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SOURCE: Goleman and Emotional Intelligence

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SOURCE: Goleman and Emotional Intelligence

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Recognize, understand and manage our own emotions and;

Recognize, understand and influence the emotions of others.

In practical terms, this means being aware that emotions can drive our behavior and impact people (positively and negatively), and learning how to manage those emotions - both our own and others.

Managing emotions is especially important in situations when we are under pressure. For example, when we are...

Giving and receiving feedback

Meeting tight deadlines

Dealing with challenging relationships

Not having enough resources

Navigating change

Working through setbacks and failure

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What Is Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman

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Recognize, understand and manage our own emotions and; Recognize, understand and influence the emotions of others. In practical terms, this means being aware that emotions can drive our behavior and impact people (positively and negatively), and learning how to manage those emotions - both our own and others.

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Application Activity #1: Planning and Diversity 

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Application Activity #1: Planning and Diversity 

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Application Activity #2: Constructivism and Creativity

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Application Activity #2: Constructivism and Creativity

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Application Activity #3: Behaviorism and Motivation (Response to Video)

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Application Activity #3: Behaviorism and Motivation (Response to Video)

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I decided to do the alternative assignment for this Application Activity.

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Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli.

In simple terms, according to this school of thought, also known as behavioral psychology, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner regardless of internal mental states. Behavioral theory also says that only observable behavior should be studied, as cognition, emotions, and mood are far too subjective.

Strict behaviorists believe that any person-regardless of genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts- can be trained to perform any task, within the limits of their physical capabilities. It only requires the right conditioning.

History of Behaviorism

Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's classic paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." It is best summed up by the following quote from Watson, who is often considered the father of behaviorism:

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."

From about 1920 through the mid-1950s, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought in psychology. Some suggest that the popularity of behavioral psychology grew out of the desire to establish psychology as an objective and measurable science.

During that time, researchers were interested in creating theories that could be clearly described and empirically measured, but also used to make contributions that might have an influence on the fabric of everyday human lives.

Types of Behaviorism

There are two main types of behaviorism used to describe how behavior is formed.

Methodological Behaviorism

Methodological behaviorism states that observable behavior should be studied scientifically and that mental states and cognitive processes don't add to the understanding of behavior. Methodological behaviorism aligns with Watson's ideologies and approach.

Radical Behaviorism

Radical behaviorism is rooted in the theory that behavior can be understood by looking at one's past and present environment and the reinforcements within it, thereby influencing behavior either positively or negatively. This behavioral approach was created by the psychologist B.F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus, even without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself.

Throughout the course of three distinct phases of classical conditioning, the associated stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is known as the conditioned response.

Learning Through Association

The classical conditioning process works by developing an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

In physiologist Ivan Pavlov's classic experiments, dogs associated the presentation of food (something that naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response) at first with the sound of a bell, then with the sight of a lab assistant's white coat. Eventually, the lab coat alone elicited a salivation response from the dogs.

Factors That Impact Conditioning

During the first part of the classical conditioning process, known as acquisition, a response is established and strengthened. Factors such as the prominence of the stimuli and the timing of the presentation can play an important role in how quickly an association is formed.

When an association disappears, this is known as extinction. It causes the behavior to weaken gradually or vanish. Factors such as the strength of the original response can play a role in how quickly extinction occurs. The longer a response has been conditioned, for example, the longer it may take for it to become extinct.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcement and punishment. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

This behavioral approach says that when a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely to happen again in the future. Conversely, responses followed by adverse outcomes become less likely to reoccur.

Consequences Affect Learning

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner described operant conditioning as the process in which learning can occur through reinforcement and punishment. More specifically: By forming an association between a certain behavior and the consequences of that behavior, you learn.

For example, if a parent rewards their child with praise every time they pick up their toys, the desired behavior is consistently reinforced and the child will become more likely to clean up messes.

Timing Plays a Role

The process of operant conditioning seems fairly straightforward-simply observe a behavior, then offer a reward or punishment. However, Skinner discovered that the timing of these rewards and punishments has an important influence on how quickly a new behavior is acquired and the strength of the corresponding response.

