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Step #1: Regular Classroom Observations:

Objective: Monitor student performance and behaviour during various classroom activities.

Actions:

Take daily notes on student interactions, participation, and response to instructions.

Use a checklist to systematically record observations.

Pay attention to signs of struggle such as lack of engagement, frequent mistakes, or confusion.

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Observing Students to Identify Struggling Learners

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As a teacher, it is important to carefully observe your students to identify any who may be struggling with the course material. Struggling…

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Step #2 Initial Concerns Noted:

Objective: Identify and document specific instances where the student appears to struggle.

Actions:

Record specific behaviours or incidents that raise concern (e.g., difficulty following directions, inconsistent performance).

Use an observation log to detail the context and frequency of these behaviours.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Inform parents about the initial concerns.

Reason: Early communication helps keep parents in the loop and provides an opportunity to gather insights about any external factors influencing the student's behaviour.

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Step #3: Teacher Consultation

Objective: Gather additional insights and perspectives from colleagues.

Actions:

Discuss the student's behaviour with other teachers, particularly those who teach the same student in different subjects.

Share observations and compare notes to identify common patterns or concerns.

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Step 4: Behavioural Patterns:

Objective: Identify consistent patterns in the student's behaviour that might indicate underlying issues.

Actions:

Analyze observation logs and teacher feedback to identify recurring issues.

Consider environmental factors that may influence behaviour (e.g., time of day, subject matter).

Parent Involvement:

Action: Discuss identified patterns with parents if concerns persist.

Reason: Parents can provide valuable information about the student's behaviour at home and any external factors that may be contributing.

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Step #5 Informal Assessments:

Objective: Conduct preliminary assessments to pinpoint specific areas of difficulty.

Actions:

Use informal assessment tools such as quizzes, oral assessments, and classwork reviews.

Compare the student's performance with peers to identify discrepancies.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Share results and observations from informal assessments with parents.

Reason: Keeping parents informed helps them understand the student's current performance and areas of difficulty.

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As learning progresses, teachers use subtle methods to track how much students know and to discover any challenges learners have with the subject. These subtle methods are best described as informal assessments and make up an essential part of course evaluation.

Unlike formal evaluation, informal assessment methods do not use standard grading criteria, hence, they are described as low-stake. Here, the teacher uses straw polls, exit surveys, and flashcards to determine how much students know.

Use this guide to learn about different informal assessment methods and how to create online educational assessments with Formplus

What is an Informal Assessment?

Simultaneously, teachers depend on these pieces of information to plan out standard testing, aka formal assessments. For example, during an English class, the teacher observes that students find summary-writing challenging. They pay more attention to this area during the course and then set a formal summary writing test at the end of the day.

Examples of Informal Assessments

Quizzes

Often, teachers use quizzes to improve class participation. A standard method is to split students into groups and ask them questions in turns. The group with the highest score at the end wins the quiz and earns bragging rights plus some other reward.

It's not uncommon for people to use quizzes and tests interchangeably, although they are pretty different. Unlike a quiz, tests are a more standardized assessment method-you can think of them as mini exams. The instructor evaluates test papers using a rubric, and these scores are part of the final grading.

Examples of Quiz Questions

1. How many continents are in the world?

2. Australia and Africa are examples of planets.

Advantages of Using Quizzes in Classroom Assessment.

1. Because quizzes are fun and fast, students are more excited to take part in this process.

2. It exposes students to new subject areas.

Disadvantages of Using Quizzes in Classroom Assessment

1. Quizzes are fast-paced and do not give room for detailed feedback.

2. It can demotivate students easily.

Projects

A school project is a creative task that requires students to use their knowledge from the classroom and engagement with the real world in answering complex questions. For example, students can be asked to conduct a mini-survey at home and present their findings to others.

Depending on the project's structure, the teacher can assign group tasks or ask each individual to engage with the project independently. For example, in a drama class, students may have to work with others to produce a mini-play.

School projects allow students to develop deep knowledge on the subject and relevant skills like critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication.

Examples of School Projects

1. Ask students to write a sample letter to the President inviting him for their presentation.

2. Ask students to grow a plant at home and bring it to school.

3. As part of civic education, you can ask students to do some charity work for the elderly in their community and share their experiences in class.

Benefits of School Projects

1. As students engage in projects, they learn life skills outside of the classroom, such as collaboration and communication.

2. It helps students to understand how their classroom knowledge fits into the real world.

Disadvantages of School Projects

1. It is time-consuming and better-suited for formal assessment.

2. Students may not have access to the resources needed for the project.

Portfolio

As learning progresses, the instructor may require students to build up a portfolio. This is essentially a "snapshot" of each student's knowledge and provides evidence of their experiences, strengths, and weaknesses.

The instructor asks students to present their portfolios at different points until the learning period for informal assessments. This way, the instructor can give real-time feedback to help individuals improve their knowledge before a formal evaluation.

As learners create their portfolios and improve them over time, they develop self-awareness, goal-setting, and decision-making skills to help them make the right decisions.

Examples of Student Portfolios for Informal Assessments

1. A student can build a portfolio to show the process of a creative project like a novel.

2. Students can create a swipe file of their best artworks and pieces.

Pros of Using Portfolios for Informal Assessment

1. It helps the instructor to identify any gaps in the student's knowledge and address them on time.

2. It promotes positive feedback and encourages teacher-student communication.

Disadvantages of Using Portfolios for Informal Assessment

1. It is time-consuming, especially when you're dealing with a large class.

2. It is subject to bias.

Observation

Observation is one of the most common methods of informal assessment. As the name suggests, it involves paying attention to students as they learn and recording any noticed behavioral pattern.

Typically, teachers use the observer as a participant method. Here, they subtly observe students' interactions without interference to discover gaps in knowledge and understand any challenges they face. Simultaneously, the instructor looks out for character traits like timidity, charisma, and friendliness.

Advantages of Observation

1. Observation is one of the simplest methods of assessing students. It doesn't require too many resources from the instructors or students.

2. It provides reliable data for assessment.

Disadvantages of Observation

1. Students can adjust their behaviors when they know the instructor is watching. This alters the quality of data from observation.

2. Observation is subjective and easily affected by the personal bias of the instructor.

Oral Presentation

Oral presentations take different forms. For example, the teacher can organize an impromptu presentation on a specific subject or tell the students to prepare ahead of time. Sometimes, the instructor merges oral presentations with written assignments.

It's not uncommon for instructors to request extemporaneous speeches from students. Here's a familiar scenario: The teacher calls up a pupil and asks them to recap lessons from a previous class. To make things easier, the instructor might include prompts like:

1. The most important thing I learned is....

2. What I did not like about the class was....

In these situations, the student only needs to complete the sentences with their ideas. Oral presentations can also happen within groups like debates.

Advantages of Oral Presentations

1. During oral presentations, teachers can provide immediate feedback to every student. The rest of the class also benefit from these feedback sessions.

2. It is one of the most effective methods of assessing students.

3. Oral presentations are flexible. You can easily adjust them to suit different contexts.

Disadvantages of Oral Presentations

1. If you are dealing with a large class, oral presentations are time-consuming.

2. Students and teachers need to invest lots of resources to organize oral presentations successfully.

How to Use Formplus for Online Assessments

Here's a simple way to create an informal assessment questionnaire:

1. Sign up for a free Formplus account here if you don't have one.

Step 2: Click on the "create new form" button on the dashboard to access the form builder.

Step 3: On the left side of the builder, you'd find a section with multiple field options, including rating scales, long question fields, and advanced fields. To add any of these fields to your form, simply click or drag and drop them into the work area.

Step 4: Each field has a pencil icon for editing. When you click on this icon, you can add questions or carry out other functions like making the field read-only or compulsory.

Step 5: Save all changes to access the form customization section. Here, you have access to different functions to help you change the look and feel of your form. You can choose new themes or create custom themes from scratch.

Step 6: Copy the form link and share it with respondents. If you want more sharing options, go to the form share section and try your hands on a few of them. For example, you can embed the form link on your website or share it as a post on social media with beautiful images.

Benefits/When to Use Informal Assessment

Informal assessment methods help the instructor monitor the learner's progress throughout the learning period-these different methods build-up to the final formal assessment at the end of the class or session.

Let's look at some other benefits of informal assessments.

1. It presents a more accurate picture of a learner's abilities: You've probably heard that examination isn't the actual test of knowledge. Different occurrences can throw a student off balance and ruin their performance during a final evaluation. There are many situations where A-list individuals end up with subpar performances and results.

2. It takes place in the student's natural learning environment: Since informal assessments happen in the students' natural learning environment, they can engage with different tasks freely. This provides a realistic presentation of their abilities.

A standardized test or a traditional evaluation tool may not accurately picture the child's knowledge on the flip side. Exams come with a lot of anxiety, and the student might feel scared, anxious, or uncomfortable during a formal assessment, thus skewing the results.

3. Unlike formal assessment, informal assessments require less planning and resources to pull off. The instructor can simply call students up for an impromptu presentation without investing any monetary resources.

4. It sets the stage for immediate and consistent feedback. Since there's no grading involved, students can improve and apply their knowledge multiple times.

5. For the instructor, informal assessments like formative evaluation provide meaningful data that informs specific adjustments to their teaching methods. Instead of guesswork, teachers identify the particular challenges students face and adjust their teaching methods to address them.

Disadvantages of Informal Assessment

1. Since there are no formal criteria for evaluation, it can be challenging to measure how much progress a student has made over time.

2. Informal assessments are spontaneous, which puts a lot of pressure on both students and teachers. For example, a student who has stage fright might suffer a panic attack when asked to make an impromptu presentation.

3. Informal assessments are unpredictable, so these results cannot be used as a standard grading system.

Conclusion

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Informal Assessment: Definition, Examples & Benefits

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As learning progresses, teachers use subtle methods to track how much students know and to discover any challenges learners have with the subject. These subtle methods are best described as informal assessments and make up an essential part of course evaluation. Unlike formal evaluation, informal assessment methods do not use standard grading criteria, hence, they are described as low-stake.

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Step #6 Language Proficiency Evaluation:

Objective: Evaluate the student's proficiency in both the first and second languages.

Actions:

Administer standardized language proficiency tests for both languages.

Assess listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Obtain parental consent before conducting formal language proficiency evaluations.

Reason: It is a legal and ethical requirement to inform and get consent from parents before formal assessments.

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Step #7 Learning Disability Screening:

Objective: Screen for potential learning disabilities that may affect the student's performance.

Actions:

Use screening tools and checklists designed to identify signs of learning disabilities.

Collaborate with the school's special education team for comprehensive evaluation.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Obtain parental consent and involvement before conducting learning disability screenings.

Reason: Parental consent is legally required, and their input can provide a fuller picture of the student's needs.

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Anne M. Hayes, Eileen Dombrowski, Allison Shefcyk, and Jennae Bulat.

Research Triangle Park (NC): ; 2018 Apr.

Learning disabilities are among the most common disabilities experienced in childhood and adulthood. Although identifying learning disabilities in a school setting is a complex process, it is particularly challenging in low- and middle-income countries that lack the appropriate resources, tools, and supports. This guide provides an introduction to learning disabilities and describes the processes and practices that are necessary for the identification process. It also describes a phased approach that countries can use to assess their current screening and evaluation services, as well as determine the steps needed to develop, strengthen, and build systems that support students with learning disabilities. This guide also provides intervention recommendations that teachers and school administrators can implement at each phase of system development. Although this guide primarily addresses learning disabilities, the practices, processes, and systems described may be also used to improve the identification of other disabilities commonly encountered in schools.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank reviewers Dr. Ann Turnbul and Dr. Rima Azzam, editors Lynda Grahill and Laura Small, and publications specialist Felice Sinno-Lai for their expert input and recommendations. They also thank Sonja Douglas for her design and layout expertise.

