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MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY

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Mike Salgado (RESEARCHED BY: PONDIAS, LIANA FE HAILEY S.)

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URL: https://www.facebook.com/mikesalgado.ph/posts/pfbid05Gg9qxzu64wLJQEZTfVbe6Y3VLtdmrB92tAkf1bBGtbwGrXFobYVm4R8edB5Tonxl

TITLE: Dugong na namatay sa dalampasigan ng Sarangani, inilibing na

AUTHOR: Mike Salgado, Facebook

DATE PUBLISHED: March 2, 2017

KEY CONTENT:

A 9-foot Dugong, a large aquatic mammal, was found dead on the shore of Purok Gadan in Brgy. Kayupo, Kiamba, Sarangani Province. The Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Officer (MENRO), Bong Tuballes, reported that the Dugong had five flesh wounds, which were possibly caused by sea vehicle propellers, resulting in its death.

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Dugong na namatay sa dalampasigan ng Sarangani, inilibing na

SARANGANI - Inilibing na ang siyam na talampakang Dugong na nakita ng mga residente sa dalampasigan ng Prk. Gadan, Brgy. Kayupo, Kiamba,...

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SPECIAL REPORT: Microplastics from plastic trash choke Sarangani Bay (RESEARCHED BY: PONDIAS, LIANA FE HAILEY S.)

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URL: https://mindanews.com/special-reports/2021/09/special-report-microplastics-from-plastic-trash-choke-sarangani-bay/#gsc.tab=0

TITLE: SPECIAL REPORT: Microplastics from plastic trash choke Sarangani Bay

AUTHOR: Bong S. Sarmiento, MindaNews

DATE PUBLISHED: September 29, 2021

KEY CONTENT:

The improper disposal of waste, including single-use plastics, from nearby coastal communities and tributaries in Sarangani contributes to the multiplication of microplastic particles in Sarangani Bay, home to abundant biodiversity in Mindanao. Microplastics deteriorate and kill marine life as they can entangle sea creatures and be mistaken for food.

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SPECIAL REPORT: Microplastics from plastic trash choke Sarangani Bay

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GENERAL SANTOS CITY (MindaNews / 29 September) – Sarangani Bay, a protected seascape known for its rich biodiversity, is being threatened by waste pollution:

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Port project on Samal Island 'destroyed' corals (RESEARCHED BY: PONDIAS, LIANA FE HAILEY S.)

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URL: https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1798824/port-project-on-samal-island-destroyed-corals

TITLE: Port Project on Samal Island ‘destroyed’ corals

AUTHOR: Germelina Lacorte, Inquirer.net

DATE PUBLISHED: July 8, 2023

KEY CONTENT:

An ancillary port by Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) purposely built as part of the preconstruction process of the coastal bridge connecting Davao City and Samal Island gained objections as investigation showed that metal structures of the port were installed on the corals. The seaport construction violated the Philippine Fisheries Code, committing unlawful activities that damaged coral reefs.

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Port project on Samal Island ‘destroyed’ corals

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DAVAO CITY—A marine biologist has raised the alarm over the destruction of corals in the offloading port constructed for the Samal Island-Davao City connector bridge. Dr. John Lacson

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A sunken oil tanker is threatening biodiversity in the Philippines. And it could take months to contain | CNN (RESEARCHED BY: MANAJERO, ISHI PAMELA M. & PONDIAS, LIANA FE HAILEY S.)

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URL: https://edition.cnn.com/2023/04/05/asia/philippines-oil-tanker-spill-biodiversity-threat-intl-hnk/index.html/?fbclid=IwAR0sQpd9Dp2WNONeyekZVqTQNF0XpbWhRaz8_EZ1amXi1kBDhnz04F4_fWk

TITLE: A sunken oil tanker is threatening biodiversity in the Philippines. And it could take months to contain

AUTHOR: Kathleen Magramo, CNN

DATE PUBLISHED: April 5, 2023

KEY CONTENT:

A rich fishing ground, which sustains the food and livelihoods of over two million people, has been affected by a capsized vessel carrying 800,000 liters (211,340 gallons) of industrial fuel near the Philippine island province of Oriental Mindoro. This incident has resulted in the loss of livelihoods for thousands of fishermen and imperiled over 20 marine protected areas.

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A slow-moving environmental catastrophe is unfolding in a marine ecosystem home to some of the world's rarest species, including the critically endangered hawksbill turtle, as well as whale sharks, giant manta rays and dugongs.

It has been more than a month since the MT Princess Empress, carrying 800,000 liters (211,340 gallons) of industrial fuel, capsized near the Philippine island province of Oriental Mindoro - a rich fishing ground that provides food and livelihood to more than two million people.

Aided by a Japanese response team, Philippine maritime authorities located the wreck on March 21, but the vessel remains underwater and there are concerns oil continues to leak out, though precisely how much remains unknown.

The Philippine Coast Guard told CNN on Wednesday its teams "cannot substantiate or quantify ongoing oil leakage."

The slick has since stretched across 250 kilometers (155 miles) of sea, polluting the shores of at least three provinces, costing the livelihoods of thousands of fishermen and threatening over 20 marine protected areas.

It was only on Monday, with assistance from the US Navy, that operations began to salvage the vessel and attempt to plug the leakage.

In the aftermath of the initial leak, the Coast Guard raced to clean up the slick and improvised spill booms made from cogon grass and coconut materials were used as floating barriers to contain the oil.

But the effort failed to stem the tide and campaigners say more needs to be done to contain the spill, remove oil from affected areas, and protect against future disasters by taking punitive action against polluters.

What's at stake?

As much as 36,000 hectares (88,958 acres) of marine area could be affected by the oil slick as recovery efforts drag on, according to the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute.

The Coast Guard estimates cleanup teams have so far removed 60% of the oil that has reached the shores of a dozen towns in Oriental Mindoro, using booms and skimmer vessels.

A previous estimate, made by the Department of Environment and Natural Resource on March 14, suggested the sunken vessel was pumping out between 35,000 to 50,000 liters of oil a day and should be empty after 15 to 20 days, though this information has been contested.

Oil has now spread to the Verde Island Passage, a marine reserve home to dozens of endemic species, said Irene Rodriguez, an associate professor with the Marine Science Institute.

The passage, north of where the tanker sank, has the highest concentration of coastal fishes, corals, crustaceans, molluscs, seagrasses, and mangroves in the archipelagic country, and the spill could lead to long-term damage and declining population of these organisms, says Rodriguez.

"There are quite a number of marine organisms that have not yet been identified and are only present at the Verde Island Passage ... and that's something that we should protect. And hopefully, we do everything that we can to prevent the oil from causing damage in that area," Rodriguez said.

The Verde Island Passage is particularly important as a breeding ground for native marine species, whose population may decline in the future because they are unable to mate in the polluted waters, Rodriguez said.

Mangroves that line the shores of affected communities prevent coastal erosion and also play a role in carbon sequestration - the process of reducing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, Rodriguez said.

The lack of protection from mangroves puts locals at risk from extreme weather events, especially typhoons that regularly hit the Philippines, she added.

And there are growing concerns the disaster could have a major, more immediate economic impact too.

According to the country's National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council, more than 170,000 people in shoreline communities have been impacted by the spill, and nearly 17,000 fishermen have lost their incomes after authorities imposed a temporary fishing ban.

The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources estimates the fishing sector is losing $900,000 (5 million Philippine pesos) per day, with potentially months to go before the spill is fully contained.

Who's responsible?

The Philippines, an archipelago of more than 7,600 islands, has a poor maritime safety record, and oil spills and ferry accidents are not uncommon.

While affected and concerned Filipinos have been proactively engaging in the clean up and containment of the spill, the government has yet to take any punitive decision or action against polluters one month since the catastrophe, said Gerry Arances, executive director at the Center for Energy, Ecology,and Development (CEED).

"To date, there has been no clear effort to assess how badly marine and coastal ecosystems have been affected," Arances added.

"We have yet to hear of policy reforms to ensure that a tragedy like this will not happen again, one of which would be the inclusion of the Verde Island Passage in the country's protected areas system," he said.

The environmental disaster has prompted a Senate probe centered on accusations that the MT Princess Empress operated without a permit.

The country's justice minister, Jesus Crispin Remulla, has also called for criminal charges over the spill and said the department is building a case against the vessel operator.

RDC Reield Marine Services, the vessel owner and operator, declined to confirm with CNN whether it had license to operate. A senate hearing said that the Department of Justice is investigating the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) and the Maritime Industry Authority (MARINA) for allegedly allowing the vessel to sail without updated paperwork.

