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Nearly half (46 percent) of the teachers who responded to the survey said their sense of safety has decreased since 2019, compared to 36 percent of principals and 26 percent of district leaders.

A Pew Research Center Survey in October found that about one-third of parents are very or extremely worried about a shooting ever happening at their children's school.

In that survey, a larger share of parents who live in urban areas (46 percent) were worried about school shootings than parents in rural or suburban areas (both 28 percent).

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Why Putting the 'Science of Reading' Into Practice is So Challenging

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Washington, North Carolina
Raul Olivares Jr. had heard the phrase "science of reading" before.

Like other education buzzwords, it had filtered down through the ether, mentioned casually in colleagues' conversations or included in communiques from the district. But it was only last fall that he realized its significance-when Olivares, a kindergarten teacher at Eastern Elementary in Washington, N.C., heard that his state had passed a bill that would require elementary schools to teach the "science of reading."

This past school year, he has spent hours going through state-mandated training designed to teach the foundations of reading science, processing it with colleagues, and trying out new ideas in his classroom.

"I do like it, and I'm learning a lot," he said. But the process has been "very, very intense."

He's experienced a major shift in how he thinks about his teaching practice. "I almost feel like I need to say 'I'm sorry' to some of the kids I taught before," he said.

Reaching that goal will be messy and hard.

"Your philosophy on reading is as deep as religion," said Sherri Miller, the principal at Lacy Elementary School in Wake County, N.C. "I've had many matches with people where you just go round and round and round. It's kind of like the politics in our country."

For many teachers in North Carolina and the other states pursuing "science of reading," the demands to change will require a seismic shift in how they teach and a complete rethinking of their best practices and beliefs.

As North Carolina's experience underscores, this kind of change is happening slowly, unevenly, school by school or even teacher by teacher. It relies on a careful alchemy of encouragement, incentives, and teacher buy-in-a challenging balance when most school systems and many individual teachers traditionally make their own decisions about what to teach and how to teach it.

Olivares is committed to learning from the training. He wants to do what's best for his students. But he's still not sure what his reading instruction should now look like.

"I felt like a lot of it was giving me background knowledge, background knowledge. But I wasn't getting-how do you apply it?"

Why would a state want to overhaul reading instruction?

To understand why North Carolina is pursuing such sweeping changes, it's important to know what reading instruction looks like in most classrooms across the country.

The approach usually relies heavily on teacher choice and professional judgment: Teachers are taught to have many "tools in their toolbox" and use the methods that they think are most appropriate for the students in front of them.

One common practice in balanced literacy is guided reading, in which teachers coach students in a variety of comprehension strategies as they read a book matched to their level. Teachers encourage students who struggle over individual words to use pictures and context, in addition to looking at the letters, to guess at what the word could be.

This was how Olivares was trained, he said. "At the university level, it was more of look at the pictures, use those picture clues."

But decades of psychology and neuroscience research have demonstrated that many of these strategies aren't the most effective for creating skilled readers. Studies have shown that explicit, systematic instruction in how letters represent sounds-phonics-is the most effective way to teach kids how to read words. Teaching students to rely on other clues, like pictures, takes their focus away from the letters. And restricting students to books deemed "at their level" can actually widen achievement gaps.

There are fundamental differences in how these two approaches work. But often, these differences are flattened into a conversation about phonics-whether to teach it or not, and how much time to spend.

It's true that some balanced literacy teachers don't teach a lot of phonics. But others do. And as the science of reading movement has picked up steam, more schools have implemented explicit, systematic phonics programs, while still using guided reading throughout the rest of the school day.

That can undermine the whole approach, researchers say. If students learn phonics in the morning but are then asked to guess at words while reading in the afternoon, they won't be honing their phonics skills for authentic reading. If teachers then restrict these students to lower-level texts, they won't be building the knowledge and disciplinary literacy that will propel their learning forward.

Olivares' school had started this kind of transition long before the new legislation. Eastern Elementary has been using a systematic phonics program for the past several years. But it's just started figuring out how to move away from guided reading and other balanced literacy practices this past year.