Introduction

More than a billion people-approximately 15 percent of the world's population-have some type of disability ( World Health Organization [WHO], 2011) including sensory disabilities (such as blindness and deafness), intellectual disabilities, developmental disabilities, physical disabilities, and psychosocial disabilities. Although some individuals may acquire a disability as adults, many are born with a disability or acquire a disability in childhood. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) estimates that 150 million children under the age of 18 have a disability. Such children often require special education services in school (UNICEF, 2005).

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), adopted in 2006, mandates that children with disabilities have access to inclusive education. Inclusive education means that children do not attend segregated schools based on disability, but are instead educated in their local schools alongside their peers, with appropriate supports. As a result, many of the 177 countries (as of April 2018) that ratified the CRPD are developing new systems and supports to promote and ensure inclusive education opportunities for all children with disabilities ( United Nations, 2006). Developing an inclusive education system, however, is often arduous and complicated for many countries.

Complicating this educational reform process are the challenges of identifying students with disabilities. Some disabilities may be apparent (e.g., mobility impairment), but others-such as learning disabilities-cannot be determined based on appearances alone.

Identifying a student with a learning disability requires

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a multistep process,

▪

the use of tools and resources that are translated and adapted to the local cultural context, and

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the participation of a multidisciplinary team of experts.

Many countries recognize the need to support students with learning disabilities and are looking for ways to provide that support. Unfortunately, in doing so, many have moved straight to trying to identify learning disabilities without having the needed systems, tools, and practices in place to do it effectively. This type of identification goes against international best practices. An incomplete or ineffective screening and evaluation process can lead to large rates of misdiagnosis, and students may not receive the services and supports they need to be academically successful.

RTI takes seriously the imperative to address the needs of vulnerable children and to give all children the best possible education. In all of its projects, RTI promotes equitable, quality inclusive education, helping governments to put policies and mechanisms in place to meet that long-term goal. This guide is one in a series of guides intended to support school systems, schools, and teachers as they meet the learning needs of their students, including students with disabilities.

Structure of This Guide

This guide defines learning disabilities and describes the processes and practices that should be in place before a teacher, school, or school system screens or evaluates students for suspected learning disabilities. The guide then provides a phased approach to conducting screenings and evaluations for learning disabilities, outlining the requisite systems needed before conducting either a screening or evaluation. This approach also recommends interventions that teachers and school administrators can introduce at each phase to support students with learning disabilities. The guide's primary audience includes representatives from ministries of education, teachers, families, individuals from international organizations, and other relevant stakeholders who identify students with disabilities. Representatives from disabled persons organizations (DPOs) may also find the guide useful. Although the guide may be useful in some high-income countries, it specifically addresses the needs of low- and middle-income countries that may have nascent or emerging special education systems for students with learning disabilities.

This guide offers information and guidance on how to identify students with learning disabilities but does not provide in-depth information or recommendations on how to identify students with low-incidence disabilities or other high-incidence disabilities, such as speech disorders or behavior challenges. This limited focus is not intended to minimize the need to provide effective screening and evaluation practices for other categories of disabilities; rather, the hope is this guide is a more effective, focused resource for learning disabilities and addresses a growing international need.

The guide includes a phased approach for stakeholders to understand the complexities of identification while gradually and responsibly building the foundational structures that are needed to develop and expand an identification process. This phased approach to identifying students with learning disabilities also applies to identifying students with other types of disabilities; however, the tools used in evaluating other types of disabilities would differ. Figure 1 shows the various stages presented as part of this guide; vision and hearing screening is the first foundational phase. Phase 2 recommends a screening approach for learning disabilities while the final phase, Phase 3, provides suggestions for evaluation.

This guide is a complementary resource to existing resources and tools for inclusive education that RTI developed: School and Classroom Disabilities Inclusion Guide for Low- and Middle-Income Countries and Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Before they review this guide on learning disabilities, readers who are just learning about inclusive education practices will find it beneficial to review these two other foundational guides first.

The School and Classroom Guide provides information on differentiating instruction that benefits all students, regardless of whether they have been identified as having a disability. The School and Classroom Guide is a useful resource for teachers as they begin to provide services to students with learning disabilities without having the systems in place to effectively conduct screenings and evaluations. The School and Classroom Guide also introduces basic concepts of Response to Intervention (see page 10), one screening method to identify and address learning challenges.

The Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide in Low- and Middle-Income Countries offers additional information to government representatives and policymakers on systematic interventions and programs that support students with learning disabilities in the classroom.

Background

Defining Learning Disabilities and High-Incidence Disabilities

The concept of learning disabilities is thought to have originated in the United States in the 1960s. Learning disability is recognized as one of the 13 categories of disability within the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the comprehensive education law for individuals with disabilities in the United States. Although the definition of learning disability has slight variations, the IDEA defines it as a "disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations" ( US Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs [OSEP], 2004). However, many countries have yet to officially recognize learning disabilities. For example, many African countries have no formal local definitions of learning disabilities or high-incidence disability, and students with learning disabilities are typically not recognized in the classroom ( Abosi, 2007). Likewise, the Indian government does not formally recognize learning disabilities within its policies or programs ( Ahmad, 2015).

Another challenge is that different terminology can be used in different countries to refer to the same conditions. The United States uses learning disabilities, Australia and Zimbabwe use learning disabilities or learning difficulties, while Belgium uses the term instrumental disabilities. In some countries, the terminology used for children with disabilities can be highly disparaging and discriminatory. For example, some communities in northern Ghana use terms such as Zu'kpinglana and Zuuku (deadhead and empty-head, respectively) to describe children who exhibit challenges in learning. This lack of a common definition or understanding of learning disabilities presents challenges in identifying and providing services to students. Throughout this report and all of its work, RTI uses the term learning disability.

Forms of learning disabilities. Common forms of learning disabilities include those shown in Table 1, as defined by the Learning Disabilities Association of America.

Learning disabilities can vary significantly in severity and how they affect an individual's ability to learn. Teachers may not recognize that multiple types of learning disabilities can occur and may use a one-size-fits-all approach when determining supports for students. From the opposite side of this spectrum, students may have documentation that indicates that they have a learning disability without identifying the specific disability or the area of learning that is impacted. This practice can prevent a student from receiving specialized supports.

Prevalence estimates. Estimates for learning disabilities vary depending on the method of data collection, resulting in significantly different prevalence rates even within the same country. For example, a study in Belgaum, India, found that 15 percent of primary school students between the ages of 8 and 11 had some form of learning disability ( Mogasale et al., 2012). Another study in Kerala, India, which identified students through local teachers in a different city, estimated that only 2 percent of students had a learning disability ( Gafoor, 2015). In the United States, 5 percent of all students in school have been identified as having a specific learning disability, and another 15 percent or more of students are believed to have unidentified learning and attention difficulties ( Cortiella & Horowitz, 2014).

Identification challenges. Identifying learning disabilities can be challenging for several reasons. Although some students have obvious low-incidence disabilities such as mobility or sensory disabilities, students with learning disabilities are physically and often behaviorally difficult to distinguish from students without disabilities, particularly outside of school settings ( Friend & Bursuck, 2012). Furthermore, not all learning challenges are caused by a learning disability. Students without disabilities may also have academic, emotional, and behavioral difficulties that can result in learning challenges, even without an underlying disability ( National Association of Special Education Teachers, n.d.). Other disabilities (such as low vision or hearing difficulties), linguistic or cultural differences, and environmental factors (e.g., poor nutrition or lack of prior formal education) may also cause learning difficulties ( Aro & Ahonen, 2011; Fernald et al., 2009; National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities [NJCLD], 2010). Such factors must be ruled out as causes of learning difficulties during the screening or evaluation process; neglecting to do so may lead to misdiagnosis.

Dispelling Myths Related to Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities occur in every culture, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Common misperceptions about learning disabilities, however, can impact the way in which students are identified and the services they receive. This section helps to dispel some of the more frequently held myths about learning disabilities.

Myth #1: Persons with learning disabilities are lazy, do not want to learn, and cannot be successful. Academic challenges caused by a learning disability do not indicate laziness or an inability to learn. With proper accommodations and supports, students with learning disabilities can succeed in school. Supporting these students in school can help lead to further success, as adults with learning disabilities successfully pursue higher education and work in virtually all career fields.

Myth #2: Persons with learning disabilities are less intelligent. Having a learning disability does not affect a student's intelligence. In fact, some students with learning disabilities are gifted. Although students with learning disabilities may "appear to be functioning adequately in the classroom, their performance may be far below what they are capable of, given their intellectual ability" ( NJCLD, 2011, p. 2). Having a learning disability does not mean that a student does not have the capacity to learn, but rather benefits from learning materials and concepts using alternative methods.

Myth #3: Learning disabilities can only be identified once a student is fully literate. Many countries do not provide early identification services for learning disabilities, often because of the misperception that identifying a student with a disability is related to literacy skills. For instance, learning disability evaluation in the Indian city of Bangalore generally takes place during the seventh grade, after a student has experienced years of academic underachievement ( Thomas & Whitten, 2012). Although many students are identified as having learning disabilities because they have trouble learning to read, other students with learning disabilities do not display challenges in reading and writing. Therefore, identifying a potential vulnerability or screening for learning disabilities can and should begin before a student learns to read: as early as age 3, children can exhibit signs and indicators of learning disabilities ( Lange & Thompson, 2006). Table 2 shows examples of signs of learning disabilities at different ages. Identifying a learning challenge as early as possible is ideal, because early educational interventions are much more likely to yield long-term gains than those implemented at higher grades or in adulthood. Early identification has been tied to positive life outcomes such as higher academic performance, increased likelihood of graduating from secondary school, and decreased likelihood of committing crimes ( Heckman & Masterov, 2005).

Myth #4: People with learning disabilities outgrow them by adulthood. A learning disability is a lifelong condition ( National Institutes of Health, 2017). Although many adults adopt coping mechanisms and strategies to reduce the impact of their learning disabilities, some continue to struggle with learning difficulties throughout adulthood. Learning disabilities are not usually curable, though many adults select careers that reinforce their strengths rather than positions that may be more challenging due to their learning disability.

Myth #5. Learning disabilities are caused by a curse or by sin. In many cultures worldwide, disability is seen as a curse, the result of a sin, or a punishment for doing something wrong ( Wa Munyi, 2012). For this reason, many children with disabilities are hidden, and many families are hesitant to have their child assessed for any form of related disability. In reality, researchers and scientists have documented multiple causes of learning disabilities including structural brain differences, genetics, and environmental causes. In research about structural brain differences, individuals with learning disabilities in reading were found to have neural wiring impairments in the right hemisphere of their brain ( Ashkenazi, Black, Abrams, Hoeft, & Menon, 2013). In terms of genetics, studies of twins have documented that two-thirds of reading deficits could be attributed to genetic factors ( Astrom, Wadsworth, Olson, Willcutt, & DeFries, 2012). Learning disabilities are not caused by challenges seeing or hearing, emotional disturbance, cultural factors, lack of proficiency in the local language, environment or economic factors, or inadequate instruction ( Cortiella & Horowitz, 2014).

Myth #6. Learning disabilities will impact all people the same way. Learning disabilities can vary significantly from person to person, even within the same type of learning disability ( NJCLD, 2010). For example, one person with dyslexia may struggle significantly with reading while another individual may only have problems reading in certain situations, like reading aloud. Students with other types of disabilities (such as autism, students who are blind or deaf, or students with emotional disturbances) may also have a learning disability ( NJCLD, 2010). It is important to address all disabilities that a student may have.