Affected communities are also demanding transparency on the extent of damage from the oil spill and accountability from the vessel operator and its owners, said Greenpeace Philippines campaigner Jefferson Chua.

"Oil spills can never be cleaned up properly. There's always going to be something stuck, something left behind, especially in this area which is one of the largest centers of marine biodiversity in the country," Chua said.

He urged the government not to give in to pressure from powerful oil companies and marine agencies, calling for a national probe into lapses of due diligence across the maritime sector.

Little relief

Clearing the oil spill is taking time, and for fishers, it's also draining their income.

Under a government program, fishers who aren't able to work are being deployed to join cleanup efforts in exchange for compensation.

The government has allocated more than $1.5 million (84.4 million Philippine pesos) for the scheme, initially intended for 14,000 participants, and it has been extended to May.

However, the compensation is barely enough to cover their usual daily wage, according to Jennifer Cruz, mayor of Pola, one of the heavily affected municipalities in Oriental Mindoro.

And buckets and shovels aren't enough to remove oil from affected shorelines given the massive scale of the spill.

Response teams from Japan, South Korea and the US are assisting the Philippine Coast Guard with technical expertise and specialty equipment not readily available in the Philippines.

Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos Jr. said he hopes the clean up can be completed within four months. But Chua said that seems unlikely, as authorities were not equipped to handle the disaster to begin with and response efforts have dragged on.

"Now we're seeing that it's bigger than everyone thinks and it's exploding in the faces of the government officials," Chua said. "There is some progress [in the cleanup] but the lingering impacts are getting worse for those on the ground."

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A sunken oil tanker is threatening biodiversity in the Philippines. And it could take months to contain | CNN

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A slow-moving environmental catastrophe is unfolding in a marine ecosystem home to some of the world's rarest species, including the critically endangered hawksbill turtle, as well as whale sharks, giant manta rays and dugongs.

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60% ng mga sinuring bangus ng DOST mula Mindanao, nakitaan ng microplastic | 24 Oras (RESEARCHED BY: PONDIAS, LIANA FE HAILEY S.)

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fA7HpSwicpw

TITLE: 60% ng mga sinuring bangus ng DOST mula Mindanao, nakitaan ng microplastic | 24 Oras

AUTHOR: GMA Integrated News

DATE PUBLISHED: Feb 1, 2024

KEY CONTENT:

Department of Science and Technology (DOST) examined around 60% of milkfish from different fisheries in Mindanao containing microplastic concentrations. This record threatens marine life as microplastics can hinder the growth and reproduction of aquatic organisms.

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60% ng mga sinuring bangus ng DOST mula Mindanao, nakitaan ng microplastic | 24 Oras

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Philippines looks to tackle severe water pollution (RESEARCHED BY: CASTRO, AJ KRYSTLE F.)

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URL: https://youtu.be/HW0MWfK4M7o

TITLE: Philippine looks to tackle severe water pollution

AUTHOR: Al Jazeera English

DATE PUBLISHED: October 6, 2017

KEY CONTENT:

Manila fishermen face difficulties catching fish due to the severe water pollution. Garbage, like disposable plastic, mixes with marine life and disrupts the ecosystem, mainly caused by the widespread use of small-sized consumables, known as sachets, which are affordable for most Filipinos.

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Philippines looks to tackle severe water pollution

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ADDUvocacy (RESEARCHED BY: MANAJERO, ISHI PAMELA M.)

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URL: https://www.facebook.com/ADDUvocacy/posts/pfbid08GKXwSff31VQEimJwcCL8AM2HC7NFAkPMExmJwBrfeUUrkTxevoP7mdxDieXWcNLl

TITLE: It All Comes Back To Us

AUTHOR: ADDUvocacy

DATE PUBLISHED: April 12, 2021

KEY CONTENT:

The danggit is commonly found in the seas of the Philippines and is a typical food for locals. This advocacy inspires individuals to adopt a plastic-free lifestyle and take responsibility for our trash, considering that marine life ingests plastic waste from the ocean, as stated in the poster. It emphasizes that the ocean is not our dumping site, and eventually, the consequences will return to us.

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IT ALL COMES BACK TO US

Plastic waste in the oceans has been troubling us for many years now. 

The Philippines is one of the world's worst offenders on marine plastic pollution, with 0.28 – 0.75...

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AdDUvocacy PSA: Sea The Truth - SDG 14 (RESEARCHED BY: CASTRO, AJ KRYSTLE F.)

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8. PUBLIC SERVICE MESSAGE OR PROMOTIONAL VIDEO

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8. PUBLIC SERVICE MESSAGE OR PROMOTIONAL VIDEO

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URL: https://youtu.be/h8JkKO_K5Gw

TITLE: AdDUvocacy PSA: Sea The Truth - SDG 14

AUTHOR: Kashieca Faith Zamora

DATE PUBLISHED: May 5, 2023

KEY CONTENT:

Locals living near the ocean evoke a sense of guilt and sadness when they see how contaminated it has become due to human waste. It calls for urgent action to protect the environment for future generations.

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Oxymorons of ‘Sustainable Overfishing’ (RESEARCHED BY: MANAJERO, ISHI PAMELA M.)

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URL: https://archive.nytimes.com/rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/11/the-oxymorons-of-sustainable-overfishing/?searchResultPosition=5&fbclid=IwAR0wwHdXcexdzIM8YV905VuSJTu-ZWhTvpR-wwLwVwaMGPQtZGDgyIY24OM

TITLE: Oxymorons of ‘Sustainable Overfishing’

AUTHOR: Mort Rosenblum

DATE PUBLISHED:  December 11, 2012

KEY CONTENT:

In the coastal city of General Santos in the Philippines, numerous fishermen are trying to capture too many fish stocks, including young yellowfin tuna that aren’t big enough yet. This rampant overfishing is harming the quality and sustainability of Pacific tuna.

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Fishtocrats from three dozen nations just met in Manila to protect imperiled Pacific tuna, but they barely budged the status quo. You had better develop a taste for tofu tartar and seaweed sushi.

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Philippine locals lose hope as China-funded bridge threatens 'biologically priceless' Paradise Reef | Davao Today (RESEARCHED BY: ARRIETA, SOFIA PARIS & CASTRO, AJ KRYSTLE F. & PONDIAS, LIANA FE HAILEY S.)

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URL:

https://davaotoday.com/human-rights/philippine-locals-lose-hope-as-china-funded-bridge-threatens-biologically-priceless-paradise-reef/

AUTHOR: DAVAO TODAY

TITLE: Philippine locals lose hope as China-funded bridge threatens ‘biologically priceless’ Paradise Reef

DATE: 2023

KEY CONTENT:

According to marine biologists, a proposed China-funded bridge connecting Samal Island and Davao City could threaten the marine ecosystem of Paradise Reef. The reef is home to some 100 species of fish and century-old giant clams and is one of the few healthy reef areas in the Davao Gulf. It could cause habitat degradation and siltation, leading to biodiversity loss.

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By Geela Garcia

Philippine locals lose hope as China-funded bridge set to destroy healthy reef

A proposed China-funded bridge could wipe out the rich marine ecosystem of Paradise Reef, one of the few healthy reef areas in the Davao Gulf

Leo Manila, 61, is one of the last few fishermen remaining in the area. Photo by Geela Garcia

MANILA, Philippines - The bridge is expected to boost economic development and trade between Samal Island and Davao, and generate employment for locals working on its construction.

With white sand beaches and pristine waters, Samal Island is among the most popular tourist destinations in Davao del Norte, south of the Philippines.

It is one of the few areas in Davao province where divers can access an abundance of hard and soft corals - barely 500 metres from the shore - at the aptly-named Paradise Reef.

Located in the Pakiputan Strait and stretching to the Davao Gulf, the reef is home to some 100 species of fish and century-old giant clams, according to locals.

But if a proposed China-funded bridge connecting Samal Island and Davao City went ahead, the rich marine ecosystem of Paradise Reef will be threatened, marine biologists say.

Paradise Reef must be protected at all costs because it is one of the few healthy reef areas in the Davao Gulf, said Cleto Nanola, a professor at the department of biological sciences and environmental studies at University of the Philippines Mindanao.

"There will be major species lost because of habitat degradation and siltation from the construction, and it will take so much time for the reef to recover, leading to biodiversity loss," Nanola said.