The phonics program was overwhelming to learn at first, Olivares said. But over the past couple of years, he's started to see his students applying the skills they've learned outside of his literacy block-to read math word problems, for instance.

On one Monday this past May, Olivares sat in a chair in front of his classroom smartboard, writing out letter combinations for his students to sound out. They were reviewing several digraphs-combinations of two letters that represent one sound. When they got to "ph," Olivares reminded the kindergarteners on the rug that this particular duo of letters is tricky-it might not make the sound his students thought it would. This digraph? "He loves to be a spy," Olivares said.

The letters "ph" make the /f/ sound, "but they look like they want us to say 'puh-huh,'" said Olivares, steepling his hands together and leaning forward conspiratorially. "We're not going to fall for it."

Olivares coaches the group as they diagram words at a quick pace, the kindergartners identifying digraphs and vowels and then raising fingers in the air to "slide" read the words from left to right. He sounds practiced, confident. But that wasn't always the case, he says.

"It was very hard to accept that it was our new normal, because that's not what I was taught going to school or at the university level," Olivares said. "It took me a good two years before I finally saw the benefits of it." He is an evangelist for the program now. This past year, he had three students start school with no English who are now all reading at or above grade level. Seeing these students' progress was "my true buy-in," he said.

But he's still not sure how the rest of the "science of reading" should apply to his practice.

"For years, it's been guided reading, guided reading, guided reading: the Jan Richardson model," Olivares said, referencing a popular balanced literacy approach. But now, the training has introduced him to a new way of understanding how kids learn to read. He feels like he needs a new model to match-he's just not sure where to find one.

Rocky rollout fuels frustration

The majority of the law's requirements fall on K-12 school districts. And districts were tasked with starting the overhaul just a few months after the legislation passed-a timeline that school leaders said presented a steep challenge amid pandemic schooling.

State officials and legislators said the work was too urgent to delay. But that urgency didn't account for the time it takes to persuade people to re-examine deeply held beliefs.

It has forced districts to throw together plans that some teachers find frustrating and overwhelming. And the changes to practice, to philosophy, that the department is asking schools and teachers to make are large, and not all teachers understand why they're necessary.

Take, for example, the law's most sweeping measure, which requires every K-5 teacher to undergo the same intensive, 2-year training program in both word reading and comprehension instruction. The training-Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling or LETRS-is costing the department $54 million to implement and takes about 160 hours to complete.

Once the law passed in April 2021, it started a countdown clock: The first schools were scheduled to start the course that fall.

LETRS is often described as equivalent to a graduate-level class. Over the course of two years, it gives teachers a foundation in both word reading and comprehension instruction. Completing it takes a lot of teacher time, requiring district leaders to get creative to fit the training into their schedules.

Winston-Salem/Forsyth County schools sent the message out to its principals: Set aside your other professional learning plans. LETRS is your focus now. Charlotte-Mecklenburg, facing a substitute shortage, dispersed students to other classes so that teachers could attend sessions during the day.

"It caused a lot of resentment, because we were already stressed, already overworked," Emily Bullard, a kindergarten teacher in Charlotte-Mecklenburg schools, said of having extra students added to her room. Bullard said she was a LETRS "advocate" from the beginning, but juggling the training schedule was a struggle.

(The department of public instruction offered districts the option to push back the start date for the training, and about a dozen did.)

Most teachers also had to spend time outside of contract hours to do the training-time that they aren't all getting compensated for. The state didn't provide a stipend, so districts chose whether to offer one. Teachers in some schools are receiving $1,000, others are receiving $250, others nothing, all for doing the same amount of work-a system that didn't feel fair to many teachers.

LETRS became just another thing to get through-an exercise in compliance-for some.

One teacher said that her colleagues had asked her if she wanted to work together to find answers online, so that they wouldn't have to do the assignments. A consultant with a nonprofit recounted seeing teachers in one school cleaning out their classrooms while the online training played in the background.

Jennifer Delano-Gemzik, a former literacy coach in North Carolina who has led some LETRS trainings in the state, said she's experienced virtual rooms of 40 people, all with cameras off, who don't interact during the training or join breakout rooms.