Screening and Evaluating Learning Disabilities

Identifying a student with a learning disability is a complex and multifaceted process. Unfortunately, many schools and ministries of education have tried to simplify the process, to the detriment of students. When done appropriately, screening and evaluation processes can help identify students who may need additional educational supports to reach their full academic potential. Conversely, when the screening and evaluation of learning disabilities are conducted in a rushed, haphazard manner, or without using international best practices, harmful outcomes can result, such as incorrectly identifying students without disabilities as having learning disabilities, or improperly identifying students who may have learning disabilities. This section of the guide introduces typical signs of learning disabilities, the screening process to identify students with learning needs, and then the steps needed to effectively evaluate a student for a specific disability. This guide focuses on screening and evaluating children in the classroom (typically primary and secondary schools) versus early identification process or other non-classroom-related identification processes. This process can be simplified into the following steps in Figure 2.

Typical Signs of a Learning Disability

The identification process usually begins when either a family member or a teacher becomes concerned that a student is not making adequate progress in school. Common characteristics of learning disabilities include the following, as described by the Learning Disabilities Association of America (2017):

These characteristics are found in all individuals, regardless of disability, at some time in their development. A person with a learning disability, however, may have more than one of these characteristics ( Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2017). Characteristics of a learning disability may also change depending on a student's age and development. Table 2 shows the different characteristics that students with learning disabilities typically exhibit by age. These characteristics may vary slightly based on cultural context. A student's native language must be considered, because many students may have difficulties learning and communicating in their non-native language. Such challenges are not related to a learning disability and should not be considered evidence of one. For instance, a 1989 study found that Berber-speaking students in Morocco had lower Arabic reading scores than their Arabic-speaking counterparts in their first year of school. However, both groups obtained similar reading scores after 5 years of public education conducted in Arabic ( Wagner, Spratt, & Ezzaki,1989). Therefore, it is critical to consider the role of language and culture in evaluating a student's learning difficulties.

Typically, when a student demonstrates the characteristics of learning disabilities, additional assessments or a comprehensive evaluation is needed to help identify a student's learning challenges and strengths.

Screening Versus Evaluation

The process of identifying a learning disability can be confusing and appear a bit cumbersome at times. Ideally, learning disabilities are identified through a two-step process: (1) initial screening to determine if a child would benefit from additional educational support and then (2) a more in-depth evaluation to determine if a child has a possible learning disability and, if so, the areas of learning that might be impacted. It is important to note that screening to identify if a student has additional learning needs is not the same as evaluating in order to provide a diagnosis of a learning disability. Furthermore, access to school should not be dependent on screening or evaluation. Screening and identification should only be used to provide appropriate services and supports to students, not to decide whether or not to admit a student into school.

Obtaining a formal diagnosis to access education may cause problems for children and their families. Screenings and evaluations in many countries are conducted in public or private assessment or evaluation centers, which may be prohibitively expensive for many families. Although many countries require a diagnosis before a child suspected of having a disability can attend school, sometimes this diagnosis is used to mandate attendance in segregated schools or classes. Consequently, many families of children with disabilities do not seek an evaluation for their child because they fear their child will be denied admission to a school on the basis of having a learning disability ( Ahmad, 2015). Some countries, such as Costa Rica, are making concerted efforts to move toward a more individualized and needs-based system, instead of a diagnosis-based system ( Stough, 2003).

Although a diagnosis may explain the causes of a student's learning difficulties, it does not provide sufficient information about the type of services that a student may need, because learning disabilities may affect individuals differently, even those with the same diagnosis. Instead, each student should be assessed for individual learning strengths and challenges to identify appropriate supports and services. In the United States, comprehensive evaluations are still required, even with a diagnosis, to better understand a student's strengths and weaknesses ( Turnbull, Stowe, & Huerta, 2007). Such information can help teachers create an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for the student, as well as determine what supports the student will need to succeed in school ( Parent Center Hub, n.d.).

Screening potential challenges in learning and development are very different from a comprehensive evaluation, which is used to identify specific learning disabilities, other disabilities, and other related challenges. Unfortunately, many countries do not recognize the difference between these two methods and often apply screening procedures to attempt to determine a learning disability. For instance, teachers in Jordan frequently use self-made achievement tests to determine eligibility for learning disabilities support services ( Al-Natour, Al-Khamra, & Al-Smadi, 2008) rather than using several tools and engaging a multidisciplinary team. Table 3 helps clarify the differences between the two procedures and provides best practices on how and when to conduct the respective approaches.

Engaging Families in the Screening and Evaluation Process

Family engagement is key throughout screening, evaluating, and providing services. Family can be extremely helpful in identifying strategies and approaches for assessment that will work best for their children ( Rutland & Hall, 2013). However, for families to effectively contribute to the process, they must be informed and involved in all aspects of screening and evaluation ( Boone & Crais, 1999). As countries begin to develop systems to support screenings and evaluations within schools, tools and guidance documents should also be coupled with standards on when and how to best engage families. Partnership with families is key in supporting children with disabilities and ensuring that supports and education conducted in the classroom are supported and reinforced at home. Standards might include the referral process for accessing assistive devices, obtaining family background information for both screenings and evaluations, obtaining parental consent for evaluations, and including families in the IEP process. In countries where biological parents may not commonly be the primary caregivers, expanding parent engagement to include other family members and caregivers (involved in child's upbringing) can be beneficial. Also, the concepts of learning disabilities, screenings, and evaluation may be new for many parents and families, so schools should be sure to thoroughly explain the process and discuss the potential role of parents in all stages ( Aro & Ahonen, 2011). Given the importance of parental and family engagement, this topic is interwoven throughout the document.

Elements of Disability Screening

An identification screening-sometimes referred to as a screening assessment-provides general information about a student who may need additional supports, as well as a more in-depth evaluation ( Bergeson et al., 2008). Screening is often brief and conducted in a short timeframe. However, screenings can also be done individually when a student is thought to have learning challenges. Screenings can provide additional and initial information about a specific student and possible learning challenges and strengths. Another benefit is that screenings can be administered by individuals who do not have highly specialized training. Some screenings, especially those that are school-wide, typically do not require parental consent in certain countries ( National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2006); however, parental consent policies may differ by country, and screeners should adhere to local laws. Parental consent is a best practice and should be encouraged as much as feasible. Recommendations for screening include the following:

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Screening should take place as early as possible. Learning difficulties can begin to appear as early as age 3. Therefore, screening should take place as early as possible and the child should be routinely rescreened so the child can avoid years of academic difficulty. Teachers should screen, as needed, once a child enters school and then every 2-3 years; teachers should observe the child both in and outside the classroom (e.g., recess), and communicate their concerns with the child's parents or guardian(s) ( Aro & Ahonen, 2011). Screenings should include vision and hearing tests to monitor any changes over time, and children with suspected vision or hearing loss should be referred for additional evaluation and services. Families can share relevant information about their child with their teachers (e.g., strengths and interests), as well as their expectations about their child's education ( Aro & Ahonen, 2011). Screening can then take place upon the recommendation of a family member or from a teacher.

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Screening should rule out other potential causes of learning difficulties. Other potential causes for learning challenges should be ruled out before a student is identified as potentially having a learning disability. It is especially important to rule out hearing and vision challenges before conducting a more comprehensive evaluation. Students with vision or hearing challenges may: (1) require frequent breaks due to fatigue; (2) have difficulty sustaining attention; (3) be unable to finish timed tests; (4) be unable to sit for long periods of time; (5) have difficulty with sitting or balance, maintaining posture, and/or arm-hand use; (6) have trouble answering questions; (7) have difficulty pointing at something or looking someone in the eye; and (8) have challenges communicating effectively ( Farrall, Wright, & Wright, 2015). These symptoms can be easily confused with signs of learning disabilities. Because many countries have not implemented routine hearing and vision screening, a teacher or trained individual should conduct the vision and hearing screening to ensure that a student's learning challenges are not related to low vision or difficulty hearing. Screening should also rule out other factors, such as environment or language, that might impact a student's ability to achieve academic success. Those factors may make a student appear to have a learning disability. Ruling out external factors is especially important in situations where the language spoken in a student's home may not be the same as the language of instruction at school. In fact, some experts do not recommend evaluating students for learning disabilities if their first language differs from the language of instruction. They suggest that evaluations for learning disabilities can only take place once students clearly have a strong written and oral understanding of the primary language of instruction ( Dunn & Walker, 2008).

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Aro and Ahonen (2011) suggest the following other factors to consider:

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Teaching and school-related problems (e.g., number of pupils in the class, education of the teacher, teaching materials, and books)

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Insufficient nutrition or sleep

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Health problems

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Problems in the student's emotional development and security; the effect of a family member's emotional problems (e.g., anxiety or depression) on the student

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Violence in the family

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Social/economic problems of the family

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An unsafe learning environment in the classroom or school

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Ambiguous daily routines at home or school, insufficient support

This guide includes a checklist in Appendix A to help lead teachers through factors that should be ruled out before conducting screenings for students with suspected learning disabilities. Key factors and suggestions include the following:

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Be culturally and linguistically relevant. Using screening tools that have not been adapted to the local language or culture can lead to misidentification. All screening tools should be adapted to the cultural context and conducted in a student's native language. Adapting a tool is not the same as simply translating it into the local language. Instead, the tool should be changed to reflect the cultural context of a country. For example, early childhood milestones are often different across countries, as they reflect a country's culture and reality (e.g., catching a ball may be an inappropriate milestone in countries where children do not play with balls or typically have access to playing with balls).

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Have clear procedures and standards for initiating an evaluation. Screenings are not a means to themselves. Instead, clear procedures must be in place about actions to take if a student is identified as having additional learning needs and what supports are in place to support that student and the family. In most cases, the next step should be to conduct a comprehensive evaluation.

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Use multiple tools and sources of information. The screening process must use several different tools and sources of information (described in more detail later in the guide). Using different tools and sources of information helps increase the accuracy of the evaluation results and helps omit evaluators' potential bias.

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Don't use screening methods to diagnose a learning disability. Screening should be used only to identify the additional need for a full evaluation, not as an attempt to identify a specific learning disability. Identifying a specific learning disability is considerably more complicated and only trained practitioners should do it.

Elements of Evaluation

An evaluation is a comprehensive procedure conducted by trained professionals (using copious detailed information) who try to identify or diagnose the cause of the student's learning challenges, determine the severity of the disability, and identify targeted interventions. Information obtained through these evaluations should also be used to help develop an IEP and set benchmarks for a student's educational progress. Appendix B in this guide has a checklist to help teachers and professionals consider factors that should be ruled out before evaluations for students with suspected learning disabilities are conducted. Evaluations should:

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Take place upon completing an initial screening. As stated before, a general screening must be conducted before a comprehensive evaluation is done because screenings can rule out other factors that may be confused with characteristics of learning disabilities. Evaluations can be time-consuming for all members of the evaluation team, so it is important that there be a suspected need before moving forward.

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Use multiple evaluation tools and sources of information. No single tool or score is sufficient to determine whether a student has a learning disability ( NJCLD, 2011). Therefore, multiple tools and sources of information must be used to conduct an evaluation; although there is no best practice established on how many tools should be used, at least two tools should be part of an evaluation. The exact number will be determined on a student-by-student basis and in response to the student's individual needs. The US education law for children with disabilities, IDEA, notes that it is inappropriate and unacceptable to base any eligibility on the result of one procedure and that multiple tests and procedures must be performed ( Turnbull, Stowe, & Huerta, 2007). Effective evaluations should assess all areas related to a student's suspected disability, including: "health, vision and hearing, social and emotional status, general intelligence, academic performance, communication abilities, and motor skills" ( Farrall, Wright, & Wright, 2015, p. 16). Furthermore, the type of information used to assess a student can include: "background and family history, formal and informal testing, observations in the classroom and other settings, if appropriate; interview with family, teacher(s), and the child; additional testing, depending on the presenting problem and the test findings" ( Farrall, Wright, & Wright, 2015, p. 6).