The reef is one of the main attractions in the region, attracting around 200-250 tourists every day, according to the Rodriguez-Lucas family, a wealthy local family that owns the site and runs the Paradise Island Beach Resort that has housed the coral garden for over 35 years now.
What's at stake
Samal Island is a protected area that was declared a Mangrove Swamp Forest Reserve by the central government in 1981. Hizon, the town in Davao where the other landing of the bridge will be built, is also a local protected area.

Currently, people commute between Davao and Samal Island by a passenger boat that takes less than 10 minutes.

The Samal Island-Davao City Connector, a project estimated to cost around US$400 million, is expected to make transport more convenient for 3,700 households.

The bridge aims to increase economic development and trade between Samal Island and Davao and generate employment for the locals who will be working for five years on its construction.

In January, a Writ of Possession of the site was granted to the Philippines Department of Public Works and Highways, despite disapproval by the Rodriguez-Lucas family.

Environmentalists in the region have also been critical of the project. Marine biologist Nanola said the most worrying impact was the siltation expected from the digging of boreholes.

Carmela Marie Santos, director of the environmental group Ecoteneo and convenor of Save Samal Reefs Alliance, said that her organisation expects tens of kilometres of siltation, a process by which water becomes dirty due to pollutants.

Santos said what had been done was unlawful because there was a current temporary restraining order case filed at the Supreme Court to prevent the construction of the bridge while the Rodriguez-Lucas family was still negotiating it.

The Rodriguez-Lucas family declined to be interviewed because the matter remains under consideration in the Philippine Supreme Court.

The construction, which began earlier this year, will drill 98 boreholes around 500 metres deep into the seabed, which will decapitate corals, cause siltation and sedimentation, noise and generate excessive dust.

Settlements built on Samal Island for the Chinese workers of the Samal Island-Davao City Connector. Photo by Geela Garcia

Construction of the wharf is under way and the project is expected to employ over 300 Chinese workers and some locals.

There are other risks, too.

"When they were doing the soil sampling in December, helicopters were flying around the area with an estimated noise of 100dB. It affected marine wildlife from the shore and even marine mammals documented from Talicud island, an island 18km (11.2 miles) away from the site, because they travel 80-200km a day," said Santos.

In June last year, a pod of dolphins was also photographed on Talicud island. Loud noises typically affect dolphins' hunting capacity. A Facebook post by Davao resident Darrell Blatchley on August 2 showed a dead spinner dolphin with ruptured eardrums in Punta Dumalag Matina, just across Samal Island.

"In their [the project's] Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and Environmental Compliance Certificate issued in December 2020, there was no mention of the impact of marine mammals and mitigation measures. In the EIS, the study dismissed the impact as not significant because Talicud island is 18km away," Santos said.

To manage siltation, the Department of National Resources recommended building silt curtains to prevent contamination of the greater Pakiputan Strait. However, biologists and environmentalists maintain that the building of the bridge will still cause irreversible damage to the sea.

There has been no official economic evaluation, but based on informal calculations, marine biologist John Lacson from the Paradise Island Beach Resort estimates reef damage at 360 million pesos (US$6.35 million).

"The estimate includes shoreline protection, tourism, fisheries productivity, and biodiversity. However, Paradise Reef is the only remaining healthy reef on Western Samal and is biologically priceless," he said.

Santos said that Ecoteneo, locals and the Rodriquez-Lucas family are not against the bridge and development, but hope for a development that puts ecology and people first. The Rodriguez-Lucas family owns a nearby property and has offered it as an alternative landing site but petitions by Ecoteneo to relocate the bridge have gone unanswered.
Impact on communities
From Davao, the bridge runs through the small local village of Hizon, a designated marine protected area since 2013. Locals in Hizon have lost hope of protecting their coast, and fishermen have stopped fishing as they started incurring losses.

Leo Manila, 61, is one of the few fishermen left. But he only fishes to feed himself, and his current source of income comes from working as a guide for professionals who do jigging and fishing as a hobby.

"There are professionals who hire us with our boats to go fishing with them around the Davao Gulf, around 30-40 minutes away from our shore. They catch huge fishes and they pay us 500-1,500 pesos depending on their catch," said Manila.

Leo Manila with a fish he caught while working as a guide. Photo by Geela Garcia

While locals of Hizon town, mostly fishermen and the urban poor, are worried about the environmental effects on the reef, they have more pressing concerns like day-to-day survival, said Gideon Cruz, chairman of Hizon's Fisheries Aquatic Resources Management Council.

Cruz said that his group's motto is "we can only save what we can", as they felt powerless against the forces of development and tourism.

"They said the construction will generate jobs for us for the next five years, and that will help us with our expenses. Right now, we earn when the Chinese workers of the bridge rent our boats," said Manila.

However, after consulting the Davao City Council in May, Santos said the contractors are not required to employ Filipino workers, suggesting that Chinese workers would be prioritised.

The chairman of the management council emphasised that the group understood the importance of the reef and the shore, but people in his community require sustained livelihood help before they can even participate in issues concerning reef protection.

"I used to not believe in climate change, but we can notice the difference in the temperature of our waters compared to the past. We try our best to take care of the sea, but there are always bigger forces than us, making it hard for us to save what we can."

This story was produced with support from Internews' Earth Journalism Network and was first published on the South China Morning Post.

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Philippine locals lose hope as China-funded bridge threatens 'biologically priceless' Paradise Reef | Davao Today

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If a proposed China-funded bridge connecting Samal Island and Davao City went ahead, the rich marine ecosystem of Paradise Reef will be threatened, marine biologists say.

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BASURA SA DAGAT NG DOLOMITE BEACH | MANILA BAY (RESEARCHED BY FAMINIAL, JEARIC JOLES D. & CASTRO, AJ KRYSTLE F.)

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URL:https://youtu.be/nfzzSh-0YCc?si=CfizwfFOMFgvP3VO

TITLE: BASURA SA DAGAT NG DOLOMITE BEACH | MANILA BAY

AUTHOR: NINI VLOGS

DATE PUBLISHED: Aug 20, 2022

KEY CONTENT:

The vlogger, NINI VLOGS, goes to Dolomite Beach to check its recent condition. Despite its development, she still saw lots of trash floating on the sea and littered on the shore, particularly plastics and dead water hyacinths.

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BASURA SA DAGAT NG DOLOMITE BEACH | MANILA BAY

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TOP 10 PLASTIC POLLUTERS FROM THIS YEAR'S DAVAO GULF CLEANUP DIVE + WASTE AND BRAND AUDIT 2022 (RESEARCHED BY: FAMINIAL, JEARIC JOLES D.)

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URL:

https://www.facebook.com/share/p/fMFxoDDPkh8FQTUf/?mibextid=xfxF2i

TITLE: TOP 10 PLASTIC POLLUTERS FROM THIS YEAR'S DAVAO GULF CLEANUP DIVE + WASTE AND BRAND AUDIT 2022

AUTHOR: Mariknows Philippines

DATE PUBLISHED: Sept 27, 2022

KEY CONTENT:

Companies like Oishi, Nestle, Republic Biscuit Corp., Zest-O, and Coca-Cola Company are among the Top 10 Corporate Polluters from the 335 pieces of residual waste/plastics of the Davao Gulf cleanup drive. It shows that the companies contribute great harm to the marine life of the Davao Gulf and must redesign packaging to conserve marine life.

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Sacks of Garbage Collected from Coastal Communities - City Government of Davao (RESEARCHED BY: CASTRO, AJ KRYSTLE F.)

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URL: https://www.davaocity.gov.ph/environment/sacks-of-garbage-collected-from-coastal-communities/

TITLE: Sacks of Garbage Collected from Coastal Communities

AUTHOR: City Government of Davao

DATE PUBLISHED: June 10, 2018

KEY CONTENT:

Bantay Dagat volunteers retrieved over 3,000 sacks of garbage from 32 coastal areas of Davao in May 2018. The trash collected included plastic bottles, wrappers, tires, bags, and slippers.

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Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines (RESEARCHED BY: CASTRO, AJ KRYSTLE F.)

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14. NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION OR ACADEMIC INSTITUTION ARTICLE

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14. NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION OR ACADEMIC INSTITUTION ARTICLE

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URL:

https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/10/10/1532

AUTHOR: Frank T. Acot, Recca E. Sajorne, Nur-Ayn K. Omar, Peter D. Suson, Lynn Esther E. Rallos & Hernando P. Bacosa

TITLE: Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines

DATE: October 19, 2022

KEY CONTENT:

The deposition of plastic waste in coastal areas across the globe is an emerging problem that demands immediate attention. In Mindanao, Philippines, plastic litter is more widespread in urban areas than in rural regions, with food packaging and sando bags being the most common types of plastic litter. The values of the clean-coast index reveal that both beach areas require stricter implementation of plastic waste policy.

