form lasting memories.

You may also ask students to get up from their desks and move around the room or perform some physical task to engage both their minds and bodies in the upcoming lesson.

A multi-sensory approach, such as the one taken by Touch-type Read and Spell, is a great way to learn.

Review progress and set realistic goals

Defining learning milestones based on what a student has already achieved sets them up for success and helps to ensure motivation to learn remains strong. It can also make a big difference in attitude and expectations when teachers, parents and learners sit down together to review past work, chart student progress and set goals for the future.

Having kids keep a journal or folder where they store all of their work makes it easier to do this. It's also useful to set regular check-in sessions and ask learners how they feel about the progress they are making. In this way they are involved in the decision-making from the beginning.

Remember, no two students will be exactly alike in their approach to learning. If a student is falling behind his or her peers or failing to make adequate progress, it might be useful to bring in a private tutor who can work one-on-one with the individual and provide the direct support that is needed.

Self-directed learning and motivation

In self-directed learning students take an active vs. passive role in managing their time and assessing their own progress. This encourages intrinsic motivation, as there is no outside pressure to perform or meet deadlines.

Students set the pace and decide how much material to cover in each session. A self-directed approach set within the general guidelines of a structured course can be extremely motivating, particularly for students with learning difficulties who often benefit from over-learning.

That's because it gives individuals the chance to repeat lessons as many times as is needed without the stigma of taking longer than their peers.

While it is not always possible to follow a self-direct approach in a classroom context, it may be easier to achieve outside of regular school hours. Some school districts offer access to self-directed courses, including touch-typing programs like TTRS.

Additional support

If a student has had a negative experience with school in the past, it can be harder for teachers to motivate them.

Some educators find it useful to introduce a new platform for learning, one that teaches an independent skill but still supports reading, writing and spelling abilities.

Touch-type Read and Spell is a self-directed program that teaches typing with additional support for literacy skills. It involves seeing, hearing and typing words and sentences that strengthen phonics knowledge in English.

TTRS is effective because students don't realize they are learning anything other than computer skills. However, as they begin to type, muscle memory in the hands comes in to help with spelling.

As they see their typing skills improve, so does their spelling. This can be very motivating!

Moreover, the TTRS program has been successfully used for students who struggle with specific learning difficulties. In fact, it was developed to help learners with dyslexia, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, and ADHD.

The step-by-step approach and the positive feedback that is built into the course ensure success and help students build motivation. TTRS is also a useful tool for improving self-esteem and self-confidence at school.
Do you have any tips to share on motivating students to learn? Join the discussion in the comments!

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Teachers and parents recognize the power of motivation in enhancing learning outcomes and helping students to achieve their best at school. A motivated student might do his or her homework without being asked to, go above and beyond the requirements of assignments and participate in classroom discussions without being prompted.

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Online learning has been an option for years. However, it didn't become as important as it is until the pandemic. How can we help keep students motivated now that some classes are fully online?

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When students take a more hands-on approach to learning, motivation comes naturally. Giving students a say in various aspects of a course, from curriculum to learning pathways, or even modes of delivery gives them a sense of control. This makes the course appear more appealing and easy to manage. In online learning, where it is absolutely necessary to keep students engaged, personalization has become a necessity.

It is important to understand that each student has their own unique learning methods. Creating personalized learning pathways enables students to alter the way the course is structured so that it aligns with the learning preferences of individual students. This could also include choosing how to answer quizzes and submit assignments. In this way, personalized online learning helps boost student performance.

Rewarding Students' Success

Humans are psychologically wired to respond positively to reward. This is especially needed for online learning. When students are enrolled in an online course, it is often feared that they might experience a sense of demotivation and disconnect from the rest of the class. Having a reward system in place can help manage that.

Providing Meaningful Feedback

In addition to rewarding students' progress, it is also essential to provide them with honest feedback. Feedback helps students keep track of their performance and get a better idea about the steps they must take to improve their performance. For young learners, feedback is crucial for parents to understand the ways in which they can make their child's learning easier.

With online learning, giving feedback is much easier since it does not involve parents or students physically meeting instructors or wading through endless paper forms. Instead, through online LMS platforms, feedback can be viewed and accessed at any time. Having a clear idea about their learning progress, students can be better motivated to either improve or keep up with their performance.

Allow Self-Monitoring

Detailed reporting tools can also give insight into how well a student performed in each module. This allows students to evaluate their own performance from a third-party perspective and know their strengths and weaknesses. Armed with this information, they can approach their lessons with greater confidence.

Setting Clear Goals and Learning Paths

The clarity provided by online learning courses is unmatched when compared to traditional classroom learning. With a clear course path, learning outcomes, and assessment schedule on display, accessible by all students, it is possible for students to plan ahead and be more organized. Doing so could help learners feel more in control. Consequently, they would feel motivated to achieve the goals laid out in front of them and perform much better than they would in the case where learning is disorganized.

Encouraging Collaboration with Others

Online learning can be isolating if steps are not taken to encourage communication. In many cases, eLearning students never meet their peers physically or communicate with their instructor outside the class. This can make students feel disconnected from the class, which in turn can affect their learning. In order to keep students motivated, steps must be taken to ensure communication between students.

Using a Variety of Learning Tools

Adding choice and variety is a foolproof way to ensure students stay engaged in online learning. As discussed before, students respond to different learning methods in different ways. Some learners respond better to video lectures, others prefer podcasts or a gamified lecture interface. Similarly, students also have a preferred way to attempt assignments, take quizzes, and present projects.

Providing Unencumbered Access to Learning Materials

While it may seem obvious that the precursor to motivated learning is a good repository of resources, it has not always been made available to students. Many online learning resources and inaccessible to students due to paywalls. It is essential for students to have full access to all the required learning materials necessary for a good performance. This can be ensured by using well-equipped online learning platforms that enable institutions to keep a detailed library of resources for students to use. This may include textbooks, past assessments, course outlines, grade books, and much more.
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How to Motivate Learners in an Online Learning Environment -

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When students take a more hands-on approach to learning, motivation comes naturally. Giving students a say in various aspects of a course, from curriculum to learning pathways, or even modes of delivery gives them a sense of control. This makes the course appear more appealing and easy to manage.

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What are some of the benefits of remote learning? Is it prioritizing mental health? is it using autonomy as a key to motivation? Read this article to learn more.

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With schools open again after more than a year of teaching students outside the classroom, the pandemic sometimes feels like a distant memory. The return to classrooms this fall brings major relief for many families and educators. Factors such as a lack of reliable technology and family support, along with an absence of school resources, resulted in significant academic setbacks, not to mention stress for everyone involved.

But for all the downsides of distance learning, educators, psychologists, and parents have seen some benefits as well. For example, certain populations of students found new ways to be more engaged in learning, without the distractions and difficulties they faced in the classroom, and the general challenges of remote learning and the pandemic brought mental health to the forefront of the classroom experience.

Peter Faustino, PsyD, a school psychologist in Scarsdale, New York, said the pandemic also prompted educators and school psychologists to find creative new ways of ensuring students' emotional and academic well-being. "So many students were impacted by the pandemic, so we couldn't just assume they would find resources on their own," said Faustino. "We had to work hard at figuring out new ways to connect with them."

Here are some of the benefits of distance learning that school psychologists and educators have observed and the ways in which they're implementing those lessons post-pandemic, with the goal of creating a more equitable, productive environment for all students.

Prioritizing mental health

Faustino said that during the pandemic, he had more mental health conversations with students, families, and teachers than ever. "Because COVID-19 affected everyone, we're now having mental health discussions as school leaders on a daily and weekly basis," he said.