"I could keep repeating a question until the cows come home and nobody's going to respond to me," she said.

Even some of the fiercest advocates for change in North Carolina have critiqued the rollout. It "has not been in any way, shape, or form appropriate," said Amanda Harrison, a dyslexia activist with Literacy Moms NC, an influential group that helped shape the law. The lack of a statewide stipend and the logistical challenges for districts put undue burdens on educators on the ground, she said.

In other cases, this rocky start has given way to better systems.

In Charlotte-Mecklenberg, Bullard's district, the school board eventually added extra paid work time to the calendar for the 2021-22 school year. Since then, there's been somewhat of a "tone shift," she said. More of her colleagues are invested in the training.

Even so, the department needs to focus more on the purpose and vision behind the initiative, said Beth Anderson, the executive director of the Hill Learning Center, an independent school and research center for students with reading difficulties.

It needs to be clear to teachers why the current practices aren't working, and why the state is trying to change how reading is taught. "You always have to start with the why," Anderson said.

When research clashes with teacher training

For some teachers, the "why" of LETRS training wasn't clear at the outset. And for others, prior training continues to influence how they view the program-even when it's taught them useful new approaches.

Some districts have tried to use data to make the case for the science of reading, using stagnant student achievement scores to argue that current methods aren't working. Leaders stress that they're not trying to blame or shame teachers, but to help them use methods that weren't emphasized in their preparation. "When you know better, you do better," goes a common refrain in the science of reading movement.

But the idea that experimental studies have more insight into best practice than teachers' experiences and observations in the classroom feels like an attack on many teachers' philosophy.

"Balanced literacy teaches that you the teacher are the expert, you know what you're doing," said Delano-Gemzik, the LETRS trainer.

Teacher knowledge and professional judgment still play a big role in helping students advance in a science of reading framework. But it rejects the idea that teachers can use any tool in their toolbox. It hands them a new toolbox.

Some district leaders decided they couldn't ask their teachers to make this shift without understanding it themselves, too. These school systems paid for additional staff to go through LETRS, beyond what the state funded.

That's the case in Beaufort County, where Raul Olivares Jr., the kindergarten teacher who's trying to figure out how to apply new methods, teaches.

District leaders used COVID relief funds to train special education teachers, interventionists, and some district-level staff. Otherwise, said Jennifer Smith, the district's K-5 curriculum director, "they're trying to lead that work really, truly blindly."

Before the training began in January, Beaufort held a kickoff event with school leaders. Smith put the data in front of them: two-thirds of their K-8 students were below grade level in reading.

Smith tried to emphasize that it was systems-of teacher preparation and training-that were to blame for those results, not teachers individually. "This is what we're going to do to move forward together," Smith said, recounting the presentation.

The messaging has hit home for Olivares. Others are more skeptical.

Lauren Johnson, a 17-year veteran educator, teaches in Beaufort County's Chocowinity Primary School.

"When the law was written 2021, I had mixed feelings, because I was originally, as a classroom teacher, balanced-literacy trained," Johnson said. "I started seeing a lot of people wanting to change the language of what you deem the best way to teach literacy to kids. ... It almost felt like the law was coming in to say, 'What everybody was doing for the last 15 years was wrong. Now, you have to do this.'"

Much of her practice is grounded in the balanced literacy frameworks that districts in North Carolina-including hers-have pledged to move away from. But she sees the wholesale rejection of balanced literacy tenets as misguided. "There are so many ways to help children access literature and to help kids become lifelong readers," she said.

Johnson is not anti-LETRS. "For a lot of our beginning teachers, this has been great," she said, noting that some of her less-seasoned colleagues are learning about the structure of language for the first time. "If you don't understand that as a teacher, you can't teach the code to a kid," Johnson said.

The content, so far, has been review for her, Johnson said. But she's learned some new things, too-like how to coach students on their mouth placement to distinguish the different sounds that different letters make.

"That has been a big shift for me," Johnson said. "We got so focused on the end of where [students] needed to be, and the fast-paced curriculum, that some of those critical foundational skills like the phonemic awareness piece have been overlooked."