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1. Introduction

Plastic pollution in the ocean is a rapidly emerging global environmental concern, with high concentrations (up to 580,000 pieces per km ²) and a global distribution, driven by exponentially increasing production [ 1]. The exponential increase in the use of plastics in modern society and the inadequate management of the resulting waste have led to plastic accumulation in the marine environment [ 2]. This is a major environmental issue that affects coasts and coastlines all around the world [ 3].

According to a model developed by Meijer et al. [ 8], the Philippines is the largest emitter of plastics from rivers to the marine environment. The country also ranks third in total plastic waste input from land into the ocean, just below China and Indonesia, by contributing 0.28-0.75 million metric tons of plastic litter every year [ 9]. These findings are mainly based on simulation and numerical modeling, empirical observations, and a limited amount of field data. Validating the results of these findings through a more representative field sampling is crucial to science-based decision-making. Several studies on plastic pollution monitoring were conducted on the beaches of the Philippines, and the majority of the beaches were categorized as dirty to extremely dirty based on the clean-coast index (CCI) [ 10, 11, 12]. These beach areas were mostly categorized as urban areas where the rate of infrastructure development is higher than in rural areas. Aside from this, activities such as fishing and swimming are also frequently conducted by the local community and beachgoers, which helps development and economic growth, particularly in local coastal communities [ 13]. However, these activities may contribute to plastic pollution as indiscriminate disposal of solid waste is highly rampant in coastal settlements [ 12, 14, 15, 16]. This emerging threat requires the development and enforcement of plastic regulation policies. In a study conducted by Galarpe et al. [ 17], it was determined whether studies on macro- and microplastics should be the basis of the institutionalization of existing policies on waste management. Unfortunately, they were unable to arrive at sound conclusions due to a limited number of studies on macro- and mesoplastics in the Philippines, and therefore a limited amount of field data, considering that the country is seen as a plastic pollution hotspot around the world.

The intensity of human pressure on marine systems has led to a push for stronger marine conservation efforts. The Philippines has been the site of some of the earliest marine reserves and marine-protected areas [ 18]. Marine reserves, as defined by [ 19], are areas of marine environment protected from various forms of human exploitation. Within the last decade, South Cotabato-Sarangani-General Santos City (SOCSARGEN) in the southern Philippines has emerged as one of the most economically dynamic regions in the Philippines [ 20]. A significant factor propelling growth in the area is the presence of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape (SBPS), a marine-protected area that provides various goods and services that cater to the SOCSARGEN economy. The bay encloses an area of 449.22 km ² and is bounded by the Sarangani Province and chartered city of General Santos. Besides providing a sanctuary for marine life, the bay also offers a wide range of choices for recreational activities due to the presence of white-sanded beaches, beautiful coral reefs, and scuba diving sites [ 21]. Despite its status as a marine-protected area, the bay has faced several environmental pressures, including massive population growth, uncontrolled human settlement in coastal areas, urbanization, and various anthropogenic pressures, including pollution [ 22]. However, the plastic pollution in the area has not been documented. Thus, with the growing concern of plastic pollution in the Philippines, this study was conducted to (1) determine the density of macroplastic litter on the rural and urban beaches, (2) identify the types of macroplastic litter, (3) quantify the accumulation rate of macroplastic litter for eight non-consecutive days, and (4) determine the clean-coast index of rural and urban beaches of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first monitoring of marine plastic litter pollution in the protected seascape of the Philippines.

2. Materials and Methods

The study was conducted in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape ( Figure 1). Sarangani Bay is located on the southern tip of Mindanao Island in the Philippines. It opens up to the Celebes Sea in the Pacific Ocean. The bay was declared a protected seascape in 1996 (Proclamation no. 756 signed by President Fidel V. Ramos), covering an area of 215,950 hectares. Plastic litter was sampled from 14 beaches in rural (n = 7) and urban (n = 7) areas in Sarangani Bay, and the sampling sites were classified as urban (U) or rural (R) ( Table 1).

Sampling was performed by following the methods of Sajorne et al. [ 12] with minor modifications. At each sampling site, a 100-m transecting line was established parallel to the shoreline. Three quadrats measuring 4 m × 4 m were laid along the transecting line. Plastic litter found within the quadrat was collected, counted, and classified. The collected plastics were classified based on their uses, such as food packaging, polyethylene bags (locally known as sando bags), Styrofoam, mats, plastic bottle, plastic fragments, plastic caps, toiletries, Styrofoam cups, clothing, and other items ( Figure S1) [ 12, 23]. Meanwhile, to monitor the accumulation rate of macroplastics, non-consecutive sampling was conducted for eight days in beach areas [ 16]. The transecting line and quadrats were placed in the same area in each sampling site throughout the monitoring. Sampling collection was conducted from 11 August 2021 until 4 September 2021. The collection of macroplastics was conducted on Wednesdays to represent the weekdays and Saturdays to represent the weekends

The density of plastic litter was determined by dividing the total number of items per unit area sampled [ 24, 25] and reported as items/m ² ± SD. The cleanliness of the coastal beaches was assessed using the clean-coast index (CCI) [ 26], where CCI is equal to the density of litter items/m ² multiplied by 20, a constant to make the numerical value of CCI more intuitive. According to the CCI scale, values from 0 to 2 are very clean, 2 to 5 are clean, 5 to 10 are moderately clean, 10 to 20 are dirty, and greater than 20 are extremely dirty. Meanwhile, the daily accumulation rate, mean count, and cumulative density were computed using the formula of Ammendolia et al. [ 27]. The accumulation rate was reported as items d −1 m −2 [ 28].

An independent two-sample t-test was conducted to determine significant differences between urban and rural beaches in Sarangani Bay in terms of macroplastic abundance as the data are parametric. Statistical analysis was performed in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26, a free software, developed by International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) headquartered in Armonk, New York, and values of p < 0.05 were considered significantly different.

3. Results

Regarding the sampling sites, all beaches were found to contain macroplastic litter. A total of 2580 items of plastic litter were collected over a cumulative area of 672 m ² in urban and rural areas of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, with a density of 3.83 items m −2. The highest density was recorded in urban areas U3 (1.06 items m −2), U4 (0.88 items m −2), and U5 (0.82 items m −2) ( Table 1). Overall, the plastic litter density on urban beaches (0.66 items m −2) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the plastic density on rural beaches (0.29 items m −2) ( Figure 2).

In terms of macroplastic types, there is a difference in the percentage composition in rural and urban areas of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape ( Figure 3). In urban areas, food packaging (27%, n = 474 items), polyethylene bags or sando bags (15%, n = 271 items), and mats (13%, n = 237 items) were the most predominant types of macroplastic. Meanwhile, sando bags (23%, n = 180 items), food packaging (19%, n = 154 items), and Styrofoam (14%, n = 108 items) were predominant in the rural areas. Overall, the types of plastics sampled were predominantly food packaging (24%, n = 628), sando bags (18%, n = 451), and other items (19%, n = 496). The "other items" were composed of combined plastic classifications that made up less than two (2%) percent of the total plastic types.

Meanwhile, Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape was monitored for eight non-consecutive days, and it revealed that the daily density of macroplastic ranged from 0 to 2.52 items m −2, with a mean density of 0.48 items m −2 (SD = 2.26) ( Table 2). The accumulation rates of macroplastic litter ranged from 0.07 items d −1 m −2 to 0.40 items m −2, with an average rate of 0.18 items d −1 m −2. On average, the accumulation rate in urban areas (0.25 items d −1 m −2) was significantly higher than those in rural areas (0.11 items d −1 m −2) (p = 0.007). Meanwhile, it was shown that day 2 of the collection was found to have the highest density (1.35 items d −1) (n = 456), while the lowest density (0.75 items d −1) (n = 255) was recorded on day 8 ( Figure 4). Over the sampling period, a significant decrease in the density of plastic litter on both urban and rural beaches was not observed, which was characterized by a recurring amount or lingering presence of these pollutants in the area ( Figure 4).

Based on the CCI of the beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, 36% (5 out of 14) were considered dirty to extremely dirty ( Table 3). Out of the seven urban beaches, only one (site U3) (21.35) was categorized as extremely dirty, with a high CCI. Four of the sampling sites (U1, U2, U4, and U5) (11.25 to 17.65) were categorized as dirty. However, there were still some beaches (U6 and U7) categorized as clean ( Table 3). Meanwhile, on rural beaches, all of the sampling sites were considered as clean to moderately clean. Notably, dirty to extremely dirty sites were located in urban areas, while clean to moderately beaches were located in rural areas. Overall, on average, Sarangani Bay (9.59) is categorized as moderately clean.