This makes reinforcement schedules important in operant conditioning. These can involve either continuous or partial reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement involves rewarding every single instance of a behavior. It is often used at the beginning of the operant conditioning process. Then, as the behavior is learned, the schedule might switch to one of partial reinforcement.

Partial reinforcement involves offering a reward after a number of responses or after a period of time has elapsed. Sometimes, partial reinforcement occurs on a consistent or fixed schedule. In other instances, a variable and unpredictable number of responses or amount of time must occur before the reinforcement is delivered.

Uses for Behaviorism

The behaviorist perspective has a few different uses, including some related to education and mental health.

Behaviorism can be used to help students learn, such as by influencing lesson design. For instance, some teachers use consistent encouragement to help students learn (operant conditioning) while others focus more on creating a stimulating environment to increase engagement (classical conditioning).

One of the greatest strengths of behavioral psychology is the ability to clearly observe and measure behaviors. Because behaviorism is based on observable behaviors, it is often easier to quantify and collect data when conducting research.

Mental Health

Behavioral therapy was born from behaviorism and originally used in the treatment of autism and schizophrenia. This type of therapy involves helping people change problematic thoughts and behaviors, thereby improving mental health.

Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults.

Impact of Behaviorism

Several thinkers influenced behavioral psychology.Among these are Edward Thorndike, a pioneering psychologist who described the law of effect, and Clark Hull, who proposed the drive theory of learning.

There are a number of therapeutic techniques rooted in behavioral psychology. Though behavioral psychology assumed more of a background position after 1950, its principles still remain important.

Even today, behavior analysis is often used as a therapeutic technique to help children with autism and developmental delays acquire new skills. It frequently involves processes such as shaping (rewarding closer approximations to the desired behavior) and chaining (breaking a task down into smaller parts, then teaching and chaining the subsequent steps together).

Criticisms of Behaviorism

Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior. They suggest that behavioral theories do not account for free will or internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.

Freud, for example, felt that behaviorism failed by not accounting for the unconscious mind's thoughts, feelings, and desires, which influence people's actions. Other thinkers, such as Carl Rogers and other humanistic psychologists, believed that behaviorism was too rigid and limited, failing to take into consideration personal agency.

More recently, biological psychology has emphasized the role the brain and genetics play in determining and influencing human actions. The cognitive approach to psychology focuses on mental processes such as thinking, decision-making, language, and problem-solving. In both cases, behaviorism neglects these processes and influences in favor of studying only observable behaviors.

Behavioral psychology also does not account for other types of learning that occur without the use of reinforcement and punishment. Moreover, people and animals can adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if that behavior was established through reinforcement.

A Word From Verywell

While the behavioral approach might not be the dominant force that it once was, it has still had a major impact on our understanding of human psychology. The conditioning process alone has been used to understand many different types of behaviors, ranging from how people learn to how language develops.

But perhaps the greatest contributions of behavioral psychology lie in its practical applications. Its techniques can play a powerful role in modifying problematic behavior and encouraging more positive, helpful responses. Outside of psychology, parents, teachers, animal trainers, and many others make use of basic behavioral principles to help teach new behaviors and discourage unwanted ones.

Frequently Asked Questions

John B. Watson is known as the founder of behaviorism. Though others had similar ideas in the early 1900s, when behavioral theory began, some suggest that Watson is credited as behavioral psychology's founder due to being "an attractive, strong, scientifically accomplished, and forceful speaker and an engaging writer" who was willing to share this behavioral approach when other psychologists were less likely to speak up.

How is behaviorism used in education?

Behaviorism can be used to help elicit positive behaviors or responses in students, such as by using reinforcement. Teachers with a behavioral approach often use "skill and drill" exercises to reinforce correct responses through consistent repetition, for instance.

Other ways reinforcement-based behaviorism can be used in education include praising students for getting the right answer and providing prizes for those who do well. Using tests to measure performance enables teachers to measure observable behaviors and is, therefore, another behavioral approach.

What makes behaviorism different from psychoanalysis?