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Challenges Related to Screenings and Evaluations

Identifying students with learning disabilities has clear benefits, such as gaining access to services, getting reasonable accommodations, and developing an IEP. However, a few associated challenges must be considered including the following:

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Lack of tools and guides adapted to local language and culture. According to one study that surveyed educational testing specialists from 44 countries, 85 percent stated they need access to tests that identify and diagnose students with disabilities. The specialists identified testing for learning disabilities as the most critical need. Tools are most likely to be developed in Australia, Canada, Western Europe, or the United States, and least likely to be developed in African or Arab countries. Although tools are readily available, "their availability and use differ considerably among more than 220 countries" ( Oakland, 2009, p. 2). In this same study, 68 percent of respondents said they used tests developed in other countries to assess disabilities.

The use of Western tests to screen or diagnose learning disabilities in low- and middle-income countries is ethically questionable ( Oakland, 2009). Such tests are often neither adapted to a local population sample ( Aro & Ahonen, 2011) nor translated into local languages ( Oakland, 2009). Some features of the instruments may also be culturally inappropriate for other countries. For instance, non-Western cultures may have expectations of when children should reach certain developmental milestones that differ from those in Western cultures ( Fernald et al., 2009). Failure to adapt Western-made instruments to the student's country, language, and culture can lead to an elevated risk of misidentification and misdiagnosis ( Oakland, 2009). Countries without adapted tools should work to make tools culturally relevant for their respective countries and pilot test the tools before encouraging their use.

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Possible misclassification or misdiagnosis. In the United States, The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities "believes that inappropriate diagnostic practices and procedures have contributed to misclassification of individuals and questionable incidence rates of learning disabilities" ( NJCLD, 1994, p. 1). Misclassification and misdiagnosis can manifest in two ways:

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Overrepresentation of individuals who do not have learning disabilities but may have other related challenges in areas such as speech processing or behavior. Evaluation tools that do not take language or cultural diversity into account can also cause overrepresentation.

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Underrepresentation of individuals who may have challenges from a learning disability, but are not recognized as having a disability ( NJCLD, 1994, p. 1).

One example of overrepresentation is in Macedonia. While the Roma only account for 2.66 percent of the population, Romani students represent 46 percent of the special education population. Roma students are especially disproportionally represented in schools and classes for learning disabilities. This misclassification can be caused by evaluation processes that do not account for linguistic diversity and contain social bias ( European Roma Rights Center, 2012, p. 17). This issue has also been a challenge in the United States where individuals who are learning English as a second language have been misidentified as having a learning disability. Before a learning disability evaluation is conducted, evaluators and other professionals must ensure that the student being assessed has a strong understanding of the language that is used in the classroom (both written and oral) ( Dunn & Walker, 2008). Conversely, poor evaluation processes can mean that students are not identified and, therefore, do not receive services. For example, in Kenya, students who are poor are less likely to be identified as having a disability. Students with disabilities are often under-identified because screening and evaluations only take place at assessment or evaluation centers, and the costs of traveling to assessment or evaluation centers are prohibitively high for many low-income families ( Mukria & Korir, 2006).

Labeling

Although knowing a student's specific learning disability is helpful to provide the appropriate services and support, students can also be harmfully labeled. As UNICEF stated, "there are dangers in 'labeling' children according to their diagnosis as it can lead to lower expectations and denial of needed services, and overshadow the child's individuality and evolving capacities" ( World Health Organization [WHO] and United Nations Children's Fund [UNICEF], 2012). Labeling a student as having a disability can also lead to increased stigmatization, peer rejection, lower self-esteem, and limited opportunities ( Florian et al., 2006). Because of these potential risks, evaluations should be purposeful and lead to services and supports that will improve each student's educational experience. As stated in the RTI Disability Inclusive Education Systems and Policies in Low-and Middle-Income Countries, "to mitigate potential prejudicial labeling, all identification systems should be coupled with disability awareness programs to help administrators, teachers, students, and parents better understand and fully accept diversity and disability" ( Hayes & Bulat, 2017, p. 36).

Segregated Settings

Pull-Out Model. It is important to realize that special education is a service, not a setting. In many countries, special education services are provided in settings outside the general education classroom, such as in segregated classrooms and specialized schools. The assumption underlying this model is that students with disabilities require a space outside the general education classroom in which they can receive individualized or group instruction. In this "pull-out model," a special education teacher pulls a student out of a general education class to receive instruction. Although this system can give students individualized instruction and support, the process may increase stigma and negatively impact a student's self-esteem ( Barton, 2016). Most importantly, the pull-out model removes and reduces a student's exposure to teacher instruction in the general education setting, so the already-struggling student often misses core components of the curriculum. The pull-out model can result in increased academic gaps between students with disabilities and students without disabilities ( Bouck, 2006). If a full evaluation team decides that individualized instruction outside the classroom is necessary, it is important that the student is not pulled out during instructional time or during the student's preferred activities (such as recess or art time).

Push-In Model. Recently, more countries have adopted a "push-in" model of special education. In this model, students with disabilities receive special education services in the general education classroom and are instructed alongside their peers who do not have disabilities. The special education teacher and general education teacher work together to ensure that students are "receiving full access to the general education curriculum while limiting any disruption to their daily schedule (such as pulling students out of a classroom). This model also includes the implementation of specially designed modifications within the classroom setting" ( Professional Learning Board, 2017). Researchers found that students with disabilities make more progress in the push-in model than in the pull-out model. In fact, the amount of time a student with a disability spends in the general education classroom is positively correlated with higher test scores in math and reading, less disruptive behavior, and increased future employment opportunities. This result was found in all students with disabilities, regardless of type of disability or its severity ( Wagner et al., 2006). In the push-in model, resource room or special education teachers can serve as support, advisors, and mentors for general education teachers and act as co-teachers using differentiated learning techniques that will benefit students with disabilities. The resource room teacher can still provide individualized instruction to the student, but it is typically done in a small group in the general education classroom.

Many countries rely on the pull-out model while working to expand resource rooms. For instance, Chinese law requires primary schools to establish resource rooms if they have either adequate funding or a certain population of students with disabilities, and the government has greatly expanded the number of such settings over the past two decades ( Xiaoli & Olli-Pekka, 2015). The problem with this model is that it can be expensive because it requires additional classroom space and equipment. Countries may want to consider the push-in method, and use the pull-out method only when individualized and intensive instruction outside of the general education classroom has proven successful for individual students.

Screening and Evaluation Methods and Tools

No single method or tool can provide sufficient information about a student's strengths and weaknesses and educational needs. Data for both screening and evaluation should be collected through different methods or ways to gather information, and teachers should use a variety of screening and evaluation tools. This section helps clarify the different ways a teacher can collect data to be used for screening and provides additional information on the types of tools and their use.

Screening and Evaluation Information Sources

For both screening and evaluation, professionals must collect as much information as needed and appropriate to assess (1) a student's possible educational needs, and (2) which instructional strategies can be immediately implemented. They should collect information about the following.

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Family background. Obtaining family background and history can help determine if a student has struggled since birth and if other factors at home might influence the student's current school performance. Meetings with families should be conducted constructively and collaboratively to avoid the risk of blaming parents for a student's possible struggles in the classroom. Also, for the information to be meaningful, these discussions and interactions should be conducted in the family's native language to ensure that families can fully express themselves and that school staff can understand them.

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Observation. Observations allow teachers to better understand how a student behaves in different circumstances and settings. For observations to be effective, they should be conducted over time and at different times throughout the day. Also, observations should be made in multiple contexts and settings such as under different types of instruction and in informal settings at school; these contexts can provide information about how a student's behavior may differ in each setting. The person conducting the observation must be as unobtrusive as possible when collecting data. Furthermore, other students in the classroom should never be told that a specific student is being observed; such a statement could increase stigmatization. Whenever possible, observers should use a standardized checklist and include a way to record the information in a report shared with parents or other members of the multidisciplinary team.

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Formal testing and tools. In addition to the methods listed above, using formalized screening and evaluation tools may be helpful to determine a challenge in a particular area such as reading, writing, or mathematics. Too often, teachers may depend on these tools without using other methods of collecting information, however, which can lead to misleading information. Also, it is important to develop standards related to tool usage, the translation of tools into local languages, and the proposed process for adapting tools to the local cultural context.

Screenings and Evaluation Tools

Several types of formal tools and resources are available for screening and evaluating learning disabilities; suggested tools are described below. Appendix C provides more detailed guidance about types of assessments and their use in various contexts. Appendices D and E provide guidance on things that teachers can do in their classrooms to identify students who may have vision or hearing challenges (Appendix D and Appendix E, respectively). Appendix F provides a sample protocol for follow up and referral.

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Vision and hearing screening tools. Vision and hearing should be screened regularly, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health. These screenings should identify any challenges related to a student's ability to see items both close up and in the distance, as well as the student's ability to hear different tones at different frequencies. Vision testing should also include a functional vision assessment that may capture challenges (such as eye movement and challenges with night vision) not addressed through screening only. Vision and hearing screenings can be conducted at low cost and teachers can administer them. Hearing tests can be administered through an app on a tablet or smartphone along with quality headphones. For vision tests, the tools should be relevant to the country's cultural context and use symbols rather than letters because a student may not be literate yet or may have challenges naming letters. Ideally, screenings should be coupled with referrals for further evaluation and services, such as glasses or hearing aids.

Phased Approach to Screening and Evaluating Students at the School Level

Increasingly, low- and middle-income countries are seeking ways to identify and support students with learning disabilities in the classroom. However, given the complexities of screening and evaluation, countries do not always know where they should start or focus their limited resources. Some countries may have some systems already in place, but perhaps do not have all supports needed to conduct effective screenings and evaluations aligned with international best practice. This sporadic availability of supports may inadvertently lead to misdiagnosis of learning disabilities and keep students from receiving the supports they need to be academically successful. For example, some countries may use screening techniques to conduct an evaluation for a learning disability or may use only one type of evaluation tool not adapted or normed to the local context. Likewise, often only one person at the school may be responsible for conducting an evaluation instead of a multidisciplinary team. These practices may result in data that do not reflect a student's academic challenges and needs accurately. Recognizing the challenge of incomplete screening and evaluation systems, this guide offers a phased approach for countries to help them identify current levels of service availability, as well as possible gaps in services, and provides suggestions on how to prioritize and grow services.

The core elements of this phased approach can be defined as follows:

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Phase 1: Nascent Screening and Differentiated Instruction. In this phase, countries or educational systems may have some, but not all, systems in place to identify students with learning disabilities effectively. Countries in this phase should focus on conducting effective vision and hearing screening techniques in the classroom while simultaneously developing the systems needed to screen for other challenges in academic instruction. During this phase, teachers should focus on diversifying instruction to differentiate learning, if they have not done so already.

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Phase 2: Emerging Screening and Individualized Instruction. In this phase, all students routinely receive vision and hearing screenings and a system is also in place to assess and rule out other challenges (such as medical or environmental factors) to academic instruction. Systems required to conduct evaluations can be developed. As these supports are put in place, teachers can provide more fully differentiated instruction, support intensive instructional strategies, begin to develop IEPs, and provide reasonable accommodations.

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Phase 3: Established Systems and Support. In this phase, the systems, standards, and tools are in place to provide comprehensive screening and evaluation services that can be implemented in the school setting. In this phase, teachers should provide individualized learning supports in the classroom. Systems established for screening and evaluations should be monitored and updated as needed.