This renewed focus on mental health has the potential to improve students' well-being in profound ways-starting with helping them recover from the pandemic's effects. In New York City, for example, schools are hiring more than 600 new clinicians, including psychologists, to screen students' mental health and help them process pandemic-related trauma and adjust to the "new normal" of attending school in person.

Educators and families are also realizing the importance of protecting students' mental health more generally-not only for their health and safety but for their learning. "We've been seeing a broader appreciation for the fact that mental health is a prerequisite for learning rather than an extracurricular pursuit," said Eric Rossen, PhD, director of professional development and standards at the National Association of School Psychologists.

As a result, Rossen hopes educators will embed social and emotional learning components into daily instruction. For example, teachers could teach mindfulness techniques in the classroom and take in-the-moment opportunities to help kids resolve conflicts or manage stress.

Improved access to mental health resources in schools is another positive effect. Because of physical distancing guidelines, school leaders had to find ways to deliver mental health services remotely, including via online referrals and teletherapy with school psychologists and counselors.

Early in the pandemic, Faustino said he was hesitant about teletherapy's effectiveness; now, he hopes to continue offering a virtual option. Online scheduling and remote appointments make it easier for students to access mental health resources, and some students even enjoy virtual appointments more, as they can attend therapy in their own spaces rather than showing up in the counselor's office. For older students, Faustino said that level of comfort often leads to more productive, open conversations.

Autonomy as a key to motivation

Research suggests that when students have more choices about their materials and activities, they're more motivated-which may translate to increased learning and academic success. In a 2016 paper, psychology researcher Allan Wigfield, PhD, and colleagues make the case that control and autonomy in reading activities can improve both motivation and comprehension (Child Development Perspectives, Vol. 10, No. 3 ).

During the period of online teaching, some students had opportunities to learn at their own pace, which educators say improved their learning outcomes-especially in older students. In a 2020 survey of more than 600 parents, researchers found the second-most-valued benefit of distance learning was flexibility-not only in schedule but in method of learning.

In a recent study, researchers found that 18% of parents pointed to greater flexibility in a child's schedule or way of learning as the biggest benefit or positive outcome related to remote learning ( School Psychology, Roy, A., et al., in press).

This individualized learning helps students find more free time for interests and also allows them to conduct their learning at a time they're most likely to succeed. During the pandemic, Mark Gardner, an English teacher at Hayes Freedom High School in Camas, Washington, said he realized how important student-centered learning is and that whether learning happens should take precedence over how and when it occurs.

For example, one of his students thrived when he had the choice to do work later at night because he took care of his siblings during the day. Now, Gardner posts homework online on Sundays so students can work at their own pace during the week. "Going forward, we want to create as many access points as we can for kids to engage with learning," he said.

Rosanna Breaux, PhD, an assistant professor of psychology and assistant director of the Child Study Center at Virginia Tech, agrees. "I'd like to see this flexibility continue in some way, where-similar to college-students can guide their own learning based on their interests or when they're most productive," she said.

During the pandemic, many educators were forced to rethink how to keep students engaged. Rossen said because many school districts shared virtual curricula during the period of remote learning, older students could take more challenging or interesting courses than they could in person. The same is true for younger students: Megan Hibbard, a teacher in White Bear Lake, Minnesota, said many of her fifth graders enjoyed distance learning more than in-person because they could work on projects that aligned with their interests.

"So much of motivation is discovering the unique things the student finds interesting," said Hunter Gehlbach, PhD, a professor and vice dean at the Johns Hopkins School of Education. "The more you can facilitate students spending more time on the things they're really interested in, the better."

Going forward, Rossen hopes virtual curricula will allow students greater opportunities to pursue their interests, such as by taking AP classes, foreign languages, or vocational electives not available at their own schools.

Conversely, Hibbard's goal is to increase opportunities for students to pursue their interests in the in-person setting. For example, she plans to increase what she calls "Genius Hours," a time at the end of the school day when students can focus on high-interest projects they'll eventually share with the class.

Better understanding of children's needs

One of the most important predictors of a child's success in school is parental involvement in their education. For example, in a meta-analysis of studies, researchers linked parental engagement in their middle schoolers' education with greater measures of success (Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F., Developmental Psychology, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2009).

During the pandemic, parents had new opportunities to learn about their kids and, as a result, help them learn. According to a study by Breaux and colleagues, many parents reported that the pandemic allowed them a better understanding of their child's learning style, needs, or curriculum.

James C. Kaufman, PhD, a professor of educational psychology at the University of Connecticut and the father of an elementary schooler and a high schooler, said he's had a front-row seat for his sons' learning for the first time. "Watching my kids learn and engage with classmates has given me some insight in how to parent them," he said.

Stephen Becker, PhD, a pediatric psychologist at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, said some parents have observed their children's behavior or learning needs for the first time, which could prompt them to consider assessment and Individualized Education Program (IEP) services. Across the board, Gehlbach said parents are realizing how they can better partner with schools to ensure their kids' well-being and academic success.

For example, Samantha Marks, PsyD, a Florida-based clinical psychologist, said she realized how much help her middle school daughter, a gifted and talented student with a 504 plan (a plan for how the school will offer support for a student's disability) for anxiety, needed with independence. "Bringing the learning home made it crystal clear what we needed to teach our daughter to be independent and improve executive functioning" she said. "My takeaway from this is that more parents need to be involved in their children's education in a healthy, helpful way."

Marks also gained a deeper understanding of her daughter's mental health needs. Through her 504 plan, she received help managing her anxiety at school-at home, though, Marks wasn't always available to help, which taught her the importance of helping her daughter manage her anxiety independently.

Along with parents gaining a deeper understanding of their kids' needs, the pandemic also prompted greater parent participation in school. For example, Rossen said his kids' school had virtual school board meetings; he hopes virtual options continue for events like back-to-school information sessions and parenting workshops. "These meetings are often in the evening, and if you're a single parent or sole caregiver, you may not want to pay a babysitter in order to attend," he said.

Brittany Greiert, PhD, a school psychologist in Aurora, Colorado, says culturally and linguistically diverse families at her schools benefited from streamlined opportunities to communicate with administrators and teachers. Her district used an app that translates parent communication into 150 languages. Parents can also remotely participate in meetings with school psychologists or teachers, which Greiert says she plans to continue post-pandemic.

Decreased bullying

During stay-at-home orders, kids with neurodevelopmental disorders experienced less bullying than pre-pandemic (McFayden, T. C., et al., Journal of Rural Mental Health, No. 45, Vol. 2, 2021). According to 2019 research, children with emotional, behavioral, and physical health needs experience increased rates of bullying victimization ( Lebrun-Harris, L. A., et al., ), and from the U.S. Department of Education suggests the majority of bullying takes place in person and in unsupervised areas.

Scott Graves, PhD, an associate professor of educational studies at The Ohio State University and a member of APA's Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education (CPSE), said the supervision by parents and teachers in remote learning likely played a part in reducing bullying. As a result, he's less worried his Black sons will be victims of microaggressions and racist behavior during online learning.

Some Asian American families also report that remote learning offered protection against racism students may have experienced in person. Shereen Naser, PhD, an associate professor of psychology at Cleveland State University and a member of CPSE, and colleagues found that students are more comfortable saying discriminatory things in school when their teachers are also doing so; Naser suspects this trickle-down effect is less likely to happen when students learn from home (School Psychology International, 2019).

Reductions in bullying and microaggressions aren't just beneficial for students' long-term mental health. Breaux said less bullying at school results in less stress, which can improve students' self-esteem and mood-both of which impact their ability to learn.

Patricia Perez, PhD, an associate professor of international psychology at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology and a member of CPSE, said it's important for schools to be proactive in providing spaces for support and cultural expression for students from vulnerable backgrounds, whether in culture-specific clubs, all-school assemblies that address racism and other diversity-related topics, or safe spaces to process feelings with teachers.