4. Discussion

With these results, we confirmed the significant difference between the amount of macroplastic litter in rural and urban beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape. Urban beaches were noted to have two times higher macroplastic litter density compared to rural beaches. We observed that within the urban beaches, fishing activity was frequently conducted by the local community, while recreational activities were very seldom. However, no fishing paraphernalia was collected throughout the study period. Additionally, there are several residential areas within the vicinity of the urban beaches which can be one of the main sources of plastic litter. It is believed that the number of people in an area has a significant relationship to the quantity of plastic waste disposal [ 12, 13]. These factors might be the reason why we recorded the highest density and accumulation rate of macroplastic litter at urban beach sites U3 and U4. This result also supports the findings of Sajorne et al. [ 12, 24], where the majority of the plastic litter was collected from residential and fishing areas. Meanwhile, several studies on plastic monitoring on the Philippine coasts also found plastic food wrappers/containers, cups, and sachet wrappers [ 10, 11, 29] as the dominant macroplastic waste. Basic necessities and commonly used plastic types are believed to be the underlying reasons for such findings. For instance, sando bags were listed as the dominant type of macroplastics collected in rural areas, while they were placed second in urban areas. This may be due to the need for sando bags for carrying food and other purchased items in rural areas, which may not be the same in urban areas where food and other items are in closer proximity to buyers. Living conditions and activities in urban areas seem to allow for easy purchases anytime and anywhere. In rural areas, however, stores are located far apart, which probably drives residents to purchase items in bulk, resulting in the use of more sando bags. During sampling, it was also observed that mats and clothing were littering the beaches of urban areas but were hardly seen in rural areas. In urban areas, residents can conveniently replace such items because of greater access to them, whereas rural residents are known to recycle both mats and clothing. Conversely, on rural beaches, activities related to tourism, such as swimming, were more frequently conducted by beachgoers than fishing activities. The high number of plastic cups in rural areas may be attributed to tourism as beachgoers or tourists usually bring disposables for special occasions or recreational activities [ 30]. This shows that the overall plastic usage in urban and rural areas varies. It can be said that the plastic composition is due to the necessities and activities of a particular place. The findings of this study, however, do not deviate from the findings of other studies that found plastic food wrappers and containers/sando bags to be the dominant plastic waste on or near the beaches of the Philippines [ 31].

The temporal pattern observed in this study reveals that plastic spells a big problem for the future as it is non-biodegradable. In a study conducted by Browne et al. [ 32], the influence of physical factors, such as wind, wave action, and the density of plastic litter, on the spatial pattern of the accumulation of plastic litter was highlighted. During the collection, it was observed that the difference in waste generation was due to geographical location, and the number of residents [ 33]. Rural areas were a bit more mountainous with rocky beaches, and the number of households was not yet populous, unlike urban areas where beaches were plainly sandy and the coastline was occupied with houses. Additionally, the rural areas were close to the open sea, while the urban areas were by the bay. These data suggest that the accumulation rate of plastic in a given area does not depend only on human population size, but also on the geographical formation and activity of the site. Other than that, we also consider the influence of winds and waves [ 34, 35] and meteorological conditions [ 36] on the transport and accumulation of macroplastic litter in these areas. In comparison to other areas in the Philippines, the beaches of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape are cleaner than the beaches of Puerto Princesa, Palawan (29) [ 12], and Macajalar Bay, Misamis Oriental (84.99) [ 11]. In this study, the urban sites of Sarangani Bay were found to be moderately clean, dirty, and extremely dirty. Our CCI findings agree with the findings of Esquinas et al. [ 11] and Kalnasa et al. [ 29], who found the urban sites of Baloy, Macabalan, Bonbon, and Balua as clean and extremely dirty. As aptly stated, the highly urbanized nature of the adjacent environment greatly influenced the litter deposition in the surface sand of Macajalar Bay [ 11].

This study also reveals that plastic litter is now recognized as an emerging threat to Sarangani Bay. Marine macroplastic litter not only negatively affects ecology and biodiversity [ 37] but also has a direct impact on the economic value [ 7] of the coastal community as Sarangani Bay is a protected seascape and uplifts the economy of the SOCCSARGEN region through tourism. However, this study also revealed that tourism-related items were the dominant macroplastic litter found on the rural and urban beaches of Sarangani Bay. With the presence of plastic litter on coastal beaches, the beaches lose their aesthetic value [ 38], thus making them unattractive and unsuitable for recreational activities [ 39, 40]. The advancement toward meeting the main tenets of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) has been hampered by insufficient initiatives for solid waste management policies at regional and national levels.

Meanwhile, SDG 6-clean water and sanitation-and SDG 14-life below the water-are both directly impacted by the pollution brought on by incorrect solid waste disposal in coastal regions. Recent reports in Philippine marine waters have also revealed the first case of plastic ingestion in a rare Deraniyagala's beaked whale (Mesoplodon hotaula) [ 41] and green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) [ 42]. As a result, there may be a loss of biodiversity in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as a reduction in the livelihoods of the local coastal community [ 43]. Furthermore, if this continues, through the influence of physical and chemical factors [ 44], secondary MP and nanoplastics will eventually form and put the health of the local coastal community at risk [ 7]. Due to its high dependence on marine foods, SDG 3-good health and welfare of the local community-and SDG 12-responsible consumption and production-become vulnerable as a result of these records of plastic ingestion in biota. Pieces of evidence on microplastic ingestion in fish and other marine animals [ 45] have also been reported in the Philippines. Overall, the occurrence of marine macroplastic pollution in the urban and rural beaches of Sarangani Bay can be partially ascribed to inadequate regional and national initiatives for solid waste management in Mindanao.

5. Conclusions

This study is the first to provide an account of the current status of plastic litter on urban and rural beaches in Mindanao, Philippines. We observed that plastic litter is more prevalent in urban areas than in rural areas in terms of density. The collection patterns of plastic litter suggest that the number of plastics in a given area may either increase or decrease but is never zero, which means that plastic waste is always being deposited in coastal areas, possibly aided by wind and wave actions. Similar to other studies, the dominant types of plastic litter are food packaging and sando bags. The values of the clean-coast index in this study revealed that beaches in urban areas are moderately clean, dirty, and extremely dirty, while rural areas are clean and moderately clean. Since the urban and rural beaches of Sarangani Bay were classified over a range of moderately clean to extremely dirty, this implies that both beach areas require a stricter plastic waste policy implementation-one for maintaining the clean status and the other for rehabilitating dirty beaches. Furthermore, data on the identification of dominant macroplastic items can serve as a guide for legislators in creating policies to strengthen the promotion of environmentally friendly products to curb or limit the rapid production of these dominant items.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jmse10101532/s1, Figure S1: Types of macroplastic litter based on their uses: (A) food packaging; (B) fragment; (C) polyethylene bag or sando bag; (D) Styrofoam; (E) plastic bottle; (F) bottle cap; (G) mat; (H) toiletry; (I) disposable cup.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.T.A.J. and H.P.B.; investigation, F.T.A.J.; formal analysis, F.T.A.J., R.E.S., N.-A.K.O., P.D.S., L.E.E.R. and H.P.B.; writing original draft preparation, F.T.A.J., R.E.S. and N.-A.K.O.; writing-review and editing, P.D.S., L.E.E.R. and H.P.B.; supervision, P.D.S., L.E.E.R. and H.P.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Philippines' Department of Science and Technology through the Accelerated Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program (DOST-ASTHRDP). The first author would like to thank the DOST-ASTHRDP for the scholarship to pursue graduate studies at MSU-IIT and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Region 12, especially the Protected Area Management Board of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape for allowing the researchers to conduct this study in Sarangani Bay.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 2. Density of macroplastics sampled from seven rural beaches and seven urban beaches of Sarangani Bay, Philippines. Error bars represent the standard deviation of 14 sampling times. Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).

Table 2. Summary of macroplastic surveys including the item counts, densities (items m −2), and accumulation rates (items d −1 m −2) in sampling sites of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape. The standard deviation (SD), daily minimum (min.), and maximum (max.) counts and densities are also presented.