Behaviorism says that behavior is a result of environment, the environment being an external stimulus. Psychoanalysis is the opposite of this, in that it is rooted in the belief that behavior is a result of an internal stimulus. Psychoanalytic theory is based on behaviors being motivated by one's unconscious mind, thus resulting in actions that are consistent with their unknown wishes and desires.

What is cognitive behaviorism?

Whereas strict behaviorism has no room for cognitive influences, cognitive behaviorism operates on the assumption that behavior is impacted by thoughts and emotions. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), for instance, attempts to change negative behaviors by changing the destructive thought patterns behind them.

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Why Behaviorism Is One of Psychology's Most Fascinating Branches

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Behaviorism is a theory of learning that suggests that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning processes. Learn more about what it is and how it works.

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Cite this guide: Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom's Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/.

Background Information | The Original Taxonomy | The Revised Taxonomy | Why Use Bloom's Taxonomy? | Further Information

The above graphic is released under a Creative Commons Attribution license. You're free to share, reproduce, or otherwise use it, as long as you attribute it to the Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. For a higher resolution version, visit our Flickr account and look for the "Download this photo" icon.

Background Information

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David Krathwohl published a framework for categorizing educational goals: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Familiarly known as Bloom's Taxonomy, this framework has been applied by generations of K-12 teachers and college instructors in their teaching.

The framework elaborated by Bloom and his collaborators consisted of six major categories: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The categories after Knowledge were presented as "skills and abilities," with the understanding that knowledge was the necessary precondition for putting these skills and abilities into practice.

While each category contained subcategories, all lying along a continuum from simple to complex and concrete to abstract, the taxonomy is popularly remembered according to the six main categories.

The Original Taxonomy (1956)

Here are the authors' brief explanations of these main categories in from the appendix of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ( Handbook One, pp. 201-207):

Knowledge "involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting."

Comprehension "refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications."

Application refers to the "use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations."

Analysis represents the "breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between ideas expressed are made explicit."

Synthesis involves the "putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole."

Evaluation engenders "judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes."

The 1984 edition of Handbook One is available in the CFT Library in Calhoun 116. See its ACORN record for call number and availability.

Barbara Gross Davis, in the "Asking Questions" chapter of Tools for Teaching, also provides examples of questions corresponding to the six categories. This chapter is not available in the online version of the book, but Tools for Teaching is available in the CFT Library. See its ACORN record for call number and availability.

The Revised Taxonomy (2001)

A group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists and instructional researchers, and testing and assessment specialists published in 2001 a revision of Bloom's Taxonomy with the title A Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. This title draws attention away from the somewhat static notion of "educational objectives" (in Bloom's original title) and points to a more dynamic conception of classification.

The authors of the revised taxonomy underscore this dynamism, using verbs and gerunds to label their categories and subcategories (rather than the nouns of the original taxonomy). These "action words" describe the cognitive processes by which thinkers encounter and work with knowledge:

Remember

Understand

Interpreting

Exemplifying

Classifying

Summarizing

Inferring

Comparing

Explaining

Apply

Analyze

Differentiating

Organizing

Attributing

Evaluate

Create

In the revised taxonomy, knowledge is at the basis of these six cognitive processes, but its authors created a separate taxonomy of the types of knowledge used in cognition:

Factual Knowledge

Knowledge of terminology

Knowledge of specific details and elements

Conceptual Knowledge

Knowledge of classifications and categories

Knowledge of principles and generalizations

Knowledge of theories, models, and structures

Procedural Knowledge

Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms

Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods

Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures

Metacognitive Knowledge

Strategic Knowledge

Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge

Self-knowledge

Mary Forehand from the University of Georgia provides a guide to the revised version giving a brief summary of the revised taxonomy and a helpful table of the six cognitive processes and four types of knowledge.

Why Use Bloom's Taxonomy?

The authors of the revised taxonomy suggest a multi-layered answer to this question, to which the author of this teaching guide has added some clarifying points:

1. Objectives (learning goals) are important to establish in a pedagogical interchange so that teachers and students alike understand the purpose of that interchange.