Table 4, on the following page, summarizes the phases of this suggested approach and suggests what schools and systems can work and focus on during each respective phase.

The Purpose of Phased Approach

A phased approach: (1) helps governments understand the systems that they currently have in place, (2) identifies gaps in tools, services, and training that might need to be filled, and (3) provides a roadmap for future work. Governments and school staff are encouraged to use the self-assessment tool (provided in Appendix G) to assess what services they currently have in place and whether these systems are sufficient to begin screening or evaluating for learning disabilities. Appendix H provides definitions of key terms to help understand this approach. This guide also helps governments identify what supports may still need to be developed as they strengthen or expand existing supports, before attempting to screen or evaluate students for learning disabilities. Ideally, this phased approach will reduce misdiagnosis of learning disabilities, which is a possible outcome if screenings and evaluations are attempted without all the systems and services in place.

This approach also gives school staff strategies they can use to adapt teaching techniques to support students with disabilities throughout all phases. A diagnosis is not a prerequisite to receiving education in the general classroom, so teachers should be prepared to support students with learning disabilities throughout all phases, whether they have been identified yet or not. These services should evolve and become more individualized as the foundations to support students with learning disabilities are established in the country. For example, in Phase 1 systems can focus on how to support students with disabilities in the classroom even if they have not yet been identified. Phase 3 assumes that the systems are in place to conduct evaluations, and thus teachers can begin to provide individualized instruction using IEPs to guide their instructional approach. Figure 2 shows the hierarchy of screening and evaluation for the different phases and how learning instruction might also evolve over time.

Although the best approach is that governments establish structured processes to screen and evaluate, the phased approach to screening and evaluation offers a flexible way to support students when such processes do not yet exist.

Recommended Response to Improve Systems Throughout the Phases

Governments must responsibly and thoughtfully grow and expand systems that facilitate screenings and evaluations for students with disabilities. Though countries may have some components of different phases already in place, unless all components of Phase 1 are established, an education system should not move forward with Phase 2. This recommendation also applies to moving from Phase 2 to Phase 3. This model ensures that the required foundation is established before moving to the next phases. This phased approach provides countries with recommended starting points and possible goals, as described below.

Systems supports for Phase 1. Phase 1 is the foundation needed to develop screening for all students with disabilities. Recommendations for Phase 1 include:

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Conduct hearing and vision screenings. Although some disabilities, such as learning disabilities, may require ongoing accommodations and support, some hearing and vision disabilities may only need one-time structural or individual accommodations. If hearing and vision screenings are available, they should be given to all students. Students identified as having hearing and vision disabilities can be given assistive devices such as hearing aids or glasses or medical treatment if necessary (many hearing and vision challenges are caused by infections that can be treated medically). Teachers can also make structural accommodations, such as seating students with visual disabilities closest to where instruction takes place. Students with severe hearing loss may benefit from learning local sign language and receiving supports from deaf education experts.

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Develop the standards, tools, and systems needed to conduct effective academic instruction screenings for students with disabilities. Without standards, misdiagnosis is a risk, resulting in failure to give students appropriate supports. Thus, educational systems must have standards for the tools and informed protocols that help teachers and school staff understand the steps they need to take to conduct screenings. Standards at this phase should focus on hearing and vision screening tools and their related protocols, how to implement other methods to conduct basic screening for other possible causes of learning challenges (including checklists and ways to engage families), and how to use information gathered in screening to inform IEPs. Once established, these standards pave the way for widespread use of the practices detailed in Phase 2.

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Educate families on disabilities and the benefits of inclusive education. During this initial phase, all families should receive training and information on disabilities. Families should be informed about learning disabilities as well as relevant policies within the country. Families should learn about their child's educational rights and how to be engaged in their child's school experience.

Systems supports for Phase 2. Building upon the systems already in place in Phase 1, Phase 2 begins to more fully implement basic screenings to determine additional learning needs for students. Phase 2 also focuses on developing educational systems to allow a multidisciplinary team to begin conducting evaluations and implement fuller differentiated learning interventions. Recommendations for Phase 2 include:

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Develop the standards, tools, and systems needed to conduct evaluations. Once vision and hearing screenings are conducted and standards for academic instruction screenings are in place and implemented, similar standards should be developed for conducting evaluations. Standards should (1) clearly outline the members of the multidisciplinary team, (2) describe which tools are acceptable within different contexts, (3) detail how and when to engage families throughout the evaluation process as part of the evaluation team, (4) provide information on where individuals can go to receive additional support or tools, and (5) ensure that evaluation leads directly to improved and more individualized instruction. Evaluations should be connected to instruction and used to plan specially designed instruction, not only to diagnose a disability. Families and DPOs should be engaged in the development of standards, tools, and systems.

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Provide reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities. Having a system in place for reasonable accommodations is very important for all students with disabilities, including those with learning disabilities. The CRPD defines reasonable accommodations in Article 2 as "the necessary and appropriate modification and adjustments, not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden where needed in a particular case to ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an equal basis with others of all human rights and fundamental freedoms" (CRPD, Article 2). Although accommodations are intended "to reduce or even eliminate a student's disability," they do not reduce learning expectations or provide students with unfair advantages ( Thompson et al., 2005). Students' requirements for reasonable accommodations may shift as they age and encounter different academic challenges. Policies or standards should allow reasonable accommodations to be individualized specifically for each student, as opposed to developing a system that provides a "one size fits all" approach. For example, some students may need additional time to complete tests, while others do not, and the amount of additional time needed can vary by student. Therefore, accommodations should be based on each student's needs. Table 5 provides additional suggestions on what to do and not to do when providing reasonable accommodations. As specific learning disabilities are "unique to the individual and can be manifested in a variety of ways," accommodations should also be tailored and individualized to a particular student ( University of Washington, Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology [DO-IT], 2017). Examples of reasonable accommodations given to students with learning disabilities include:

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Providing additional time for testing, including standardized tests

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Completing tests orally

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Using a calculator or computer for exams or homework

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Providing materials in large print

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Allowing students to use peer notetakers

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Providing tape recordings of lectures

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Providing visual aids or visual schedules

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Allowing for additional time for in-class assignments, especially writing assignments

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Allowing for frequent breaks

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Allowing for exams to be taken in a space with minimal distractions

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Administering tests at a specific time of day when a student is more likely to have better concentration

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Train specialists and key members of multidisciplinary teams to ensure they can conduct effective evaluations. Every school should have staff members who are knowledgeable in leading screenings and evaluations and who can develop evaluation reports. If having these trained staff in all schools is not feasible, ministries of education may want to consider developing itinerant specialists who can join teams as needed while building the capacity of school personnel. These specialists should be aware of all government standards related to evaluations and serve as leaders throughout the process. Members of the team should be trained on how to engage parents through the screening and evaluation process. Clear guidelines on parental consent should be developed.

Systems supports for Phase 3. Phase 3 assumes that the required structures and systems are in place not only to screen, but also to begin evaluations and provide differentiated instruction to all students. Even though these structures are in place, systems must still be assessed to ensure they are being implemented properly, and complementary policies should be developed. Steps must be taken to ensure that teachers are fully aware of any changes that may take place throughout this stage. Recommendations for Phase 3 include:

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Reevaluate and standardize tools for both screening and evaluations. Once standards, tools, and protocols are in place, it is important to periodically review these documents to ensure they are still relevant and being used appropriately. Adaptations may be needed, and any changes must be communicated to teachers with information on why these changes were made and how to implement the new tools. Families of children with disabilities and DPOs should be engaged in any revision or review of tools.

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Develop or strengthen policies to support screening and evaluation practices. Once systems are in place, governments may want to consider developing policies or strengthening existing ones to complement the systems. For example, many countries have established policies or ministerial decrees related to IEP development and usage, parental consent requirements, and protocols related to evaluations. Families of children with disabilities and DPOs should be engaged in all policy development and reform.

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Address how to continually improve teacher knowledge of learning disabilities and differentiated and individualized classroom instruction. Teachers should receive ongoing guidance and training on how to differentiate and individualize classroom instruction. Training should also include instruction on changes in tools or policies that might take place over time. In addition, students may need to provide more intensive instruction in small groups to see if students learning improves and may not require a full evaluation.

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Educate families on how to best support and advocate for their children outside the classroom. Families should be educated on strategies to best support their children's learning outside the classroom. This can include reinforcing learning strategies at home. In addition, families should be educated on how to advocate for their children in the school setting.

Recommended Response for Schools Throughout the Three Phases

As the different systems are developed to allow effective classroom screening and evaluation practices, teachers can conduct interventions to ensure that students receive additional support in the classroom. In other words, a teacher does not need to wait until all systems are developed and implemented before starting to support students with learning disabilities in the classroom. Ideally, teachers' classroom supports would grow alongside systems and standards. However, these supports may not follow the same trajectory as the systems support, which is not problematic if the minimal supports are provided in each phase. Teachers should feel free to move forward with the recommended supports in other phases and do not need to wait for screenings and evaluation services to be developed to provide most suggested instructional practices to include students with disabilities in the classroom. The recommended phased approach for teacher support is described below.

School and classroom supports for Phase 1. In Phase 1, teachers can undertake several interventions to support students while these systems are being developed. Recommendations for Phase 1 include:

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Implement Tier 1 of Response to Intervention. Under Tier 1 of Response to Intervention, all students are screened to determine their general achievement level compared to their peers. For an overcrowded classroom, teachers could potentially use the tests they are already giving students to determine student achievement levels.

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Use the RTI Classroom Guide to differentiate learning in the classroom. Once students are screened and their achievement levels are identified, teachers can differentiate instruction to provide additional support to those learners. The RTI Classroom Guide provides strategies and suggestions on how to differentiate learning in the classroom. The guide outlines several particularly effective strategies for students with different types of learning disabilities, including:

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Systematic teaching of learning strategies. Systematic instruction involves teaching students how to learn by giving them the tools they need to understand and use new material and skills ( Steedly et al., 2008). These skills, such as self-monitoring of understanding, come naturally to many students. However, research indicates that although students with specific learning disabilities can learn these types of strategies, they typically do not use them spontaneously ( Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005, p. 32). Systematic instruction is particularly helpful in strengthening skills such as organization and attention. Various types of systematic instruction include: (1) memory devices to help students remember a strategy or concept (e.g., a first-letter mnemonic created by forming a word from the beginning letters of other words); (2) strategy steps phrased in informal language and beginning with action verbs (e.g., read the problem carefully); (3) strategy steps stated in the order in which they are to be used (e.g., students are prompted to read the question carefully before trying to answer it); and, (4) strategy steps that prompt students to use their reasoning abilities (e.g., the critical steps needed to solve a problem) ( Steedly et al., 2008).

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Multiple learning modalities. Some students learn best by hearing instructions, others by reading them, and yet others by physically completing a task. Many students with disabilities find visual representations helpful, especially for mathematics instruction. One such approach is Concrete-Representational-Abstract, a three-part instructional strategy in which the teacher first uses concrete materials (such as stones or coins) to model the math concept to be learned, then demonstrates the concept in another visual form (such as drawing a picture). Finally, this strategy uses numbers or symbols (such as writing the numbers on the board) ( Steedly et al., 2008). Teachers should also use kinesthetic (body movement) and tactile (touching items) teaching approaches. Examples of these modalities in practice include having students trace letters in the air, acting out parts of the lesson, and using manipulatives to learn new concepts. Similarly, allowing students to demonstrate their knowledge of a concept in a way that is comfortable for them can more effectively illustrate what they know than can forcing knowledge to be presented, for example, in written or oral form ( Bulat et al., 2017).