According to Rossen, many schools are already considering how to continue supporting students at risk for bullying, including by restructuring the school environment.

One principal, Rossen said, recently switched to single-use bathrooms to avoid congregating in those spaces once in-person learning commences to maintain social distancing requirements. "The principal received feedback from students about how going to the bathroom is much less stressful for these students in part due to less bullying," he said.

More opportunities for special needs students

In Becker and Breaux's research, parents of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), particularly those with a 504 plan and IEP, reported greater difficulties with remote learning. But some students with special learning needs-including those with IEPs and 504 plans-thrived in an at-home learning environment. Recent reporting in The New York Times suggests this is one reason many students want to continue online learning.

According to Cara Laitusis, PhD, a principal research scientist at Educational Testing Service ( ETS) and a member of CPSE, reduced distractions may improve learning outcomes for some students with disabilities that impact attention in a group setting. "In assessments, small group or individual settings are frequently requested accommodations for some students with ADHD, anxiety, or autism. Being in a quiet place alone without peers for part of the instructional day may also allow for more focus," she said. However, she also pointed out the benefits of inclusion in the classroom for developing social skills with peers.

Remote learning has improved academic outcomes for students with different learning needs, too. Marks said her seventh-grade daughter, a visual learner, appreciated the increase in video presentations and graphics. Similarly, Hibbard said many of her students who struggle to grasp lessons on the first try have benefited from the ability to watch videos over again until they understand. Post-pandemic, she plans to record bite-size lessons-for example, a 1-minute video of a long division problem-so her students can rewatch and process at their own rate.

Learners with anxiety also appreciate the option not to be in the classroom, because the social pressures of being surrounded by peers can make it hard to focus on academics. "Several of my students have learned more in the last year simply due to the absence of anxiety," said Rosie Reid, an English teacher at Ygnacio Valley High School in Concord, California, and a 2019 California Teacher of the Year. "It's just one less thing to negotiate in a learning environment."

On online learning platforms, it's easier for kids with social anxiety or shyness to participate. One of Gardner's students with social anxiety participated far more in virtual settings and chats. Now, Gardner is brainstorming ways to encourage students to chat in person, such as by projecting a chat screen on the blackboard.

Technology has helped school psychologists better engage students, too. For example, Greiert said the virtual setting gave her a new understanding of her students' personalities and needs. "Typing out their thoughts, they were able to demonstrate humor or complex thoughts they never demonstrated in person," she said. "I really want to keep incorporating technology into sessions so kids can keep building on their strengths."

Reid says that along with the high school students she teaches, she's seen her 6-year-old daughter benefit from learning at her own pace in the familiarity of her home. Before the pandemic, she was behind academically, but by guiding her own learning-writing poems, reading books, playing outside with her siblings-she's blossomed. "For me, as both a mother and as a teacher, this whole phenomenon has opened the door to what education can be," Reid said.

Eleanor Di Marino-Linnen, PhD, a psychologist and superintendent of the Rose Tree Media School District in Media, Pennsylvania, says the pandemic afforded her district a chance to rethink old routines and implement new ones. "As challenging as it is, it's definitely an exciting time to be in education when we have a chance to reenvision what schools have looked like for many years," she said. "We want to capitalize on what we've learned."

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Capturing the benefits of remote learning

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How education experts are applying lessons learned in the pandemic to promote positive outcomes for all students.

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This is a link from the New York Times about 'learning loss'. Would state testing be better during the pandemic? Or do students deserve a break?

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What Students Are Saying About ‘Learning Loss’ During the Pandemic (Published 2021)

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We invited teenagers to weigh in on a current debate in education. They supplied some important nuance.

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Student Motivation at High School and College Levels Dropping

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Student Motivation at High School and College Levels Dropping

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This is another article talking about students loosing their motivation. This article also includes things instructors have done to help mitigate their lack of motivation. In some case, motivation is high- but grades are dropping.

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National math and reading scores show marked declines in student abilities at grade level during the pandemic, but in high school and in the early years of college, teachers and professors are seeing negative changes in student behavior and motivation that reflect deeper issues.

Students are struggling to understand what they read and their attention span has shortened substantially, said Steven Tatum, a ninth-grade English teacher at Hartford Magnet Trinity College Academy. But beyond academic skills, Tatum said the effects of the pandemic are visible in other ways, including students' increased doubt about the importance of education in determining their futures.

"Many students just don't have a sense that what they're doing in school is that connected to their life paths. I think there's an increased amount of feeling like 'what I do at school is irrelevant for my future goals,'" said Tatum.

Tatum said that he believes that, for a long time, society and the school systems have operated on the assumption that a college degree would automatically lead to economic success. But he says the fear of student debt has changed the calculus on whether students are willing to pursue a college degree.

"I don't know a single high school student who is not seriously questioning whether it makes sense to go to college, given how expensive it is and how much debt they would have to go into, or making their decisions about post-secondary school very much with the financial sense of doing that or not in mind," said Tatum.

Shakira Perez, an English teacher at Classical Magnet School in Hartford, said she's also seen her students' abilities affected by the pandemic. Perez, who teaches 8th and 12th grade English, said that her students struggle with reading comprehension and no longer have the type of stamina to do their school that she saw pre-pandemic.

"In order for them to understand, they have to have the vocabulary, and if they're not getting the vocabulary instruction, for example, then the comprehension is going to be a little lacking," said Perez.

Perez said that she's also seen more signs of anxiety and depression in her students, including speaking up less than before. As for her seniors - like Tatum, she has also seen a lack of motivation to consider college, but also a fear of going away.

"A lot of them are scared ... They're like, 'I don't want to go to college. Or if I go, I don't want to go out of state. I don't want to leave my home,'" said Perez. "So I'm pretty sure there's some secondary fear there that ... should something like [the pandemic] happen again, they want to be closer to home."

For JD Ospina, a 10th grade geometry teacher at Westhill High School in Stamford, the changes in his students have required different teaching methods. Lecturing, he realized, will just leave his students bored and tapping away on their phones. Instead, he acts more as a "facilitator," splitting his students into small groups where they collaborate on projects and teach one another.

"It's really this almost existential threat to mathematics, and really any content that we learn in school. Like, what are we going to use this for in real life? That's a question that we've always been asked, but I think that question has been challenged even greater with COVID," said Ospina.

Ospina said it's necessary to review basic skills with his students, but he emphasizes the usefulness of the skills - not just if students are going to college, but also in the workforce.

"When they graduate, no matter what they do, if they go straight into the workforce, they're going to be solving problems. And the better problems they solve, the more problems they solve, the higher quality of life they will have," said Ospina.

"You have to want to be here"

The declines in student goals and motivation have rippled across community colleges as more graduating high school students enroll in classes.

Angelo Glaviano and Elle Van Dermark, both faculty members at the Connecticut State Community Colleges, told CT Examiner that the composition of their classes has changed. Both said many more recent high school graduates are enrolling compared to the pre-pandemic mix of young people and those who had already spent time in the workforce.

Glaviano, who teaches Romance Language at Middlesex Community College, said he doesn't have the same expectations of his students as he did in years past - exams might be fewer pages, with easier types of questions, like multiple-choice.

He said he's also noticed behavioral changes in his students - now he can only keep their attention for about 30 minutes at a time, and they don't respond as they did in the past.

"You have to play, in a sense, at being a psychologist, even if you're not, and try to imagine the causes for this difference," said Glaviano.

Van Dermark, who teaches history at Naugatuck Community College, said she's refused to "lower her standards" for her students, with the result that her students are scoring lower on her exams. She said that her students can't understand and analyze the texts the way students could pre-pandemic, which makes engaging in classroom discussions difficult..