2. Organizing objectives helps to clarify objectives for themselves and for students.

3. Having an organized set of objectives helps teachers to:

"plan and deliver appropriate instruction";

"design valid assessment tasks and strategies";and

"ensure that instruction and assessment are aligned with the objectives."

Citations are from A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

Further Information

Section III of A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, entitled "The Taxonomy in Use," provides over 150 pages of examples of applications of the taxonomy. Although these examples are from the K-12 setting, they are easily adaptable to the university setting.

Section IV, "The Taxonomy in Perspective," provides information about 19 alternative frameworks to Bloom's Taxonomy, and discusses the relationship of these alternative frameworks to the revised Bloom's Taxonomy.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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by Patricia Armstrong Print Version Cite this guide: Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom's Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/. Background Information | The Original Taxonomy | The Revised Taxonomy | Why Use Bloom's Taxonomy? | Further Information The above graphic is released under a Creative Commons Attribution license.

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Multiple intelligences | Educational Psychology

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For nearly a century, educators and psychologists have debated the nature of intelligence, and more specifically whether intelligence is just one broad ability or can take more than one form. Many classical definitions of the concept have tended to define intelligence as a single broad ability that…

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Addressing Our Needs: Maslow Comes to Life for Educators and Students

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Guest blogger Lori Desautels translates Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs into a blueprint for classroom practice that can set the stage with comfort, care, and self-reflection to optimize brain-compatible learning.

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SOURCE: Erikson and Theories of Psychosocial Development

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SOURCE: Erikson and Theories of Psychosocial Development

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The Classroom | Empowering Students in Their College Journey

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How to Apply Erikson’s Theory in Instruction

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Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development can be taught to many young learners in the stages of the theory.

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SOURCE: Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan Theories of Moral Development

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SOURCE: Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan Theories of Moral Development

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SOURCE: Bronfenbrenner, Ecological System Theory and Resilience Trauma

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SOURCE: Bronfenbrenner, Ecological System Theory and Resilience Trauma

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Ecological Systems Theory Simply Explained With Examples

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The ecological systems theory explains how a child’s surroundings and social environment influence his or her development. This ScienceStruck article elaborates on this social theory with its examples.

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Creative Thinking Skills | SkillsYouNeed

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Creative thinking is the process of looking at issues or problems in a new and often unorthodox way, to provide new solutions. Learn more about this essential skill.

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SOURCE: Piaget & Vygotsky in Constructivism

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SOURCE: Piaget & Vygotsky in Constructivism

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Also in the 1950's, another paradigm of education emerged in response to a shift in philosophy about the nature of knowledge. The constructivist paradigm viewed knowledge not as something that exists separately that can be mapped onto learners, but rather as something that is constructed by individuals.

Cognitive constructivism views learning as the process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience. This was a radical shift form the objectivist assumptions of the behaviourist and cognitivist paradigms. Cognitive constructivists are still concerned with mental representations of learners, however the overall purpose of education is not only to acquire knowledge, but also to enable learners to create new knowledge, building on prior knowledge from past experiences.

Because knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active discovery. The role of the teacher is to facilitate this discovery by providing the necessary resources and by guiding learners as they attempt to assimilate new knowledge to old, and to modify the old to accommodate the new. Teachers must take into account the knowledge that the learner currently possesses, their stage of cognitive development, their cultural background, and their personal history when deciding how to construct the curriculum and how to present, sequence, and structure new material.

Purpose of education is to enable learners to create new knowledge

Learning is the process of constructing meaning

Emphasis is on active discovery

Learners actively construct new knowledge, building on what they already know and past experiences

Teachers facilitate discovery by providing necessary resources

Jean Piaget, 1896-1980

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment. He believed that children construct an understanding of the world around them, experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment, then adjust their ideas accordingly.

He described learning as interplay between two mental activities that he called assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the interpretation of new information in terms of pre-existing concepts, information or ideas. In contrast, accommodationis the process of taking new information in one's environment and altering pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information. This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

John Dewey, 1859-1952

John Dewey was an American philosopher and educator who rejected the notion that schools should focus on repetitive, rote memorization and proposed a method of directed living where students would engage in real-world, practical workshops in which they would demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and collaboration. He emphasized the importance that previous experience and prior knowledge play in the development of new understanding

Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. He pushed for the creation of practical classes that could be applied outside of a school setting. He also thought that education should be student-oriented, not subject-oriented. He emphasizes that material should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting to the student since it encourages original thought and problem solving.