Publisher's Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Acot, F.T., Jr.; Sajorne, R.E.; Omar, N.-A.K.; Suson, P.D.; Rallos, L.E.E.; Bacosa, H.P. Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10101532

Acot FT Jr., Sajorne RE, Omar N-AK, Suson PD, Rallos LEE, Bacosa HP. Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2022; 10(10):1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10101532

Chicago/Turabian Style

Acot, Frank T., Jr., Recca E. Sajorne, Nur-Ayn K. Omar, Peter D. Suson, Lynn Esther E. Rallos, and Hernando P. Bacosa. 2022. "Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 10, no. 10: 1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10101532

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Plastic pollution in the ocean is an emerging environmental concern in the Philippines. This study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of macroplastics, composition of plastic litter, and the clean-coast index (CCI) of urban and rural beaches in Sarangani Bay. Plastic litter was collected by delineating a 100-m transecting line with three 4 m × 4 m quadrats.

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Dive Deep | SDG14: Life Below Water (RESEARCHED BY: ARRIETA, SOFIA PARIS)

# data[].attributes.body
URL: https://yo,utu.be/y_M0AS5LAK0?feature=shared

TITLE: Dive Deep | SDG:14 Life Below Water

AUTHOR: Lunod Productions

DATE PUBLISHED: May 11,2023

KEY CONTENT:

Lack of waste segregation, improper waste collection, and absence of waste treatment facilities were significant problems in solid waste management, severely harming wildlife, marine ecosystems, and people dependent on the ocean.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
What is the Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water" in Philippines (RESEARCHED BY: ARRIETA, SOFIA PARIS)

# data[].attributes.body
URL: https://youtu.be/OygYz6_eUO0?feature=shared

TITLE: What is the Sustainable Development Goal 14 “Life Below Water“ in Philippines

AUTHOR: Blame Production

DATE PUBLISHED: April 24,2022

KEY CONTENT:

The listed threats on the ocean called "POWAE" (Pollution, Ocean Warming, Acidification, and Eutrophication) are rapidly increasing due to urbanization, industrialization, and population growth, leading to severe water pollution. Part of the factors is dynamite fishing, which harms marine life and the environment by endangering organisms and causing pollution through its chemical components.

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What is the Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water" in Philippines

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
World Oceans Day 2020 Webinar by Bulacan State University and Wetlands International Philippines (RESEARCHED BY: CASTRO, AJ KRYSTLE F.)

# data[].attributes.body
URL: https://youtu.be/MwIkJyzUPBk?si=WxsOBwPs20df5Tni

AUTHOR: Wetlands International Philippines

TITLE: World Oceans Day 2020 Webinar by Bulacan State University and Wetlands International Philippines

DATE: July 7, 2020

KEY CONTENT:

The webinar emphasized the critical issues of pollution and overfishing. With these issues identified, it discussed Bulacan State University's initiatives to preserve coastal wetlands. The theme of "Innovation for a Sustainable Ocean" highlighted the need for creative solutions for ocean conservation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
World Oceans Day 2020 Webinar by Bulacan State University and Wetlands International Philippines

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
BAYAN NG BASURA (RESEARCHED BY: FAMINIAL, JEARIC JOLES D.)

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URL: https://pumplepie.com/products/bayan-ng-basura

TITLE: Bayan ng Basura

AUTHOR: Augie Rivera

DATE PUBLISHED: 2019

KEY CONTENT:

"Bayan ng Basura" is a story of a sea turtle peacefully living in an aquatic paradise until it gets separated due to a storm, lands in polluted and dirty waters, and meets another marine species with unfortunate conditions. The story goes on as people launched an operation to save aquatic species and use alternative plastic to eradicate plastic use.

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Riverine Microplastic Pollution: Insights from Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines (RESEARCHED BY: MANAJERO, ISHI PAMELA M.)

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URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/20/12/6132

TITLE: Riverine Microplastic Pollution: Insights from Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines

AUTHOR: Aiza D. Gabriel, Ruben F Amparado, Jr., Arnold A. Lubguban, Hernando P. Bacosa

DATE PUBLISHED: 15 June 2023

KEY CONTENT:

Water samples were collected from six sampling stations along the river channel of the Cagayan de Oro River, one of the largest rivers in Northern Mindanao, Philippines. The study revealed the presence of microplastics in the surface water, which such results aid in formulating mitigation strategies for reducing riverine plastic emissions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Environmental Science Graduate Program, Department of Biological Sciences, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT), Tibanga, Iligan City 9200, Philippines

Premier Research Institute of Science and Mathematics, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT), Tibanga, Iligan City 9200, Philippines

Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT), Tibanga, Iligan City 9200, Philippines

Environmental Pollution and Innovation Laboratory, Center for Sustainable Polymers, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT), Tibanga, Iligan City 9200, Philippines

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

1. Introduction

Plastics advance several societal sectors and improve our quality of life due to their various uses. These include packaging, coatings, adhesives, fabrics, transportation, construction, biomedicine, organic electronics, and nanotechnology [ 1, 2]. Plastic production continues to increase due to its low density, strength, user-friendly design, fabrication capabilities, and, most importantly, low cost [ 3, 4, 5]. In addition, the plastic industry has a vital part to play in attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) since it generates thousands of job opportunities essential to combatting extreme poverty (SDG 1), which can also impact the other SDGs [ 6]. However, despite their advantages, plastics are often treated only as disposable commodities, which comes with a significant drawback: waste accumulation [ 2, 6].

When managed appropriately, freshwater ecosystems offer essential ecosystem services to humans such as fish production, water supply, nutrient transport, and recreational value [ 7, 8]. Though the planet comprises about 70% water, only 2.5% is freshwater [ 9, 10]. Freshwater resources on our planet are sparse, but they are, nonetheless, in danger of contamination. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), freshwater pollution comes from various sources: power generation, heavy industry, automobiles, municipal, industrial, agricultural, wastewater, fertilizer runoff, and others. Freshwater and marine ecosystems share many similar causes of plastic pollution, including inefficient waste management and improper disposal from residential, industrial, and farming practices, generating plastics that will eventually end up in lakes, rivers, and streams [ 11]. Additionally, most marine plastics are presumed to be transferred from the land to the ocean via rivers [ 12, 13, 14]; however, the plastic pollution in the riverine system in the Philippines is poorly documented.

Cagayan de Oro City is a first-class, highly urbanized city in Northern Mindanao, Philippines. It is undergoing rapid commercial, residential, and industrial expansion and is considered an economic hotspot that links agro-based products of neighboring provinces to the country's central economic institutions in metropolitan cities such as Manila, Cebu, and even abroad [ 67]. It has a total population of 728,402, with a growth rate of 1.58% (2020 Census of Population and Housing). The Cagayan de Oro River, the study's focus, is known as the "Whitewater Rafting Capital in the Philippines" since it offers year-round rafting, making it more popular with tourists. It has enormous economic and environmental significance and potential as it serves as a water supply for domestic, industrial, agricultural settings, and for hydroelectric power generation [ 68]. However, it is also one of five river systems that the country's Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environment Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) has identified as biologically threatened [ 69]. Based on the study undertaken by Meijer et al. [ 70], the Cagayan de Oro River ranked 32 nd (3.6 × 10 ³ metric tons/year) of the top 50 plastic-emitting rivers into the ocean globally. Exposed plastics may degrade into microplastics, and the fact that people who lived close to rivers rely on river life forms, including fish, snails, and plants, for sustenance and household consumption [ 71] makes it more alarming, highlighting the dire need for this study. However, the extent of microplastic pollution in this ecologically important river has not been systematically studied yet.

In this study, we hypothesized that the lowest microplastic concentrations would be relatively low upstream of the Cagayan de Oro River and higher downstream due to increasing anthropogenic activities. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the abundance, concentration, and distribution of microplastics in the surface water of the Cagayan de Oro River. Specifically, this study aimed to: (a) quantify the microplastic concentrations at the six sampling stations along the Cagayan de Oro River; and (b) determine the color, shape, size, and polymer types of microplastics in the Cagayan de Oro River.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted along the Cagayan de Oro River, located in Northern Mindanao. It is part of a river system that drains into the northern central part of Mindanao. The river's headwaters are situated in the Kalatungan Mountain Range, which is in the central part of the province of Bukidnon [ 69, 72]. It traverses through Talakag, Baungon, and Libona municipalities, filling up tributaries. It finally drains into Macajalar Bay at Cagayan de Oro City in the province of Misamis Oriental [ 69].

2.1. Sampling

This study established six sampling stations, with three sampling points in each station perpendicular to the river channel ( Figure 1, Table 1). Two sampling points were established separately within five meters of the riverbanks and one point at the center. Stations 1, 2, and 3 (S1-S3) were established at barangay Macasandig with 3743/km ² population density, Station 4 (S4) at barangay Nazareth with 10,002/km ² population density, Station 5 (S5) at barangay Kauswagan with 8167/km ² population density, and Station 6 (S6) at barangay Puntod with 13,412/km ² population density. Barangay Puntod has the highest population density while barangay Macasandig has the lowest. From upstream (S1) to downstream (S6), each station was situated around 1.9 km apart ( Figure 1).