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Practice and repetition. All students, including those with specific learning disabilities, benefit from multiple exposures to a new concept and the ability to practice it repeatedly for full mastery. Initial opportunities for practice should be carefully supervised, and immediate feedback about the accuracy of responses should be provided. Also, the teacher should provide students, especially those with learning disabilities, multiple practice opportunities by repeating tasks in a variety of ways. Students who are struggling to learn often need more repetitions of instruction-repetitions of different ways to accomplish the task-and practice to master a concept or skill. This is true not only for initial learning but also over time ( Bulat et al., 2017).

School and classroom supports for Phase 2. In Phase 2, teachers can undertake several interventions to support students, in addition to the Phase 1 activities already under way. Recommendations for Phase 2 include:

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Implement Tier 2 of Response to Intervention to support students who may have additional educational needs. Once all students are screened, and the teacher has a sense of which areas they are struggling in, students are then grouped according to these areas. Teachers provide specific instruction to these groups several times per week, in addition to regular instruction, continually modifying the instruction based on student needs. Additionally, student progress should be monitored to gauge if, and when, the additional instruction is no longer needed.

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School and classroom supports for Phase 3. In Phase 3, teachers can undertake several interventions to support students, in addition to Phases 1 and 2 activities already under way. Recommendations for Phase 3 include:

▪

Ensure appropriate tests are being provided to students to gauge their progress accurately. Assessments should be individualized so students are given tests that can gauge their progress over time. For example, a student who struggles with reading should be given an assessment specific enough to pick up gains in certain areas of reading. It is also critical to include students with disabilities in general assessments: inclusion not only increases the likelihood that such students can reach grade-level standards, but also improves their chances of achieving their postsecondary education and career goals. In the United States, all students with disabilities are required to be included in annual school accountability assessments. Most students with learning disabilities can achieve-grade level standards with accommodations and support, and must be assessed appropriately. Even though testing to assess progress is needed, students with disabilities should not be overtested.

Summary

With the appropriate tools and supports, students with learning disabilities can be highly successful academically and go on to become effective employees and engaged and active citizens. The first step in providing tailored supports is to determine if a student indeed has a learning disability or may be struggling with school for other reasons. This identification process is not always simple or straightforward, but a few concerted efforts by ministries of education and school staff can make this goal achievable. Although effort and time are needed, the alternative of permitting 15 to 20 percent of all students to fall behind academically and fail to achieve their full potential is not acceptable. Rather, country leaders should look to thoughtfully and responsibly build the systems and supports that are needed to enable students with learning disabilities to succeed academically. A comprehensive system includes developing screening and evaluation measures using international best practices, and then providing individualized supports and accommodations. Such systems and supports will benefit students with learning disabilities and will also strengthen learning opportunities for all students.

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References

Appendix A. Screening Checklist

Purpose. Teachers should use the following checklist (Table A-1) to rule out vision, hearing, or environmental factors before proceeding to a more advanced screening process. A more advanced screening should be conducted if the answers to all questions are "yes," and yet the student continues to struggle with learning.

Appendix B. Evaluation Checklist

Purpose: Teachers and members of a multidisciplinary team should use the following checklist (see Table B-1) to determine if they are ready to proceed with conducting an evaluation. An evaluation should be conducted if the answers to all questions are "yes," and yet the student continues to struggle with learning.

Appendix C. Categories of Tests

Several categories of tests can provide different types of information about a student. The primary categories of tests include the following:

▪

Standardized assessment. A standardized assessment is a highly structured test administered to all students using the same instructions, procedures, and materials ( Bergeson, et al. 2008; Overton, 2012). Standardized assessments are frequently norm-referenced, and they can assess the progress of all students in certain knowledge and skills ( Bergeson, et al. 2008). However, these tests can also penalize specific groups of students, including students with disabilities and students from linguistic/cultural minority groups. Although accommodations may be provided to an individual during testing, the test itself cannot be modified or adapted to meet the needs of a specific individual because the goal is to present a standard set of materials.

▪

Norm-referenced assessment. A norm-referenced assessment compares a student's score to a nationally representative sample of students in the same age and grade ( Bergeson et al., 2008). Norm-based assessments are almost always standardized to show a consistent comparison. However, the results of these assessments may only be meaningful if the representative sample used in the tests "includes children who share the language, culture, and/or (dis)abilities of those being assessed" ( Bergeson, et al. 2008, p. 16).

▪

Criterion-referenced assessment. Criterion-referenced assessments measure a student's performance against a predetermined set of criteria, which generally consist of developmentally sequenced or task-analyzed skills. These tools can be helpful in determining if a student has increased skill level or mastered a specific academic skill. Although these tests may be standardized, there is often more flexibility in the administration and materials.

▪

Curriculum-referenced assessment. Curriculum-referenced assessments measure how a student is performing using the content and goals of the curriculum. Curriculum-reference assessments can be conducted after completing a specific set of instructions (such as chapter tests) or can be done informally on an ongoing basis.

▪

Checklists and rating scales. In addition to these categories of assessment, many educational systems also use predetermined checklists and rating scales to help determine if a student is ready to transition to another type of service or curriculum placement. These types of supports can also be helpful for screening and monitoring potential behavior.

Some tools fall under multiple categories of testing. For example, many standardized tests are also norm-referenced. Each assessment can potentially fill a vital role and be interdependent and complementary to one another. Ideally, a system would build on the different assessment tools to provide as comprehensive a picture as possible of a student's strengths and challenges ( Hussain, Tedasse, & Sajid, 2015).

With all the different types and categories of screening and evaluation tools, knowing which ones to use and when can be challenging. Table C-1 provides a comparison of the different types of tools, who should administer the tools, and what type of information they measure. Each type of tool and category of testing has advantages and disadvantages. For example, although norm-referenced assessments can indicate if a student has made progress, they do not necessarily indicate how much progress an individual has made. Likewise, using only norm-referenced tests can be discouraging for many students with disabilities who struggle academically, because tests may always indicate that they are behind their peers without indicating their individual achievements and progress. Thus, when selecting tests to screen or evaluate students with learning disabilities and to monitor their progress, teachers and other evaluators must use a variety of assessments from different categories of testing.

Appendix D. Simple Vision-Screening Protocols

Introduction

Vision screening is an efficient and cost-effective method to identify pupils with visual impairment or eye conditions. Following a screening, a referral can be made to an appropriate medical professional for further evaluation and treatment if deemed necessary.

Step 1: Ensure Appropriate Screening Environment

The screening environment is important in order to limit distractions and to reduce the chances that cues are provided by the screener. Recommendations for the screening environment include:

Step 2: Screening the Pupil with Near-Sightedness

Near-sightedness refers to having difficulty seeing things farther away (or being able to see things close up better). An example of this would be having difficulty seeing what is written on the chalkboard from a distance, but being able to read out of a textbook without trouble. Most students with vision difficulty fall under this category.

A simple vision screening tool that can be used to see if a student is near-sighted is the Lea chart. The Lea chart (Figure D-1) is more appropriate to use with children that are not literate. The chart includes pictures/symbols that are larger on the top row and get gradually smaller as one continues down the chart. The student has flashcards with the corresponding pictures or symbols on them.

Step 3: Screening the Pupil with Far-Sightedness

Far-sightedness refers to having difficulty seeing things close up (or being able to see things further away better). An example of this would be having difficulty reading a textbook but being able to see the chalkboard without trouble. A child who has trouble seeing things close up is usually having trouble focusing on what they see. Although fewer children have difficulty with far-sightedness versus near-sightedness, it is still important to screen for both.

Step 4: Conduct Follow-up and Referral

If the pupil is unable to see the symbols/pictures toward the top of the page or has trouble reading from material close to their eyes (such as textbooks), please inform the parents that you suspect the pupil is having challenges seeing and that you recommend they go to a medical professional for a full formal screening.

Appendix E. Simple Hearing-Screening Protocols

Introduction

The purpose of this tool is to provide steps for a simple screening process when immediate access to medical facilities are unavailable. The screening is designed to take place in the school setting in an appropriate screening environment. The information below provides guidance on screenings with and without the use of technology. The screenings are simple and intended to provide teachers and caregivers with a better understanding of the child's condition. If impairment is suspected, the child should be referred to a medical facility for a full screening and diagnosis.

Step 1: Ensure Appropriate Screening Environment

The screening environment is important in order to limit distractions and to reduce the chances that visual cues are provided by the screener. Recommendations for the screening environment include:

Step 2: Screen the Pupil Using Technology Available

There are several apps that can be used to test hearing effectively. Many free apps are available, but the reliability varies. When choosing a free screening app for a phone or tablet, it is important to consider the design and adaptability to context. Applications should be designed by a team knowledgeable of the topic (e.g., audiologist) and include language or materials that are easily understood by users. Pure tone tests are typically used by audiologists.

Materials Needed:

▪

Smart phone or tablet

▪

Headset-Ideally, headsets that limit background noise or are completely noise cancelling should be chosen. Additionally, some apps may require that headsets are calibrated for standard reading.

▪

Reliable screening app (i.e., reputable developer, simple yet accurate instructions, and pure tone audiometer). HearScreen is an example of a cost-based reliable screening app.

Directions will vary depending on the specific requirements of each app. The following are general steps to follow when using technology-based apps:

1.

Read instructions carefully and explain the process to the pupil.

2.

Conduct the test. During a pure tone test, pupils are asked to wear headphones and listen for a faint tone at various pitches. The tone will be played in one ear at a time. The individual raises his/her hand immediately following the tone to indicate that it is heard. If no hand is raised, this informs the assessor that the tone was not heard at a certain pitch.

3.

If the test indicates that the child has challenges hearing, it would be best to repeat the steps to ensure that the same results are obtained. If the results are not clear (i.e., the pupil fails the screening during first test but the pupil passes the second test) it would be best to conduct one final screening at a later time.

4.

Record results. Records should include the pupil's name, date of screening(s), results of screenings and any additional comments that may be helpful when the pupil visit a medical facility.

Step 3: If Technology Is Not Available, Screen Using Simple Tools

The following screenings are typically used on younger children, but they can provide you with insight on the hearing challenges of children of any age ( Clark & Newton, 2015; Hesperian Foundation, 2009).

Materials Needed:

▪

2 people: Individual to conduct screening and observer

▪

Chair or place for the pupil to sit

▪

Rattle or noisemaker (could be made by placing seeds or small stones in a can/bottle/etc.)

▪

Paper and pencil to record child's responses to the assessment

Before the screening begins, provide the pupil with an overview of the assessment. Inform him/her to raise one hand when the noise is heard. Younger children, or those in pre-primary classes, may not respond to the noises by raising their hands. If the pupil has not raised his/her hand yet or responded to the sound in any way, take a moment to ensure that the pupil understands the instructions. If the pupil does not raise his/her hand but seems startled by the sounds or turns toward the sound, this is an indicator that the sound is heard.

1.

The teacher with the shaker starts by standing 10 ft. (3m) directly behind the pupil, takes one step to the left of the child and shakes the rattle. The teacher pauses and then repeats once more for a total of two short shakes with a pause between them. After each shake, the teacher should ensure that the child is looking forward. The teacher should then take two steps to the right, to move to the right side of the pupil. Once the teacher is one step to the right of the pupil, the teacher should shake the noisemaker a total of two times. If pupil is visibly startled or upset by the sound of the noise, the teacher should make sure he/she is calm before continuing to the next step.

2.

After shaking on both sides twice, the teacher should move closer to the pupil to stand 5ft (1.5m) behind the pupil on each side and shake the noisemaker on each side of the pupil's head twice in the same manner as before.

3.