But Johnson worries that her experience as a Reading Recovery teacher is being discounted-that in rejecting balanced literacy wholesale, the state might be throwing the baby out with the bathwater.

"Reading Recovery teachers are highly trained, and that training should not be disregarded just because it doesn't fit with what someone else believes," Johnson said.

Johnson supports phonics instruction, but such a structured progression goes against her beliefs about what reading should feel like for young kids as they're starting out. "I want them to be able to open up any book and look at the pictures, and think about the story, and try to read," she said.

She believes there's no "perfect way" to teach reading. There have to be a multitude of approaches.

Transferring knowledge to practice

Lauren Johnson's mixed reception is probably a fairly typical response to an attempt to change practice at such a scale on such a compressed timeline: It takes time to see the incentive for trying something new, and to figure out what that would look like in a classroom context.

What that means, said Sarah Woulfin, an associate professor of educational leadership and policy at the University of Texas at Austin, is that teachers need a comprehensive system of support.

It means curriculum that's aligned to the training teachers are receiving. It means time to draw those connections in professional learning. It means an ecosystem of educators-principals, coaches, interventionists-all working toward the same goals.

And it means knowing, with clear examples, what should replace discarded practices. Mississippi, which has come to be seen as a model for other states seeking to improve reading instruction, hit on a strategy for demonstrating this that North Carolina is slowly adopting.

When it began on its science-of-reading journey, Mississippi funded coaches for each of the state's lowest-performing schools to help teachers apply what they were learning in LETRS training, as well as professional development and online learning for schools without coaches. It also asked coaches to provide monthly reports on their work, keeping school principals and the state officials informed.

"You won't see any of those things in statute," said Kymyona Burk, a senior policy fellow at ExcelinEd, who led the implementation of Mississippi's law as the state's literacy director. "Those things grew out of a need, working with my assistant director and our leadership team."

Now, in Beaufort, each school designated a LETRS "ambassador" who meets monthly with ambassadors from other North Carolina schools and district leaders to discuss implementation progress and challenges. School-based reading coaches meet with teachers during the middle of each unit to digest the LETRS information together and talk about how it applies in their school context.

Olivares, the kindergarten teacher at Eastern Elementary, sat in one of these meetings in late May. Denise Owens, the school's LETRS ambassador, led the group of teachers in a discussion about why understanding the structure of students' home languages and dialects is important to reading instruction.

It's important to know these features, she said, so that when a student's pronunciation differs from standard English, teachers can figure out whether it's due to their language background or whether it might be indicative of a phonological processing problem.

"They may not need that extra intervention service," Owens continued. "We want to make sure we're looking at that carefully, and not just the number or score."

This new information-and help translating it to practice-has been valuable for Monica Littlefield, one of Olivares' colleagues who teaches 1st grade at Eastern. So far, LETRS has been most helpful for her work with English-language learners, Littlefield said.

She learned that Spanish has fewer vowel sounds than English does and that English learners can struggle to identify two different sounds in English that are pronounced the same way in Spanish. This year, she had a boy in her class who had trouble distinguishing vowel sounds for e and i. The training helped her take a step back and understand why this student, a native Spanish speaker, might be confused. "To him, those vowels sounded very similar," she said.

Olivares, too, has started applying pieces of what he's learned in LETRS training. But he still feels like he can't see the entire picture yet.

Years ago, when he started teaching guided reading, a representative from the curriculum his school used came to show teachers how to use the framework in a small group. Olivares wants something like that for LETRS, too.

"My ideal situation would be that our curriculum coach, or even district literacy coaches, would come into our school, sit all of us down, and say: 'This is what a small group lesson is going to look like using the science of reading. These are the lesson plans for a small group lesson. These are the resources we're going to pull from. This is how we understand the data,'" Olivares said.

Then, there's the need for classroom materials. Over his dozen years in the classroom, he's bought resources with his own money to support guided reading, and it's unclear whether they can be modified or used to support the new literacy approach.