"I'm fully in the camp that they have made the effort. But without being able to understand what the readings say, it really dilutes our ability to have meaningful conversations in the classroom," said Van Dermark.

Along with the lack of understanding, Van Dermark said, her students don't participate in class as much and are hesitant to voice their opinions. She's also seen a general lack of motivation.

"Why are you here and what do you want to do with it? Does this have value and meaning for you?" she said. "When you take a lack of comprehension or underdeveloped analysis and writing skills and you amplify that through a lack of commitment, we really start to see a problem."

Both professors said they felt students were choosing community college mainly because of financial circumstances.

Glaviano also said that his students often work multiple jobs, but that employers do not seem as willing to accommodate student schedules.

"The students seem to choose work," he said. "School is always there - work, no."

Van Dermark said that her students told her they chose community college "because it's free" - which, she said, could mean they were in Connecticut's PACT program, which waives college fees for low-income students.

But her students also seem to struggle with the idea that in college, simply showing up for class isn't enough to earn a passing grade.

"They talked about, in high school, all they had to do was show up. If they showed up, they would get moved along," she said. "We have continued to talk about that difference between high school and college. That college is a choice ... you're investing your time and your energy. You have to want to be here, because this is work."

"Closing the gaps"

In some classrooms, student motivation is high but academic achievement has fallen.

Drew Denbaum, an English teacher at Westhill High School who teaches honors and college-prep classes, said that his students were so eager to return to in-person learning that they are as engaged as they were before the pandemic, if not more so.

"Every year students have been asking me to look at their college essays and letters of recommendation and things like that," he said. "Your heart goes out to students who just feel in a state of disconnection or despair, and I have not seen a general increase in that among my students."

But Denbaum said that he has seen declines in his students' abilities to express "higher order thinking" in their writing. After grading their most recent essays, he said in an email, he was "dismayed" by their "general lack of college readiness."

Denbaum told CT Examiner that some of his students enter with very low reading levels and the best way to address the gaps is to catch them as early as possible.

"The best way to help struggling students across the board is to offer them all of the individual help they need at the beginning of the year, as soon as they start falling behind," said Denbaum.

Perez, who worked as a Reading Interventionist, agreed that targeted tutoring in reading and literacy can move students forward quickly. One of her students, she said, improved her reading by four grade levels in a single year.

"It was definitely working. The students go at their own pace," she said. "So whether it was one grade level, two, three, even up to four grade levels, there was progress made."

But Tatum disagreed with the concept of jamming multiple years of missed learning into a short period of time. He said that a rushed approach can lead teachers to drag their students through the material rather than stepping back and thinking about the purpose of what is being taught.

"There's so much talk about accelerating. Close the gaps. And I find that approach counterproductive. I think that creates tremendous pressure on teachers and students in ways that don't actually help," said Tatum. "I think what's called for is slowing down, reestablishing the connection between students and school, getting that buy in. And if we slow the learning curve at the beginning, my belief is that it'll be much steeper coming out than if we hit the gas pedal now."

Ospina said that he emphasizes in class the "three C's" : collaboration, critical thinking and communication. Geometry, he said, has a lot of applications to the real world, and he emphasizes those in class. As more and more schools become test-optional, he said, memorizing formulas isn't an effective strategy anymore.

"Old school, traditional methods are going out the window, especially after the pandemic," said Ospina.

Ospina said he recommends tutoring for his students, and that Westhill High School offers many programs, but parental engagement is a key component. He said he's been disappointed by how few parents have shown up to open houses.

"The turnout rate for the parents is very low. And that makes me wonder how vested the parents are in their children's education. I really think it starts at home," he said.

Denbaum said that when he works with high school seniors who come in with elementary or middle school reading levels, his goal is not to cram them full of the material they should have learned at a younger age, but to teach them the most essential part of a subject so that they can advance to the next level of learning.

"I have to understand that what I'm really, fundamentally grading is their ability to think about the material and communicate those thoughts to me," said Denbaum.

Tatum said that what teachers most need is to be trusted to know what is best for their students.

"We've never, on the whole, felt worse at our jobs collectively," he said. "And the impact that that has makes me worried on the state of our profession."

He also said there needs to be a broader conversation at the state and federal level about the goals of the public school system, and whether they align with today's realities. He said that the shifts in the economy - particularly the "massive hiccup" caused by the pandemic and questions about what jobs are going to be available - is making it difficult to prepare students for specific pathways the way teachers may have done earlier.

For Van Dermark, college is about obtaining skills that will serve students in a wide range of areas, and provide a pathway to multiple careers - especially when a student reaches an age when they may no longer be able to perform a trade that is physically grueling.

"I wonder if parents and students alike are hearing that message that workforce development is why you go to college," said Van Dermark. "And that would be tragic. Because lifelong learning, having the ability to read and write and communicate well, prepares you for life, for any range of careers and professions. Not a job. Because a job -- that's going to get you through a few years. That's not going to get you through life."

Emilia Otte covers health and education for the Connecticut Examiner. In 2022 Otte was awarded "Rookie of the Year," by the New England Newspaper & Press Association.

e.otte@ctexaminer.com

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Educators See Drop in Student Motivation at High School and College Levels

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National math and reading scores show marked declines in student abilities at grade level during the pandemic, but in high school and in the early years of college, teachers and professors are seeing negative changes in student behavior and motivation that reflect deeper issues. Students are struggling to understand what they read and their attention [...]

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This is a NYT news article. This article depicts what helps a student to stay motivated and eager to learn.

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What Students Are Saying About What Motivates Them to Learn

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Teenagers share what drives them in school: inspiring teachers, interesting classes, the feeling of accomplishment and more.

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Restoring Student Motivation After Covid

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Restoring Student Motivation After Covid

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This web article talks about the difficulties of student motivation in a post-covid world. Many people are finding it difficult to find the motivation they used to have. Why is that?

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EVERYONE KNEW learning during a pandemic wouldn't be easy, but could we have guessed it would be quite this hard?

Schools are still battling everything from poor internet service to low attendance. Parents are overwhelmed in homes that have also become workplaces and classrooms. Teachers are demoralized. And students are exhausted, burned out after hours of online classes, and that is if they even show up at all.

The result is students - and teachers - who have lost so much of what used to keep them motivated. Without the ballast of most extracurricular activities like athletics, drama, and band to keep them engaged, many students lost the motivation this year to turn in homework or turn on cameras during remote lessons. Teachers are burnt out, many discouraged by not keeping up with curriculum standards and constantly having to find new ways to keep their students invested in their learning.

Some schools have gone back, but with a return to "normal" school unlikely for many districts until the fall of 2021, teachers and students are having to find new ways to stay motivated to learn during a school year unlike any other.

The Science of Motivation

Abigail Williamson, Ed.M.'15, teaches English Language Development on Martha's Vineyard. Her middle school students are brand new to the United States, working hard to learn a new language, many of them also taking care of younger siblings at home during remote learning while their parents are at work.

But for five minutes every day, students put aside the challenges they are facing and turn on their favorite song. Some students don sunglasses or fun hats, others grab stuffed animals to join them onscreen for their class DJ Dance Party.

"I wanted to give the kids jobs to keep them engaged and give them some ownership," says Williamson. "The dance party offers some lightness and fun, but I believe also contributes to our strong attendance and participation."

Especially during these stressful times, it is important for teachers to think about how students are doing not only academically but also emotionally, and to find ways to inject joy into their lessons.

Christina Hinton, Ed.M.'06, Ed.D.'12, founder and CEO of Research Schools International, which partners with schools to carry out collaborative research, says lessons like the DJ Dance Party can make a huge impact for students.