The teacher should move closer, 6 inches (15.4cm), and repeat the same process with the shakers-SOFT shakes on each side of the head. IMPORTANT: If loud noises are made that close to the ear, it could be damaging to the child's ear.

4.

Consult with the individual observing the child to answer the following questions.

If the student receives a "No, at all distances," the screening is complete and immediate referral is advised. If the child receives a "Yes, at all distances" or a "Yes, at some distances," you can proceed with assessment 2, which focuses on sounds.

Assessment 2 (optional):

This is an optional assessment that can be given to pupils if you believe that they hear some sounds but not others. This simple screening is intended to assess the pupil for his/her ability to hear high and low pitch sounds.

What You Need:

Directions:

1.

Before beginning the screening, the pupil should be calm and quiet.

2.

Assessor sits behind the child at arm length, on one side. Another person in the room will remain in front of the child to note when s/he responds to a sound or to redirect the child to the toy when the noise has completely distracted him/her. Assessor should:

a.

Say "Ps" and "sh"

b.

Place the small piece of wood in can and shake

c.

d.

Rub a spoon inside a cup

e.

Remove the wood and place the rice inside. Shake the can with the rice inside

f.

Tap drum (if available)

g.

Repeat sounds on opposite side

h.

If one of the sounds is not heard by the child, repeat once. If sound is not heard the second time, record the sound as unheard by the child.

Circle which noises the child responds to by raising his/her hand. Younger children can respond could include mimicking, jumping, crying, or turning toward the sound.

Appendix F. Sample Follow-up and Referral Protocol
Referral Note:
For the first screening, if the pupil's results includes "yes, at some distances" or "no, at all distances," a referral should be provided. For the second screening, if the pupil does not respond to one or more of the sounds listed as low or high, please reach out to the parent/caregiver and suggest that refer the pupil to a medical professional for a formal screening. An example of a referral note can be found below.

Date: ___________

Dear _______Parent/Guardian_______________,

Pupil's name_________________ was screened for vision and hearing at School's name _____.

His/her screening results indicates the child may have:

Possible vision challenges : Left/Right/ Both Eyes

Possible hearing challenges: Left/Right/Both Ears- indicate if impairment is expect at certain level (e.g., low or high pitch sounds)

As a result, the child may have an increased risk of developing serious conditions and we recommend further medical investigation. The medical center is the best place to conduct an additional screening.

Respectfully,

__________________________

Signature (Name of the teacher)

__________________________

Print (Name of the teacher)

Appendix G. Self-Assessment Guide for Phased Approach

Purpose. The purpose of this self-assessment guide ( Table G-1) is to help decisionmakers and school staff gauge if they are ready to conduct screenings and evaluations related to learning disabilities. It is also meant to provide information on what systems or supports should be prioritized and put into place before a screening or evaluation is conducted. This guide does not dictate instructional or teaching practices in the classroom, but rather provides options for what teachers can do if certain systems are lacking.

Appendix H. Glossary of Terms

Auditory Processing Disorder (APD). Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, APD is a condition that impedes sound as it travels through the ear and is processed or interpreted by the brain. Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out competing background noises.

Behavior Analyst. A behavior analyst is a trained professional who specializes in conducting behavioral assessments, identifying causes of behavior problems, and providing a treatment plan. In the United States, these professionals are certified by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board.

Criterion-Referenced Assessments. Criterion-referenced assessments measure a student's mastery of a set of skills or given criteria, such as reading or mathematics. Unlike a norm-referenced assessment, a criterion-referenced assessment cannot tell a teacher how the student performed in relation to peers.

Curriculum-Referenced Assessments. Curriculum-referenced assessments measure a student's performance using curriculum content. These assessments can be used to monitor the progress of all students in all educational settings.

Evaluation. An evaluation is a comprehensive evaluation of an individual student that can provide information about a student's academic or behavioral needs. The results of an evaluation can help teachers identify what specific educational supports are needed for an individual student.

Differentiated Learning. Differentiated learning practices are instructional practices that are altered to meet the learning needs and interests of different students in a group, such as both girls and boys, or students with and without disabilities, in a classroom. These practices can include changing the instructional content, how the teacher teaches, and what a student is expected to be able to do at the end of a lesson.

Disability. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities of 2006 defines disability as including "those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others."

Dyscalculia. Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person's ability to understand numbers and learn math facts. Individuals with this learning disability may also have difficulty comprehending math symbols, struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have trouble counting.

Dysgraphia. Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability that affects a person's handwriting ability and fine motor skills. Problems associated with dysgraphia may include illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the same time.

Dyslexia. Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based processing skills. Dyslexia can affect reading fluency, decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a language-based learning disability.

Evaluation Tool. An evaluation tool is a tool or procedure designed to diagnose a student with a specific disability after the student completes a screening process. Results from evaluations often inform eligibility for special education services.

General Education. General education is formal school-based education made available to students in a community, generally by a ministry of education.

Hearing Screening. A hearing screening assesses whether a person has hearing difficulties. The screening is intended to be done quickly and is used to identify people who may need a full hearing evaluation.

High-Incidence Disability. A high-incidence disability commonly occurs in larger numbers than other disabilities, such as learning disability, speech/language disability, and mild intellectual disability.

Inclusive Education. Inclusive education is an education system that includes students with disabilities in their local schools alongside students without disabilities. According to the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in its 2015 General Comment on the right to inclusive education, inclusive education "involves a process embodying changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies in education, with a common vision that serves to include all students of the relevant age range."

Individualized Education Plan (IEP). An IEP is a plan or program developed by a committee usually made up of a student's teacher, resource staff, parent, and the student to ensure that a student with a disability receives specialized instruction and related services. An IEP sets out yearly goals for the student and monitors the progress of those goals to ensure that the student is progressing in school.

Individualized Learning. Individualized learning refers to instructional practices designed to meet the needs and interests of a given student. These practices can include changing the instructional content, how the teacher teaches, and what a student is expected to be able to do at the end of a lesson.

Language Processing Disorder (LPD). An LPD is a disorder that can affect a person's ability to understand spoken, signed, or written language. People with LPD may have difficulties expressing themselves with language and understanding other people's use of language.

Learning Disability. A learning disability is defined as experiencing challenges with basic skills such as reading, writing, and/or math. Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.

Low-Incidence Disability. A low-incidence disability is less commonly found in educational contexts than other disabilities. Examples of low-incidence disabilities include hearing difficulties, visual difficulties, and orthopedic difficulties.

Multidisciplinary Team. A multidisciplinary team is a group of professionals from multiple disciplines. For the context of this guide, the goal is to assess a student for a potential disability and to provide recommendations for specially designed instruction, including an IEP. Examples of disciplines that may be represented by a multidisciplinary team include special education, general education, occupational therapy, or speech-language pathology.

Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities (NLD). An NLD is usually characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial, and social skills. Typically, an individual with NLD has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body language and may have poor coordination.

Norm-Referenced Assessments. A norm-referenced assessment compares a student's performance to a representative sample of students who are of the same age and in the same grade. This type of assessment is usually standardized.

Occupational Therapy. Occupational therapy is a service that helps people better engage in activities of daily living and better develop, improve, sustain, or restore independence.

Physical Therapy. Physical therapy focuses on preserving, enhancing, or restoring movement and physical function that has been impaired or impacted by a disability, injury, or disease. Physical therapy uses techniques such as therapeutic exercise, massage, and patient education and training.

Pull-Out Model. In a pull-out model of instruction, a student with a disability is removed from-or pulled out of-the general education classroom to receive special education or additional supports in a separate classroom or resource room.

Push-In Model. In a push-in model of instruction, a student with a disability receives special education and/or additional supports/services (for example, special educator as a co-teacher, speech therapy) in the general education classroom instead of in a separate setting.

Reasonable Accommodations. A reasonable accommodation is a change made to a curriculum, method of instruction, assessment, homework, or other school-based activity or requirement that is designed to reduce or eliminate the effects of a disability on a student. An example is extending time on tests or homework. Reasonable accommodations are intended to provide equal access and do not fundamentally alter the material or instructional environment.

Resource Room. A resource room is a separate room where students with disabilities are given direct specialized instruction, therapy services (such as speech or occupational therapy), and assistance with homework and related assignments. Within a resource room, instruction may be individualized or take place in small or large groups. Students typically split time between the general education classroom and the resource room.

Response to Intervention. Response to Intervention is a tiered framework for identifying students who may need additional educational support, providing appropriate interventions, and measuring resulting changes in academic or behavioral performance. Students who do not respond to Tier 3 intervention may need to be assessed for potential eligibility for special education and related services.

Screening. Screening is the process of using tests and assessments to identify students who may have disabilities. All students attending a school may be screened, and initial testing may identify students who may need individual evaluation.

Screening Tool. A screening tool is used to screen students to determine who may need additional support.

Segregated Education. Segregated education is the education of students with disabilities in separate schools or classrooms. These classrooms typically only contain students with other similar disabilities.

Special Education. Special education is specifically designed to meet the individual needs and strengths of students with disabilities. Such education can occur either in an inclusive general education classroom or in separate classrooms or resource rooms.

Speech Therapy. Speech therapy is a service that helps individuals obtain, maintain, or restore speech as well as to support those who may need assistance in speaking more clearly or improving articulation.

Standardized Assessment. A standardized assessment is highly structured, with specific procedures for administration, scoring, and test interpretation. These assessments are usually norm-referenced and use statistics to interpret the results.

Therapy. Therapy refers to activities and interventions to help restore and compensate for loss of function and prevent or slow deterioration in function in various areas of a person's life.

Vision Screening. Vision screening assesses whether a person has vision difficulties. The screening is meant to be a quick means of identifying people who may need a full vision evaluation.

Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit. Visual perceptual/visual motor deficit is a disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or the ability to draw or copy. This characteristic is seen in people with learning disabilities such as dysgraphia or nonverbal learning disability, and it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles with cutting, holding the pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.

1

For the purposes of this guide, families refer to both parents of the child with a disability as well as other caregivers who may assume the primary responsibility for childrearing.

2

3

The IDEA categories of disability include specific learning disabilities, other health impairments, autism spectrum disorders, emotional disturbances, speech or language impairment, visual impairment-including blindness, deafness, hearing impairment, deaf-blindness, orthopedic impairment, intellectual disability, traumatic brain injury, and multiple disabilities.

4

Gifted is typically defined as a child with above average intelligence or exceptional talent.

5

In the United States, the term referral is used when recommending an evaluation. In most low-and-middle income countries, referral is used to describe recommendations for services and assistive devices. In this document, referral is used to reflect the meaning used in most low-and-middle income counties.

6

Several hearing tests are available online.

7

Anne M. Hayes, MEd, is an international disability and development consultant.

Eileen Dombrowski, MEd, is a Program Associate at RTI International focusing on early childhood and disability.

Allison H. Shefcyk, MA, is an education and disability research consultant.

Jennae Bulat, PhD, directs the Teaching and Learning team in the International Development Group at RTI International.

RTI International is an independent, nonprofit research organization dedicated to improving the human condition. The RTI Press mission is to disseminate information about RTI research, analytic tools, and technical expertise to a national and international audience. RTI Press publications are peer-reviewed by at least two independent substantive experts and one or more Press editors.

RTI Press Associate Editor

F. Henry Healey

Suggested Citation

Author(s), last name first (2018). Learning Disabilities Screening and Evaluation Guide for Low- and Middle-Income Countries. RTI Press Publication No. OP-0052-1804. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2018.op.0052.1804

RTI International is an independent, nonprofit research institute dedicated to improving the human condition. We combine scientific rigor and technical expertise in social and laboratory sciences, engineering, and international development to deliver solutions to the critical needs of clients worldwide.