We used an inflatable boat to travel to every station. Surface water samples were collected on 15 December 2022, following the methods of Osorio et al. [ 62] with minor modifications, such as increasing the number of sampling points from one sampling point to three and using a 0.3-mm metal sieve instead of different sizes. Three water samples were collected at each station since there may be variations in microplastic concentration across the channel [ 73]. A total of 180 L (0.18 m ³) of water samples were collected across all stations using a stainless steel bucket [ 62, 74], and taking a 10 L (0.01 m ³) sample from each point at a depth of up to 50 cm. The samples were immediately sieved through a 0.3-mm metal sieve and rinsed with distilled water while being collected in a labeled glass bottle [ 75, 76]. The mouths of the glass bottles were covered with aluminum foil before being sealed with a cap to limit light exposure and contamination. Water samples secured in an ice box were carried to the laboratory and kept in the dark pending further analysis.

2.2. Microplastic Extraction and Identification

The sieved samples were placed in a beaker and 10% KOH was added, twice the sample's volume, to digest the organic matter. The samples were heated to 60 °C for 24 h in the oven. After digestion, the supernatant liquid was vacuum filtered using a 40 mm diameter Whatman GF/C glass filter. The remaining sample with solids underwent density separation for at least 2 h to float the less dense microplastics by adding 30% NaCl solution, twice the volume of the remaining sample. The supernatant carrying microplastics was vacuum filtered again using a Whatman GF/C glass filter. All filter papers used during vacuum filtration were placed in a clean petri dish and dried. The dried filter papers were visually inspected using a stereomicroscope (40× magnification) to classify the suspected microplastics according to color and shape under the criteria set by previous research [ 77, 78]. The suspected microplastics were mounted in between two clean and labeled glass slides using a clean needle and measured afterward. Similar to the method employed by Abidli et al. [ 79] and Toumi et al. [ 80], a stereomicroscope with calibrated ocular micrometer was used to measure the size of the suspected microplastics. After microscopy, the suspected microplastics were subjected to Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis (Shimadzu IRTracer-100) to classify polymer type. This method is the most cost-effective way to obtain information regarding particle quantities, polymer types, and sizes [ 81]. According to Tirkey and Upadhyay [ 82], FTIR is possibly the best technique for chemical characterization aside from Raman spectroscopy. Compared to Raman spectroscopy with a lower detection threshold (down to 1 μm), FTIR is less time-consuming [ 81, 83]. Additionally, the FTIR method is accurate, does not damage the samples, and produces spectra; however, it has a limited detection threshold that is only feasible for particles up to 20 μm.

2.3. Quality Control

Before proper laboratory work, we ensured the laboratory glassware was thoroughly washed and rinsed with distilled water to remove contaminants. Every sample preparation process involved including one control group to confirm the validity of the data collected. Background contamination in the air was also tested through wet filter paper in a petri dish, and no contamination occurred.

2.4. Data Analysis

The microplastic concentration was expressed in items per m ³. The data were first tested with a normality test using the Shapiro-Wilk test. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if significant differences were present at the six sampling stations. Tukey's test for pairwise mean comparisons was used after testing for significance in the ANOVA test at the 95% significance level. Statistical analyses were employed using the PAST software version 4.12b.

3. Results

All six sampling stations were contaminated with microplastics, which varied in abundance ( Table 1). From a total of 90 suspected microplastics that were extracted, 54 (60%) were confirmed to be microplastics after FTIR analysis. Across all the stations, we recorded a mean concentration of 300 items/m ³ MPs in the surface water of the Cagayan de Oro River. The highest number of MPs with 18 items was at S6, which was close to the mouth of the river, followed by S5 with 17 items, S2 with eight items, S1 with six items, S4 with three items, while the lowest was at S3 (middle) with two items ( Table 1). No pattern was observed across all the stations, but it is still evident that the downstream has three times more MPs than were found in the upstream. Figure 2 shows images of the microplastics extracted from the Cagayan de Oro River, along with the stations where they were taken and their sizes. The highest concentration of MPs was detected at S6 (600 ± 57.74 items/m ³) in barangay Puntod, located downstream near Macajalar Bay. At the station, we observed several pump boats that people use for their livelihood for fishing and transportation, suggesting more anthropogenic activities in the area. Station 6 was situated between two barangays that were connected by a path made possible by the use of pump boats. The second highest concentration was found at S5, located in barangay Kauswagan with 566.7 ± 83.89 items/m ³, followed by S2 located in barangay Macasandig with 266.7 ± 50.92 items/m ³, S1 located also in barangay Macasandig with 200 ± 66.67 items/m ³, and S4 located in barangay Nazareth with 100 ± 57.74 items/m ³. Meanwhile, the lowest concentration of MPs was found at S3 (middle), located in barangay Macasandig, with 66.7 ± 19.25 items/m ³. Station 3 was observed to have only a few settlements near the river and was not accessible compared to the other stations. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) present at the six sampling stations along the Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines. Through the Tukey test (p < 0.05), we confirmed that S5 (566.7 ± 83.89 items/m ³) and S6 (600 ± 57.74 items/m ³) were significantly higher than S3 (66.7 ± 19.25 items/m ³) and also S6 (600 ± 57.74 items/m ³) was significantly higher compared to S4 (100 ± 57.74 items/m ³). Conversely, there is no significant difference between S6 and S1; however, it is observed that S6 has three times more MP concentration compared to S1, suggesting that there are more MPs downstream than upstream.

Extracted MPs were documented and classified based on color, shape, size, and polymer types. As shown in Figure 3, dominant MPs in the Cagayan de Oro River based on the four properties are blue-colored (59%), fiber (63%), 0.3-0.5 mm (44%), and polyacetylene (48%). Blue-colored MP has the highest concentration of 177.8 items/m ³, accounting for 59% of the total MPs. Red-colored MP has the second highest concentration of 44.4 items/m ³, accounting for 15% of the total MPs, and is comparable to white-colored MPs with 33.3 items/m ³, accounting for 11% of the total MPs. Transparent and brown-colored MPs are comparable, with concentrations of 22.2 items/m ³ (7%) and 16.7 items/m ³ (6%), respectively. The lowest concentration is black-colored MPs, with only 5.6 items/m ³ accounting for 2% of the total MPs. We observed that blue and red MPs were present at all stations. Conversely, black-colored MPs were only observed at S1.

Figure 3B and Figure 4B show that fibers have the highest concentration, totaling 188.9 items/m ³ and accounting for 63% of the total MPs. The filament has the second highest concentration, with 77.8 items/m ³ accounting for 26% of the total. In addition, the filament is about two times more than the lowest concentration, fragment (33.3 items/m ³), accounting for 11% of the total MPs. Microplastics were also classified into four size fractions: 0.3-0.5 mm, 0.5-1.0 mm, 1.0-2.5, and 2.5-5.0 mm ( Figure 3C and Figure 4C). The most prevalent sizes were 0.3-0.5 mm with 133.3 items/m ³ accounting for 44%, followed by 1.0-2.5 mm with 77.8 items/m ³ (26%), 0.5-1.0 mm with 66.7 items/m ³ (22%), and 2.5-5.0 mm with 22.2 items/m ³ (7%). On the other hand, FTIR results confirmed five polymer types in this study: polyacetylene, polyester, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyamide ( Figure 5). Their concentrations are 144.4 items/m ³, 105.6 items/m ³, 38.9 items/m ³, 5.6 items/m ³, and 5.6 items/m ³, accounting for 48%, 35%, 13%, 2%, and 2%, respectively. Polyacetylene has the highest concentration found present at all sampling stations. Polyester has the second highest concentration and was also present at all stations. On the other hand, polyurethane was only identified at S1 and S6, while polyethylene terephthalate and polyamide were only identified at S5.

4. Discussion

We identified that the microplastic concentrations at S6 and S5, located downstream near the mouth of the river, were significantly higher than at S3, which was situated in the middle, and S6 was also significantly higher than S4. There was no significant difference between S6 and S1; however, S6 (downstream) had three times more microplastic than S1 (upstream). The results were similar to the study conducted by Tang et al. [ 84] in the Songhua River, China, and Buwono et al. [ 85] in the Brantas River, Indonesia, which also observed that there were higher microplastic concentrations downstream than upstream due to human interference and possible accumulation at the river mouth. Moreover, according to Requiron and Bacosa [ 35], the closer the sampling point is to the river mouth, the higher the possibility of accumulating plastic litter.