"There's a misconception that learning can either be rigorous or fun. That's not what we're finding in our research," Hinton says. "The more they are flourishing and happy, the better, on average, students are doing academically."

Happy students are also motivated ones. Research has found that motivation is driven by a combination of a person's earliest experiences and innate biological factors. According to a recent report from the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University and the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, there are two types of motivation: one that seeks out pleasure (known as approach motivation) and the other that avoids danger (known as avoidance motivation).

Both of these types of motivation develop early in childhood, and both are influenced by intrinsic (like a child's desire to explore or master a skill) and extrinsic factors (external validation from grades or awards). A healthy motivation system is one built on intrinsic drivers supported by positive extrinsic feedback.

For teachers and parents, there are many ways to encourage motivation. Activities like the DJ Dance Party that provide children space for playful exploration help fuel intrinsic motivation. Activities that appropriately challenge students are also great, but they must be carefully selected as students will lose motivation when an activity is too hard or too easy. Students are also more motivated when they feel a sense of ownership over their work.

These types of activities can also spur in students a sense of curiosity, another good driver of motivation. Ed School associate professor and cognitive research scientist Elizabeth Bonawitz says that curiosity is a core drive that all human beings are born with.

"It's a drive like hunger or thirst, and it can get us learning very rapidly," Bonawitz says. Under particularly stressful environments, however, say like during a global pandemic, the body must balance all its needs. "Do I have time to be curious or am I worried about my next meal, or if grandma is going to get sick? If you're under a lot of duress, you don't have time to indulge your curiosity," so actively finding ways to encourage curiosity in the classroom is so important.

Williamson came up with the idea for the dance party at the beginning of this unusual school year, trying to think of ways to replicate traditional classroom management techniques for online learning. Some of her more hesitant learners were hooked from the beginning. Besides the opportunity to get up and move around, it also provided students a chance to show a bit about their personalities, connect over shared interests, and extend their learning, since the songs they choose have connections to the vocabulary they are learning.

Williamson says this break in the day has also given her a unique insight into her students. In her first year at a new school, Williamson says she was initially worried about building connections with students she had never met, but she says the same theories for building community when in-person apply to remote learning.

"Their creativity in activities like the dance party motivates me to find more ways to let them express their personalities," Williamson says. "I ask students about their lives and listen and incorporate that into my lessons. You can have deep relationships with students even online."

Find New Ways to Connect

Those relationships are a critical component of motivation. As Bonawtiz has found in her research, humans are social beings with minds designed to learn from other people. When students lose those important relationships with teachers and peers, they are far less likely to be motivated to learn.

The pandemic and remote learning have seriously disrupted those important connections, resulting in huge numbers of students losing the motivation to even show up for virtual classes, let alone participate. Bellwether Education Partners, an education nonprofit, estimates that between 1 million and 3 million U.S. students haven't attended school since pandemic-related school closures began in March 2020, hitting high-risk groups including homeless students and children with disabilities particularly hard. And there is no silver bullet to solving the problem. Sruti Sriram is a current Ed School student and teaches English to 11th- and 12th-graders at a boarding school in Pune, India. Sriram says her school has tried different ways to keep students engaged, trying to find a balance between learning models. While there was early success with each new attempt, student engagement would inevitably drop off.

"We launched weekly asynchronous modules that students were encouraged to complete at their own pace," she says. At first the response was incredible, but two months later, students were exhausted. "We then tried to shift to synchronous classes, but attendance would be very high for the first week and then drop off the second week for a variety of reasons," including family constraints and limited Internet access.

Sriram says from her own positive experience as a student in her Ed School classes, she has been inspired to be more intentional using tools like virtual breakout rooms to build relationships. She's also recognized that, this year especially, the emphasis needs to be on how students are doing emotionally, not just academically.

"My students are going through so much at home. I've realized how important it is for students to feel supported in the classroom before I can harangue them about incomplete homework or give them a lot of corrections," she says. "That's always been true, but in remote learning it's an even more apparent reminder that the job is to care for the whole student."

Even during normal times, these relationships are important to academic development. During the pandemic, they are crucial. Research has shown that when teachers can build a good rapport with their students, those students are more motivated to do well in school. To build that rapport, students need to believe that their teacher has a good sense of their abilities.

"It's critical to learning that a teacher has an accurate understanding of their students," says Bonawitz. "When a child thinks a teacher doesn't have a good sense of their abilities, it totally shapes what kind of exploration and projects they think they can pursue."

In one lab experiment, Bonawitz has found that when children as young as 6 think their teacher is overestimating their abilities, they will choose less challenging work, while if a teacher underestimates their abilities, they will seek work that might be too difficult for them.

With the pandemic removing much of the one-on-one time for students and teachers to get to know each other well, it's important for teachers to find new ways to show their students they know them.

"Reciprocity is really critical to make sure there is maximum engagement," Bonawitz says. "Regular feedback and mini-assessments can help so that students know the teacher is aware of their current place and the teacher is using that information for tailoring the learning."

Hinton says making room to provide students extra emotional support this year is so important, and finding additional opportunities, like through virtual office hours, can make a big difference for students and teachers to build relationships while apart and maintain motivation.

Jill Goldberg, Ed.M.'93, credits her students staying motivated thanks to recognizing new ways of building relationships. Goldberg, who teaches sixth grade English language arts in upstate New York, says it was challenging at first teaching to static profile pictures of students or empty black rectangles because her district, like many across the county, does not require students to turn on cameras when remote.

But then students, some shy or just unwilling to turn their cameras on during full class activities, started to reach out in other ways. Many found their voice over email. Others requested private Zoom breakout meetings to connect between classes or after school, sometimes to talk about academic work, other times just to share something personal, like a pair of twins in her class excited to share news of a new pet.

"It's wonderful how many kids are so much more comfortable and proficient and proactive in initiating contact" over digital platforms, Goldberg says. Remote learning has also given Goldberg and her students a change of pace to their normal in-person schedule that left little time in the day to connect. Now, students have breaks between periods and teachers can use that time for extra help sessions or just one-on- one check-ins.

Professor Jal Mehta isn't surprised that some students and teachers are finding positives during remote learning. Mehta says that while traditional in-person school can be exhausting for students required to be "on" and engaged all day with teachers and peers, remote learning has given some students a chance to slow down. "Teachers have reported more contact and conversations with students and families. I think some people have experienced that there's less rush and a chance to do things in more depth,"
Mehta says.

Caring for the Adults in the Room

Of course, not everyone is finding remote learning a happy new environment. In November, the Education Week Research Center found that nearly 75% of teachers say their morale is lower than it was before the pandemic. Trying to learn new technology, keep students invested, and deal with the challenges of their own lives is leaving many teachers burnt out.

With teachers feeling dejected from not keeping up with curriculum standards or blaming themselves for students falling behind, Hinton says now it's more important than ever for teachers to not only show compassion for their students but also for themselves.

"Teachers have to treat this as a totally different year and be patient with themselves," she says. "A great rule of thumb for practicing self-compassion is to treat yourself the way you would treat a best friend."

That change in mentality was important for Ian Malmstrom, Ed.M.'10, a middle school history teacher and athletic director in Illinois.

"The most discouraging thing was realizing I wasn't going to accomplish as much as I have in past years. That bothered me at first, the feeling I wasn't doing as well as a teacher. But putting that stress on myself wasn't going to work. I've accepted that," Malmstrom says.

Malmstron isn't alone. A survey by the RAND Corporation found in its American Educator Panels Survey in October that most classrooms are not proceeding at their normal pace, with 56% of teachers saying that they had covered half, or less than half, of their normal curriculum, and only 1 in 5 teachers saying they were on the same schedule as years past.