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Anne M. Hayes, Eileen Dombrowski, Allison Shefcyk, Jennae Bulat

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Learning Disabilities Screening and Evaluation Guide for Low- and Middle-Income Countries

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Learning disabilities are among the most common disabilities experienced in childhood and adulthood. Although identifying learning disabilities in a school setting is a complex process, it is particularly challenging in low- and middle-income countries that lack the appropriate resources, tools, and supports.

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Step #8 Analyze Data:

Objective: Compare results from language proficiency evaluations and learning disability screenings.

Actions:

Analyze test scores, screening results, and observational data to determine the root cause of the student's difficulties.

Look for patterns that distinguish between language acquisition issues and learning disabilities.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Share analysis results with parents.

Reason: Parents need to understand the outcomes of the assessments and the identified needs of the student.

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Top 6 Steps Teachers Can Use To Analyze Student Data And Improve Instruction

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Data-driven instruction empowers teachers, helping them improve the quality of their instruction while presenting valuable insight into their students’ educational journey.

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Step #9 Consult with Specialists:

Objective: Collaborate with ESL and Special Education specialists to interpret data and develop strategies.

Actions:

Hold meetings with ESL and Special Education teams to discuss findings.

Develop a comprehensive understanding of the student's needs based on specialist input.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Include parents in meetings with specialists.

Reason: Parents should be part of discussions to ensure they understand the findings and recommendations.

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Step #10 Develop an Intervention Plan:

Objective: Create a tailored intervention plan (IEP) to address the student's specific needs.

Actions:

Convene an IEP team meeting, including parents, teachers, specialists, and the student (if appropriate).

Outline the student's present levels of performance, specific goals, accommodations, and services required.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Collaborate with parents in developing the intervention plan (IEP).

Reason: Parents can provide input on what strategies might work best at home and ensure consistency between school and home interventions.

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Implementing effective interventions for struggling students

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Explore the different ways implementing interventions helps struggling students

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Step #11 Implement Support Measures:

Objective: Apply the IEP's targeted interventions and support strategies in the classroom.

Actions:

Implement classroom accommodations such as modified assignments, additional time, and specialized teaching methods as outlined in the IEP.

Monitor the student's response to these interventions and adjust as needed.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Keep parents updated on the implementation and progress of the intervention plan.

Reason: Regular updates help parents stay informed and provide support at home.

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Savvy and successful school principals certainly understand the value of keeping it real. In a recent training, Stetson and Associates offered a wide array of examples and practical applications. Each recommendation was designed to help teachers interpret how vital accommodations can realistically happen based on the Individual Education Programs (IEPs) of their students.

For many teachers, just the sheer number of accommodations recommended in a student's IEP can be daunting, with so much information to juggle that they don't always have a concrete idea of what these accommodations will actually look like in their classrooms. The following guide breaks down a typical list of middle school accommodations using helpful tools on how to practically implement each one. Many of the listed accommodations are tied with valuable skills all teachers could include in their instructional toolboxes.
Download the Examples of Instructional Accommodations Guide here
Accommodation:Checking for Understanding

Practical Applications

Use group response activities. Checking understanding with a group response means 100% compliance in responding.

Use thumbs-up, thumbs-down or thumbs to the side for an "unsure" response. Make sure students feel comfortable being honest with this method. Start with easy or personal questions such as: "I like Spring Break" or "Today is a rainy day" before moving to instructional content.

Provide whiteboards and markers for students to show understanding, such as solving a problem in math class, or adding to a list of character traits for reading comprehension.

Enlist help from athletic coaches on their best methods to check for understanding with their players. Coaches are often masterful resources.

Use response cards. Teachers ask a question, give a few seconds wait time, then ask students to "show me." Students pinch, point or flip to the correct answer. Examples:

What operation first?

What punctuation goes here?

Which branch of government?

Establish a routine of moving around the classroom as students begin their work. Ask questions such as, "Tell me the directions," or "Tell me the first thing you're going to do in this assignment." Clarify, thank and move on.

Accommodation: Verbal Prompts/Visual Cues to Maintain Focus

Practical Applications

Post learning objectives.

Post a daily agenda and check off items as they are completed.

Visually show "brain breaks" or "device breaks" in an agenda.

Appoint a student to the job of monitoring and checking off the agenda.

Project a visual timer for the entire class. Some students may benefit from the use of a personal timer such as a watch.

Accommodation: Instructions Repeated/Rephrased

Practical Applications

Teachers restate the instructions.

Post a clear visual of the instructions at the front of the classroom while restating the instructions to address both visual and auditory learners.

Accommodation:Use Agenda to Record Assignments

Practical Applications

Remind students throughout the day to complete their agendas. Be consistent to ensure success.

Instruct students to set a timer as a reminder.

Accommodation: Retake Tests/Quizzes for Higher Grade

Practical Applications

Use a variety of methods for retakes.

Consider both written and verbal responses. While monitoring testing in progress, call a student to your desk to ask them to tell you (quietly) what they know about the topic/chapter/unit. Record their verbal responses and consider these when grading their written exams.

Accommodation: Shortened Assignments

Practical Applications

Maintain the integrity of the assignment by carefully reviewing which parts can be deleted.

Make sure all standards of the full assignment are represented in the shortened version.

Accommodation: Extended Time on Assignments and Projects

Practical Applications

Establish school guidelines about what extended time means. There may be different recommendations for specific students, but "reasonable" is the keyword.

Complete required checks on student progress all along the way, especially when extended time is needed for a long-term project or assignment.

Accommodation: Multiplication Table/Calculator

Practical Applications

Understand the grade level standard and lesson objective to determine the use of multiplication tables and calculators as a student accommodation.

Know the difference between an accommodation and a modification.

Accommodation: Bathroom Breaks When Requested

Practical Applications

Monitor bathroom breaks with sensitivity regarding time and frequency.

Follow up with the nurse's office if questions or concerns arise.

Accommodation: Typing for Written Assignments

Practical Applications

Check to see if a device has been assigned to a student to replace paper and pencil.

Look into all available assistive technology options.

Accommodation: Present Examples of Work/Problems to Follow

Practical Applications

Spend time with student completing a task; ask student to complete the next one independently; check for understanding.

Show examples of successfully completed tasks or problems.

Provide rubrics to illustrate accurate completion.

Accommodation: Reminders to Slow Down and Take Time

Practical Applications

Use reminder signals.

Avoid stigma of verbal reminders.

Accommodation: Copy of Notes

Practical Applications

Make copies of class notes available prior to the lesson.

Encourage students to follow along, highlight, circle or underline as the lesson is presented.

Accommodation: Short Breaks

Practical Applications

Define parameters of extra breaks including length.

If a break is needed for behavior, allow the student to do some deep breathing for one to two minutes before resuming work.

If break is needed for focus, use a timer to keep the break short.

If needed for health reasons, ask the student and/or nurse what is needed.

Ensure the student can take a break within the classroom in an unobtrusive way.

Use alternative seating such as stools or standing desks when practical.

Accommodation: Preferential Seating

Practical Applications

Refer to the IEP for specifications on individual seating requirements and purpose.

Examples may include seating at the front of the room for vision limitations or lessening of distraction, or sitting near a door for an easier exit.

Accommodation: Break Down Larger Assignments into Smaller Parts

Practical Applications

Break large assignments into manageable pieces to help organize a student's thinking.

Help students learn how to break down their assignments into more manageable parts on their own, including checking for understanding with their teacher.

Accommodation: Additional Wait Time for Responses

Practical Applications

Develop awareness that wait time can be appropriate for all students, especially for those whose first language isn't English, students with autism, or those with any sort of communication disorder. Some introspective students may also need more time.

Remind teachers that these accommodations need to be intentional and practiced behaviors.

Accommodation: Graphic Organizers

Practical Applications

Use graphic organizers to help students organize their thinking around a concept.

Appeal to non-auditory learners by presenting information visually.

Assess student understanding through the use of graphic organizers such as maps, diagrams and charts.

The next group of accommodations all refer to testing. However, it should be noted that students should be using these same testing accommodations during regular instruction so they are proficient with them.

Testing Accommodation: Separate Setting

Ensure there is a specific designated place in the school for testing that can be monitored.

Testing Accommodation: Open Book/Notes

Be prepared to address the issue of perceived fairness arising if other students see this method in practice.

Testing Accommodation: Read Aloud

Determine what this would look like depending on student needs and requests. For example, some students ask "What word?" while others may need more, "Please read this sentence or paragraph."

Testing Accommodation: Multiplication Table/Calculator

Understand the specifics of the standard and objective being measured in the assessment, as there may be instances where this accommodation moves into the realm of modification.

Testing Accommodation: Text-to-Speech

Specify which text-to-speech technology should be used and on which devices.

Make sure students know how to use the technology and use it regularly in class.

Testing Accommodation: Scribe for Writing

Identify a scribe in each class when needed.

This accommodation is typically for students with physical limitations.

Testing Accommodation: Oral Responses

Ask students individually to come to the teacher's desk to explain verbally (quietly) what they know about the topic/chapter/unit. Record their verbal responses and consider this knowledge when grading their written exams.

Testing Accommodation: Read Aloud (Math)

Designate someone to do the reading. Ensure there is no perceived unfairness or possibility of assisting with answers.

Testing Accommodation: Extended Time

Assess whether the IEP specifically defines the length of the extension for testing.

Understand whether the extension should occur within the classroom or at another location.

Determine how this accommodation will be monitored.

When educators define successful Tier 1 instruction, many just call it "good teaching." It involves teachers knowing their students' knowledge levels and learning characteristics, then using that information to guide their instruction. Many teachers make natural accommodations within their instruction to meet individual student needs. However, extra care and consideration is required when it comes to fulfilling specific IEP requirements. Stetson and Associates has over 30 years of experience in accurately understanding those needs and helping schools meet these challenges head on.

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Accommodations in the Classroom: A Guide to Making Them Real

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Savvy and successful school principals certainly understand the value of keeping it real. In a recent training, Stetson and Associates offered a wide array of examples and practical applications. Each recommendation was designed to help teachers interpret how vital accommodations can realistically happen based on the Individual Education Programs (IEPs)...

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Step #12 Regular Monitoring:

Objective: Continuously monitor student progress and adjust interventions as needed.

Actions:

Keep a log of the student's progress and any changes in performance.

Use formative assessments to gauge ongoing improvement.

Regularly document progress towards IEP goals.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Share regular progress reports with parents.

Reason: Continuous communication ensures parents are aware of their child's progress and can support interventions at home.

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How to Monitor Interventions for Students - Illuminate Education

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Implementing an educational intervention is one thing. But how can you monitor the intervention effectively to determine real growth? Read on to learn.

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Step #13 Review Meetings:

Objective: Hold periodic IEP review meetings with all individuals involved to review progress and make necessary adjustments.

Actions:

Schedule regular review meetings with teachers, specialists, parents, and the student.

Discuss progress, challenges, and adjust the IEP as necessary.

Parent Involvement:

Action: Hold periodic review meetings with parents to discuss progress and adjustments.

Reason: Parents should be actively involved in evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention plan and making necessary adjustments.

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Lisa Küpper. (n.d.). 10 steps in the Special Education process. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/special-education/articles/10-steps-special-education-process

Mangal, C. (2023, October 12). All about SLDS, IEPS, and idea. National Center for Learning Disabilities. https://www.ncld.org/all-about-slds-ieps-and-idea/

Lbreiseth. (2021, January 6). Opportunities and challenges in identifying ells with disabilities. Colorín Colorado. https://www.colorincolorado.org/video/opportunities-and-challenges-identifying-ells-disabilities

Screening adults for learning disabilities. (n.d.-b). https://ldaamerica.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Screening-for-LD-final-info-sheet1.pdf