We also observed that the accumulation of microplastic is related to population density since S6, located in barangay Puntod with the highest population density, also has the highest microplastic concentration. In contrast, S3, located in barangay Macasandig with the lowest population density, accumulates the lowest microplastic concentration. Based on the study conducted by Ta and Babel [ 86], there is a direct correlation between population density and microplastic abundance in the river. In relation to this, anthropogenic activities are closely related to microplastic contamination [ 87]. At S6, a residential area, the river portion is used for various purposes, including fishing and transportation via pump boat to nearby barangays. Conversely, S3, a non-residential area, has no intensive anthropogenic activities observed.

Compared to other studies, the mean concentration in the Cagayan de Oro River, which is 300 items/m ³, is considered the lowest among the rivers documented in the Philippines ( Table 2). It is also expected since the Pasig River, Parañaque River, Meycauayan River, and Tullahan River were listed as top plastic emitters based on the study conducted by Meijer et al. [ 27]. Compared to other rivers in China, our study is higher than the study conducted by Mai et al. [ 88] at the Pearl River Delta and lower than that of Lin et al. [ 89] along the Pearl River. These variations may be due to methodological approach differences, such as using different mesh or pore sizes during sample collection. Smaller mesh or pore size can collect smaller plastic particles, thereby higher microplastic concentration. In this study, we used a 0.3 mm mesh sieve. In comparison with the other studies with similar mesh or pore sizes, such as the studies conducted along the Gave de Pau River (France), the Surabaya River (Indonesia), the Ofanta River (Italy), and the Pearl Delta River (China), the Cagayan de Oro River has the highest microplastic concentration suggesting regional variation depending on plastic emissions.

Extracted microplastics were classified based on color, shape, size, and polymer type. These properties are potentially relevant to their ecotoxicity; however, changes still depend on environmental conditions and degradation pathways [ 94].

In terms of shape, the Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines, was dominated by fiber MPs, similar to the study conducted along the Pearl River, China, which accounted for 94.4% of the total [ 89]. In addition, microplastic studies in the Philippines such as the study undertaken by Arcadio et al. [ 60] in Laguna de Bay, Navarro et al. [ 63] in Butuan Bay, and Sajorne et al. [ 30] on Puerto Princesa Beach, Palawan were all dominated by fiber MPs. One of the causes of the release of fiber MP is washing a garment that can shed more than 1900 fibers per wash, releasing more than 100 fibers per liter of effluent [ 55]. Fish cages, fishing equipment, and nylon rope deterioration are also significant sources of MP fibers [ 96]. Studies have shown several negative impacts of MP fibers on aquatic organisms, such as tissue damage, reduced growth, severe intestinal toxicity, and even mortality [ 103, 104]. This can lead to a reduced fish catch, affecting the livelihoods of the local populations, or worse, microplastic-contaminated fish could be eaten by humans.

The most dominant size range of MPs found in the Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines was 0.3-0.5 mm. This is comparable to the study conducted by Faulstich et al. [ 105] in the sediments of the Namibian River, Namibia where this size range comprised 33.7% of the total MPs. In addition, the study conducted in the Tamsui River also identified 0.3-5 mm size range particles [ 106]. Different size ranges of MPs represent different pathways for MP exposure and impacts on organisms [ 107].

Polyacetylene was present at all six sampling stations established in the study area. Recent studies also found polyacetylene in rivers and other environments [ 108, 109, 110, 111]. It is a conductive polymer that is used as a doping agent for manufacturing various electronic devices due to its thin and stretchable characteristics [ 112]. Polyester, found in the second-highest level of abundance in the study, was also found at all stations. During the fieldwork, we observed locals washing their clothes in the river. It can be attributed to the presence of polyester since previous research revealed that even delicate hand washing of clothes releases microfiber polyester [ 113].

Aside from anthropogenic activities, variations in levels of microplastics may be affected by other factors. The previous study confirmed that rainfall significantly increased microplastic concentration [ 114]. Days before our sampling, rainfall occurred, possibly affecting the MP concentration in the area, and this needs further investigation. Aside from that, hydrodynamic conditions significantly affected the microplastic distribution through the construction of water conservancy hubs and changes in the river's width [ 115]. We noticed a higher MP concentration at the stations with wider river widths and vice versa.

5. Conclusions

Our study revealed that all six sampling stations along the Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines, were contaminated with microplastics. Higher MP concentrations were observed at Station 6, located downstream near Macajalar Bay, compared to stations found upstream and midstream. Aside from the anthropogenic activities, we also observed that river width affects MPs concentration. The largest river width was identified as having the highest concentration of MPs and vice versa. This study imparts the first documented evidence of the abundance, distribution, and composition of microplastics in the surface water of the Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines, and the first among the rivers in Mindanao, the second largest island in the Philippines. The river is an essential resource for humans and aquatic organisms. Determining pollutants such as microplastics or having baseline data such as documented in the current study will help in achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, or clean water and sanitation, by informing people, especially policymakers and stakeholders, to take immediate action. This data will help them create new prevention strategies or update existing policies guided by scientific evidence. Furthermore, re-evaluation and stringent enforcement of plastic legislation and the imposition of fines for illegal dumping are encouraged to minimize plastic accumulation, plastic degradation, and detrimental effects on aquatic organisms as well as on humans. Aside from immediate action by policymakers and stakeholders, residents may help address the increasing plastic waste problem by using biodegradable alternatives to plastics and adhering to basic waste management and disposal practices. Adherence to plastic ordinances, such as the recently passed "Single-Use Plastic Ban", to prevent additional plastic being transported to rivers and other aquatic environments will be highly beneficial.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.D.G. and H.P.B.; methodology, A.D.G., A.A.L. and H.P.B.; software, A.D.G. and H.P.B.; validation, H.P.B., A.A.L. and R.F.A.J.; formal analysis, A.D.G.; investigation, A.D.G. and H.P.B.; resources, A.D.G., A.A.L. and H.P.B.; data curation, A.D.G.; writing-original draft preparation, A.D.G.; writing-review and editing, H.P.B. and R.F.A.J.; visualization, A.D.G. and H.P.B.; supervision, H.P.B., A.A.L. and R.F.A.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Department of Science and Technology-Accelerated Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Data Availability Statement

Acknowledgments

The first author would like to acknowledge the support from the Department of Science and Technology through the Accelerated Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program (ASTHRDP) scholarship program. We thank Rey Capangpangan, Sherley Ann Inocente, and Joanna Mea Celmar for their input and suggestions. We also thank the Center for Sustainable Polymers, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology for the assistance in analyzing the samples' polymer type.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Map of Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines showing the six sampling stations along the Cagayan de Oro River from upstream (S1) to downstream (S6).

Table 1. Geographical coordinates and characteristics of sampling stations along the Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines, with the number of microplastics and their mean concentration.

Table 2. Comparison of microplastic concentration in the Cagayan de Oro River compared to other rivers in the Philippines and those in other countries.

Gabriel AD, Amparado RF Jr., Lubguban AA, Bacosa HP. Riverine Microplastic Pollution: Insights from Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(12):6132. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20126132

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gabriel, Aiza D., Ruben F. Amparado, Jr., Arnold A. Lubguban, and Hernando P. Bacosa. 2023. "Riverine Microplastic Pollution: Insights from Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 12: 6132. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20126132

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Riverine Microplastic Pollution: Insights from Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Rivers are vital water sources for humans and homes for aquatic organisms. Conversely, they are well known as the route of plastics into the ocean. Despite being the world's number one emitter of riverine plastics into the ocean, microplastics (MPs), or plastic particles less than 5 mm, in the Philippines' rivers are relatively unexplored.

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LOOK: Art installation shows life under polluted waters (RESEARCHED BY: ARRIETA, SOFIA PARIS)

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URL:https://www.rappler.com/moveph/221759-mckeough-marine-center-art-installation-shows-life-polluted-waters/

TITLE: Look: An art installation shows life under polluted water

AUTHOR: Maria Victoria Te

DATE PUBLISHED: January 23, 2019

KEY CONTENT:

Xavier University in Cagayan De Oro, Philippines, presented an immersive installation at the science center, inviting people to experience the viewpoint of marine life amidst ocean pollution. The plastic waste dangling from the ceiling reflects the reality of a polluted ocean.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
LOOK: Art installation shows life under polluted waters

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Have you ever wondered what swimming in a polluted ocean is like?