Rather than putting pressure on themselves to jam as much of the old curriculum into this year, experts like Mehta are advocating a "Marie Kondo" approach to curriculum, borrowing from the Japanese tidying expert. In his recent New York Times opinion piece, Mehta encourages teachers to accept a "less is more" attitude by "discarding the many topics that have accumulated like old souvenirs, while retaining essential knowledge and topics that spark joy."

At her school in Providence, Rhode Island, academic dean Kaitlin Moran, Ed.M.'20, has worked with faculty and administrators to reduce their academic program to the most essential content and setting realistic learning goals. The school day itself has been shortened and longer blocks of instruction in subjects like math, science, and social studies have been shortened to accommodate students, including taking into account time spent on screens.

"I think what has helped students and teachers feel more motivated is by setting bite-size achievable goals that work towards a grade-level standard. As much as we can collaborate on best practices, that has also helped keep our team engaged and motivated," Moran says.

To that end, Moran has also worked with teachers to implement targeted learning goals to address missed learning from the spring by having each student complete a diagnostic assessment, allowing teachers to know which areas of instruction to focus on to help close gaps. Not everything can simply be replaced virtually. One of the biggest losses since the pandemic hit has been extracurriculars. Malmstrom says athletics have been virtually nonexistent in Illinois since the start of the pandemic, and without them, many students have just given up.

"My students have just been starved for athletic opportunities," Malmstrom says, citing several academically thriving students who have lost their motivation to do well in school. "We have more time, but people don't have the desire to do as much as we used to. I have students who were mainly doing schoolwork to stay eligible for sports, and they've quit trying."

Malmstrom and his colleagues have tried to find some replacements. In the fall, when the weather was nice, they started an afterschool running club, which had a great turnout of students eager to do any sort of outdoor activity. His school also launched a virtual chess club and quiz bowl team, offering online practices.

Malmstrom is realistic that these activities are only stopgaps until students can return to regular activities, but they have been helpful in keeping morale and motivation up.

"The students aren't going to be interested in everything, but our hope is that each student can find something that engages him or her in addition to their regular classwork," he says.

Eventually, the world will return to some new normal, and schools with it. While there are many challenges that students and teachers have faced during this year, there are some areas of remote learning that might endure.

Researchers like Mehta say the lessons learned during remote learning and the changes made to support students and teachers should spur an even greater effort to reimagine and rebuild schools.

"Schools weren't working well for students pre-pandemic. To put things back exactly as they were is ignoring inequities and disengagement," says Mehta.

When schools can be fully reopened, Mehta says leaders need to think about areas that helped keep students motivated this year and amplify them, including giving students greater agency over their learning and providing more time for teachers to connect with families.

"How do we create the space to do more of those things when we come back to regular school," he says, "and what do we want to let go of to allow those things to grow? I think those are the questions I would ask everybody."
Andrew Bauld, the communications coordinator at the Berkeley Carroll School in New York City, is a frequent contributor to Ed.

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EVERYONE KNEW learning during a pandemic wouldn't be easy, but could we have guessed it would be quite this hard? Schools are still battling everything from poor internet service to low attendance. Parents are overwhelmed in homes that have also become workplaces and classrooms. Teachers are demoralized.

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A+ STUDENT DISCIPLINE - Best Study Motivation

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How To Motivate Students Who Don't Seem To Care

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How To Be An A-Grade Student - Study Motivation

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This is the first website you can read and learn about student motivation.

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Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/.

Introduction

Fostering student motivation is a difficult but necessary aspect of teaching that instructors must consider. Many may have led classes where students are engaged, motivated, and excited to learn, but have also led classes where students are distracted, disinterested, and reluctant to engage-and, probably, have led classes that are a mix. What factors influence students' motivation? How can instructors promote students' engagement and motivation to learn? While there are nuances that change from student to student, there are also models of motivation that serve as tools for thinking through and enhancing motivation in our classrooms. This guide will look at three frameworks: the expectancy-value-cost model of motivation, the ARCS model of instructional design, and self-determination theory. These three models highlight some of the major factors that influence student motivation, often drawing from and demonstrating overlap among their frameworks. The aim of this guide is to explore some of the literature on motivation and offer practical solutions for understanding and enhancing student motivation.

Expectancy - Value - Cost Model

The purpose of the original expectancy-value model was to predict students' achievement behaviors within an educational context. The model has since been refined to include cost as one of the three major factors that influence student motivation. Below is a description of the three factors, according to the model, that influence motivation.

Expectancy refers to a student's expectation that they can actually succeed in the assigned task. It energizes students because they feel empowered to meet the learning objectives of the course.

Value involves a student's ability to perceive the importance of engaging in a particular task. This gives meaning to the assignment or activity because students are clear on why the task or behavior is valuable.

Cost points to the barriers that impede a student's ability to be successful on an assignment, activity and/or the course at large. Therefore, students might have success expectancies and perceive high task value, however, they might also be aware of obstacles to their engagement or a potential negative affect resulting in performance of the task, which could decrease their motivation.

Three important questions to consider from the student perspective:
1. Expectancy - Can I do the task?

2. Value - Do I want to do the task?

* Intrinsic or interest value: the inherent enjoyment that an individual experiences from engaging in the task for its own sake.

* Utility value: the usefulness of the task in helping achieve other short term or long-term goals.

* Attainment value: the task affirms a valued aspect of an individual's identity and meets a need that is important to the individual.

3. Cost - Am I free of barriers that prevent me from investing my time, energy, and resources into the activity?

It's important to note that expectancy, value and cost are not shaped only when a student enters your classroom. These have been shaped over time by both individual and contextual factors. Each of your students comes in with an initial response, however there are strategies for encouraging student success, clarifying subject meaning and finding ways to mitigate costs that will increase your students' motivation. Everyone may not end up at the same level of motivation, but if you can increase each student's motivation, it will help the overall atmosphere and productivity of the course that you are teaching.

Strategies to Enhance Expectancy, Value, and Cost

Hulleman et. al (2016) summarize research-based sources that positively impact students' expectancy beliefs, perceptions of task value, and perceptions of cost, which might point to useful strategies that instructors can employ.

Research-based sources of expectancy-related beliefs

Expectancy source

Definition

Research-based sources of value

Research-based sources of cost

Sources:

Barron K. E., & Hulleman, C. S. (2015). Expectancy-value-cost model of motivation. International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 503-509.

Hulleman, C. S., Barron, K. E., Kosovich, J. J., & Lazowski, R. A. (2016). Student motivation: Current theories, constructs, and interventions within an expectancy-value framework. In A. A. Lipnevich et al. (Eds.), Psychosocial Skills and School Systems in the 21st Century. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

ARCS Model of Instructional Design

The ARCS model of instructional design was created to improve the motivational appeal of instructional materials. The ARCS model is grounded in an expectancy-value framework, which assumes that people are motivated to engage in an activity if it's perceived to be linked to the satisfaction of personal needs and if there is a positive expectancy for success. The purpose of this model was to fill a gap in the motivation literature by providing a model that could more clearly allow instructors to identify strategies to help improve motivation levels within their students.

ARCS is an acronym that stands for four factors, according to the model, that influence student motivation: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention refers to getting and sustaining student attention and directing attention to the appropriate stimuli.

Relevance involves making instruction applicable to present and future career opportunities, showing that learning in it of itself is enjoyable, and/or focusing on process over product by satisfying students' psychological needs (e.g., need for achievement, need for affiliation).

Confidence includes helping students believe that some level of success is possible if effort is exerted.

Satisfaction is attained by helping students feel good about their accomplishments and allowing them to exert some degree of control over the learning experience.