Productive failure

Productive failure is an education strategy that asks learners to solve complex, novel problems they have not yet been taught. Through this process, learners develop a diversity of linked representations and methods for solving the complex problems, even when ultimately unsuccessful in their problem-solving efforts. If followed by direct instruction, the experience results in deeper conceptual understanding and flexibility at solving new problems. Learners who experience productive failure followed by direct instruction significantly outperform learners who have only experienced direct instruction. By providing students with direct instruction too early, they may not yet have the appropriate prior knowledge to be able to build or discern what is important and may struggle to understand why concepts, representations, and methods are assembled in that way.

Preparation for future learning (PFL)

PFL is "the ability to learn new information, make effective use of resources, and invent new procedures in order to support learning and problem solving in practice" (Schwartz). We can't possibly teach every situation a health professional will find themselves in; instead we can prepare health professionals to learn (in the future) so they can come up with new solutions when dealing with problems they haven't seen before.

References

Block J. Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality development. Child Development. 1982;53(2):281-95.

Chin DB, Dohmen IM, Cheng BH, Oppezzo MA, Chase CC, Schwartz DL. Preparing students for future learning with teachable agents. Educational Technology Research and Development. 2010;58(6):649-69.

Dewey J. Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. Macmillan; 1923.

Kapur M, Bielaczyc K. Designing for productive failure. Journal of the Learning Sciences. 2012;21(1):45-83.

Lin X, Schwartz DL, Bransford J. Intercultural adaptive expertise: Explicit and implicit lessons from Dr. Hatano. Human Development. 2007;50(1):65-72.

Mylopoulos M, Brydges R, Woods NN, Manzone J, Schwartz DL. Preparation for future learning: a missing competency in health professions education? Medical Education. 2016;50(1):115-23.

Mylopoulos M, Woods N. Preparing medical students for future learning using basic science instruction. Medical Education. 2014;48(7):667-73.

Schwartz DL, Martin T. Inventing to prepare for future learning: The hidden efficiency of encouraging original student production in statistics instruction. Cognition and Instruction. 2004;22(2):129-84.

To cite this work: Baker L, Ng S, Friesen F. Paradigms of Education. An Online Supplement. [Internet]. 2019. Available from www.paradigmsofeducation.

Centre for Faculty Development, University of Toronto at St. Michael's Hospital.

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Also in the 1950's, another paradigm of education emerged in response to a shift in philosophy about the nature of knowledge. The constructivist paradigm viewed knowledge not as something that exists separately that can be mapped onto learners, but rather as something that is constructed by individuals.

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Professor Albert Bandura (1925 - 2021) was an innovative scholar whose pioneering work in social cognitive theory has served as a rich resource for academics, practitioners, and policy makers alike across disciplinary lines. His illustrative career includes groundbreaking work across a broad range of areas. His seminal research on social modeling expanded our view of human learning and the growing primacy of this mode of learning in this electronic era. His later research on self-regulatory mechanisms, and the influential role of perceived self-efficacy in self-development, adaptation and change, laid the theoretical foundation for his theory of human agency. These diverse programs of research blend his theoretical interests with an abiding concern for the use of our knowledge for human enlightenment and betterment.

Bandura's contributions to psychology have been recognized in the countless scientific awards and honorary degrees he has received. In addittion he was elected to the Order of Canada, the highest honor for national distinguished achievements, the National Academy of Medicine, and the National Medal of Science, the most prestigious scientific award in the United States, bestowed by President Obama.

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ALBERT BANDURA | Psychologist | Social Psychology | Stanford University | California

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Professor Albert Bandura (1925 - 2021) was an innovative scholar whose pioneering work in social cognitive theory has served as a rich resource for academics, practitioners, and policy makers alike across disciplinary lines. His illustrative career includes groundbreaking work across a broad range of areas.