To use the ARCS instructional design model, these steps can be followed:

Define

Classify the problem

Analyze audience motivation

Prepare motivational objectives (i.e., identify which factor in the ARCS model to target based on the defined problem and audience analysis).

Design

Generate potential motivational strategies for each objective

Select strategies that a) don't take up too much instructional time; b) don't detract from instructional objectives; c) fall within time and money constraints; d) are acceptable to the audience; and e) are compatible with the instructor's personal style, preferences, and mode of instruction.

Develop

Prepare motivational elements

Integrate materials with instruction

Evaluate

Conduct a developmental try-out

Assess motivational outcomes

Strategies to Enhance Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction

Keller (1987) provides several suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' attention, perceived relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention Strategies
Incongruity, Conflict

Introduce a fact that seems to contradict the learner's past experience.

Present an example that does not seem to exemplify a given concept.

Introduce two equally plausible facts or principles, only one of which can be true.

Play devil's advocate.

Concreteness Variability

In stand up delivery, vary the tone of your voice, and use body movement, pauses, and props.

Vary the format of instruction (information presentation, practice, testing, etc.) according to the attention span of the audience.

Vary the medium of instruction (platform delivery, film, video, print, etc.).

Break up print materials by use of white space, visuals, tables, different typefaces, etc.

Change the style of presentation (humorous-serious, fast-slow, loud-soft, active-passive, etc.).

Shift between student-instructor interaction and student-student interaction.

Humor Inquiry Participation
Use games, role plays, or simulations that require learner participation.

Relevance Strategies
Experience Present Worth
State explicitly the present intrinsic value of learning the content, as distinct from its value as a link to future goals.
Future Usefulness

State explicitly how the instruction relates to future activities of the learner.

Ask learners to relate the instruction to their own future goals (future wheel).

Need Matching Modeling Choice

Provide meaningful alternative methods for accomplishing a goal.

Provide personal choices for organizing one's work.

Confidence Strategies
Learning Requirements Difficulty
Organize materials on an increasing level of difficulty; that is, structure the learning material to provide a "conquerable" challenge.
Expectations Attributions

Attribute student success to effort rather than luck or ease of task when appropriate (i.e., when you know it's true!).

Encourage student efforts to verbalize appropriate attributions for both successes and failures.

Self-Confidence
Satisfaction Strategies
Natural Consequences Unexpected Rewards

Reward intrinsically interesting task performance with unexpected, non-contingent rewards.

Reward boring tasks with extrinsic, anticipated rewards.

Positive Outcomes

Give verbal praise for successful progress or accomplishment.

Give personal attention to students.

Provide informative, helpful feedback when it is immediately useful.

Provide motivating feedback (praise) immediately following task performance.

Negative Influences Scheduling
Source: Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10, 2-10.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro-theory of human motivation, emotion, and development that is concerned with the social conditions that facilitate or hinder human flourishing. While applicable to many domains, the theory has been commonly used to understand what moves students to act and persist in educational settings. SDT focuses on the factors that influence intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which primarily involves the satisfaction of basic psychological needs.

Basic Psychological Needs

SDT posits that human motivation is guided by the need to fulfill basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Autonomy refers to having a choice in one's own individual behaviors and feeling that those behaviors stem from individual volition rather than from external pressure or control. In educational contexts, students feel autonomous when they are given options, within a structure, about how to perform or present their work.

Competence refers to perceiving one's own behaviors or actions as effective and efficient. Students feel competent when they are able to track their progress in developing skills or an understanding of course material. This is often fostered when students receive clear feedback regarding their progression in the class.

Relatedness refers to feeling a sense of belonging, closeness, and support from others. In educational settings, relatedness is fostered when students feel connected, both intellectually and emotionally, to their peers and instructors in the class. This can often be accomplished through interactions that allow members of the class to get to know each other on a deeper, more personal level.

Continuum of Self-Determination

SDT also posits that motivation exists on a continuum. When an environment provides enough support for the satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, an individual may experience self-determined forms of motivation: intrinsic motivation, integration, and identification. Self-determined motivation occurs when there is an internal perceived locus of causality (i.e., internal factors are the main driving force for the behavior). Integration and identification are also grouped as autonomous extrinsic motivation as the behavior is driven by internal and volitional choice.

Intrinsic motivation, which is the most self-determined type of motivation, occurs when individuals naturally and spontaneously perform behaviors as a result of genuine interest and enjoyment.

Integrated regulation is when individuals identify the importance of a behavior, integrate this behavior into their self-concept, and pursue activities that align with this self-concept.

Identified regulation is where people identify and recognize the value of a behavior, which then drives their action.

When an environment does not provide enough support for the satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, an individual may experience non-self-determined forms of motivation: introjection and external regulation. Introjection and external regulation are grouped as controlled extrinsic motivation because people enact these behaviors due to external or internal pressures.

Introjected regulation occurs when individuals are controlled by internalized consequences administered by the individual themselves, such as pride, shame, or guilt.

External regulation is when people's behaviors are controlled exclusively by external factors, such as rewards or punishments.

Finally, at the bottom of the continuum is amotivation, which is lowest form of motivation.

Amotivation exists when there is a complete lack of intention to behave and there is no sense of achievement or purpose when the behavior is performed.

Below is a figure depicting the continuum of self-determination taken from Lonsdale, Hodge, and Rose (2009).

Although having intrinsically motivated students would be the ultimate goal, it may not be a practical one within educational settings. That's because there are several tasks that are required of students to meet particular learning objectives that may not be inherently interesting or enjoyable. Instead, instructors can employ various strategies to satisfy students' basic psychological needs, which should move their level of motivation along the continuum, and hopefully lead to more self-determined forms of motivation, thus yielding the greatest rewards in terms of student academic outcomes.

Below are suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Strategies to Enhance Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness

Autonomy Strategies

Have students choose paper topics

Have students choose the medium with which they will present their work

Co-create rubrics with students (e.g., participation rubrics, assignment rubrics)

Have students choose the topics you will cover in a particular unit

Drop the lowest assessment or two (e.g., quizzes, exams, homework)

Have students identify preferred assignment deadlines

Gather mid-semester feedback and make changes based on student suggestions

Provide meaningful rationales for learning activities

Acknowledge students' feelings about the learning process or learning activities throughout the course

Competence Strategies

Set high but achievable learning objectives

Communicate to students that you believe they can meet your high expectations

Communicate clear expectations for each assignment (e.g., use rubrics)

Include multiple low-stakes assessments

Give students practice with feedback before assessments

Provide lots of early feedback to students

Have students provide peer feedback

Scaffold assignments

Praise student effort and hard work

Provide a safe environment for students to fail and then learn from their mistakes

Relatedness Strategies

Share personal anecdotes

Get to know students via small talk before/after class and during breaks

Require students to come to office hours (individually or in small groups)

Have students complete a survey where they share information about themselves

Use students' names (perhaps with the help of name tents)

Have students incorporate personal interests into their assignments

Share a meal with students or bring food to class

Incorporate group activities during class, and allow students to work with a variety of peers

Arrange formal study groups

Convey warmth, caring, and respect to students

Sources:

Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Rose, E. (2009). Athlete burnout in elite sport: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 785-795.

Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7, 133-144.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford.

Additional Strategies for Motivating Students

Below are some additional research-based strategies for motivating students to learn.

Become a role model for student interest. Deliver your presentations with energy and enthusiasm. As a display of your motivation, your passion motivates your students. Make the course personal, showing why you are interested in the material.

Get to know your students. You will be able to better tailor your instruction to the students' concerns and backgrounds, and your personal interest in them will inspire their personal loyalty to you. Display a strong interest in students' learning and a faith in their abilities.

Use examples freely. Many students want to be shown why a concept or technique is useful before they want to study it further. Inform students about how your course prepares students for future opportunities.

Use a variety of student-active teaching activities. These activities directly engage students in the material and give them opportunities to achieve a level of mastery.

Teach by discovery. Students find it satisfying to reason through a problem and discover the underlying principle on their own.

Cooperative learning activities are particularly effective as they also provide positive social pressure.

Set realistic performance goals and help students achieve them by encouraging them to set their own reasonable goals. Design assignments that are appropriately challenging in view of the experience and aptitude of the class.

Place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading. Tests should be a means of showing what students have mastered, not what they have not. Avoid grading on the curve and give everyone the opportunity to achieve the highest standard and grades.

Be free with praise and constructive in criticism. Negative comments should pertain to particular performances, not the performer. Offer nonjudgmental feedback on students' work, stress opportunities to improve, look for ways to stimulate advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep and goats.

Give students as much control over their own education as possible. Let students choose paper and project topics that interest them. Assess them in a variety of ways (tests, papers, projects, presentations, etc.) to give students more control over how they show their understanding to you. Give students options for how these assignments are weighted.

Sources:

Bain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

DeLong, M., & Winter, D. (2002). Learning to teach and teaching to learn mathematics: Resources for professional development. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America.

Nilson, L. (2016). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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by Chelsea Yarborough and Heather Fedesco Print Version Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/. Introduction Expectancy - Value - Cost Model ARCS Model of Instructional Design Self-Determination Theory Additional Strategies for Motivating Students Introduction Fostering student...

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This is the second student motivation article you can read and learn from.

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"Curiosity is," said writer Samuel L. Johnson, "in great and generous minds, the first passion and the last."

This quote is a great reminder that if we can get students curious and motivated to learn, we can set them up for a lifelong love of learning. And as a teacher, you have the power to help them find that passion for learning while they are young.

In this article, we'll go over the difference between two types of motivation-intrinsic and extrinsic-and why you should prioritize the former in your classroom. Then, we'll provide you with a few tips and strategies for improving your students' intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: What's the Difference?

Before we explore how to motivate your students to learn, let's go over the difference between two types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation occurs when students are engaged because of internal rewards, like a love of learning or interest in a subject.[3] These students learn to value learning for its own merits, regardless of any external factors. An example of intrinsic motivation is a student learning new vocabulary words because they love to read.

Extrinsic motivation, however, is learning because of external factors. Students may be motivated to learn to pass a test, to gain a reward, or to avoid a punishment. An example of extrinsic motivation is a student who is studying so their parents will not ground them for poor grades.

Generally, children lose engagement after being externally rewarded.[7] This suggests that extrinsic motivation is short-term and can lead students away from an inherent love of learning. As a teacher, you can prevent this by prioritizing intrinsically motivated learning in the classroom.

How to Motivate Students: Encourage Intrinsic Motivation

The value of choosing intrinsic motivation over its extrinsic counterpart is clear, but it's not always easy to know where to start. When it comes to the classroom, there are a few strategies that you can use to make sure your students are interested in your class material and ready to learn.

Elementary-aged children are highly motivated when their teachers prioritize content mastery and understanding over high test scores.[2] Although tests can be a great way to measure student progress, try to focus on helping them understand the concepts they find difficult. As they spend more time learning, they will be better able to turn their weaknesses into strengths and gain an appreciation for learning that's deeper than test scores.

Students are also more likely to be motivated if class material is relevant to their lives and involves their interests.[10] The best way to make your curriculum relevant to your students is to get to know them. Spend time understanding their needs and what makes them light up in a classroom setting. And allow some flexibility in your assignments so students can spend some time focusing on what they personally find interesting.

Research also suggests that online learning can encourage intrinsic motivation.[1] In part, this is because online learning often involves some level of independence-and independent learning is also linked to motivated students.[12] Consider either making some of your curriculum online or including some independent learning activities, like reading or personal project time.

And finally, gamification can have an engaging place in the classroom if intrinsic motivation is prioritized.[4] In a nutshell, gamification is the use of activities and rewards to teach different learning concepts. When an activity or reward is focused around intrinsic motivation-like giving a child a calculator as a prize for winning a math contest-student engagement improves.

7 Ways to Boost Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom

Finding ways to motivate students-especially those who are currently unmotivated-can feel tough. But by knowing the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, you can make sure you're taking the right steps to engage your students.

Here's a quick list of 7 motivational activities and strategies you can use to improve your students' intrinsic motivation to learn.

1. Get to know your students and their unique interests. When possible, structure your assignments in a way that can include their interests. If you have a student who loves dinosaurs, for example, write a math problem that involves counting cartoon dinosaurs.[8]

2. Choose rewards that encourage intrinsic motivation. If you're holding a reading contest, for example, you could make the prize a book of the child's choice.

3. When students have some autonomy over their assignments, they're more likely to be motivated.[9] Consider trying blended learning, a strategy that involves a mix of independent learning and whole-class lessons.

4. Include some curriculum that is relevant to your students' lives and current needs to boost motivation.[10]

5. Give your students positive feedback on their assignments to encourage them and to reinforce that they can do well.[11]

6. Motivation is often enhanced through curiosity.[5] Ask your students what they are curious about and help them find something that interests them about an assignment.

7. Share your love of a subject or concept with your students. If you show why you love learning, your students are more likely to catch your enthusiasm, too.

Sources:

1. Rovai, A., Ponton, M., Wighting, M., and Baker, J. A Comparative Analysis of Student Motivation in Traditional Classroom and E-Learning Courses. International Journal on E-Learning, July 2007, 6(3), pp. 413-432.

2. Meece, J.L., Anderman, E.M., and Anderman, L.H. Classroom Goal Structure, Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 487-503.

3. Williams, K., and Williams, C. Five Key Ingredients for Improving Student Motivation. Research in Higher Education Journal, 2011. http://aabri.com/manuscripts/11834.pdf

4. Buckley, P., and Doyle, E. Gamification and student motivation. Interactive Learning Environments, 2016, 24(6), pp. 1162-1175.

5. Ciampa, K. Learning in a mobile age: An investigation of student motivation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, February 2014, 30(1), pp. 82-96.

6. Schiefele, U. Classroom management and mastery-oriented instruction as mediators of the effects of teacher motivation on student motivation. Teaching and Teacher Education, May 2017, 64, pp. 115-126.

7. Cherry, K. Differences of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation. Verywell Mind, Jan. 2020. https://www.verywellmind.com/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation-2795384

8. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Motivating Students. https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/

9. Ferlazzo, L., and Sypnieski, K.H. What Teachers Can Do to Boost Student Motivation. Education Week, 2019. https://www.edweek.org/ew/collections/student-motivation-videos/what-teachers-can-do-to-boost-student.html.

10. Ferlazzo, L. Strategies for Helping Students Motivate Themselves. Edutopia, Sep. 2015. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/strategies-helping-students-motivate-themselves-larry-ferlazzo.

11. Teach the Earth Staff. Motivating Students. https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/motivation.html.

12. LaRosa, K. Fostering Independent Learning and Intrinsic Motivation in Your Child. https://medium.com/inspired-ideas-prek-12/fostering-independent-learning-and-intrinsic-motivation-in-your-child-ad76445ef0c6.

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Strategies for Motivating Students: Start with Intrinsic Motivation - Waterford.org

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"Curiosity is," said writer Samuel L. Johnson, "in great and generous minds, the first passion and the last." This quote is a great reminder that if we can get students curious and motivated to learn, we can set them up for a lifelong love of learning.

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This is the third website you can read and learn about student motivation.

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A Powerful Strategy for Fostering Student Motivation

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A look at how to adapt a well-established technique for boosting student motivation in distance learning or hybrid classrooms.