"What happens with that now?" he asked.

A scramble to retrofit curriculum

Olivares' predicament is one districts all over North Carolina are now wrestling with: how the materials used for teaching can support and deepen the new training rather than subverting it. Curriculum is critical-for the discrete word-identification part of early reading, but also for the much lengthier, yearslong work of building students' knowledge and comprehension across a wide range of texts.

"We can train teachers up all day long, but if they don't have the materials they need to then put that training into action in the classroom, we've missed that mark," said Katharine Bonasera, a manager of educational partnerships at the Center for the Collaborative Classroom.

Districts must use core curriculum and intervention materials that are aligned to the science of reading, which they must phase in over the course of the next three years. But unlike other states, North Carolina has not put out a list of approved materials, citing local control.

This leaves districts with a few decisions: Do they buy new products, or try to work with what they have? Do they wait to roll out new curricula until they get formal approval from the state, or start making changes now? Adding to those questions there's a new one, a product of last year's culture wars: A science of reading framework calls for students to engage deeply with a variety of texts. But what happens when those texts become the target of political backlash to curricula that teach about equity, diversity, and inclusion?

Cabarrus County, a district in the Charlotte area, is starting with a few homegrown solutions.

As it transitions away from Lucy Calkins' Units of Study for Reading, a popular guided reading curriculum, the district has created an evolving, shared guidebook for small group instruction. As leaders and coaches see strong examples of classroom activities aligned to the science of reading, they include them in the guidebook for other teachers to reference.

Liz Schriver, an intervention coach in the district, took pictures of a few of her students making different vowel sounds with their mouths and posted them on the wall in a "vowel valley" for other students to reference. She gathered manipulatives for students to use during phonemic awareness practice-like magnetic chips that kids could use to represent each sound in a word-and started using them in intervention groups.

Those materials support LETRS training, but Schriver didn't push these things on the teachers she coached.

"I never said, 'Come look at the things that I'm doing!' Because that wouldn't have worked," she said. Instead, she waited for other teachers to come to her with questions-something that happened when they saw her intervention students having success in their classes.

But she's figuring out a way to repurpose the collection of leveled texts, too. "We really don't need to buy all new and abandon everything," she said.

Other districts are further along. In Wake County, the biggest district in North Carolina, district leaders completed a curriculum audit in 2016 that ended in system-wide adoption of new ELA materials. So it already had a phonics program and an ELA curriculum designed around developing bodies of knowledge-learning deeply about certain topics and then writing and presenting on those topics.

Wake put together a guide that showed educators here how the LETRS training fit into the materials schools were already using.

When the district moved away from guided reading several years ago, "we had to replace it with something," said Sherri Miller, the principal of Lacy Elementary in Wake County, and the district's former K-12 literacy director. "It took giving teachers another language comprehension curriculum that got them away from the leveled readers."

Staci Pollock, a 2nd grade teacher at Lacy, said that she's already made new connections from LETRS to the district's curriculum. But she thinks that, as a whole, her school is farther along on its understanding of what makes for good foundational skills instruction than good comprehension instruction, in part because the curriculum for the former is more straightforward and user-friendly.

In part, this is a difference between constrained and unconstrained skills, said Gina Cervetti, an associate professor of education at the University of Michigan who studies the intersection of literacy and content-area learning.

Most foundational skills are bounded. Once students learn how different sounds represent different letters, they're done. Reading comprehension isn't like that.

"You can get a kind of easy win with phonics instruction, because decoding is a fairly constrained skill. Kids can learn it with relative ease and relatively quickly. Moving the needle on comprehension, moving the needle on language, those are things that become increasingly complicated," she said.

That's why, even in the early years, reading instruction needs to be integrated, Cervetti said. Learning the code of written language is critical, but so is having rich conversations to develop students' oral language, vocabulary, and critical thinking-even before they can read text. "You can never say enough that ... decoding is only half the story," Cervetti said.

Developing students' understanding about the world is a key component of the science of reading, said Miller, the Lacy principal. And it's one that she thinks is lost in some of the decisions that legislators are making.

The curriculum her school uses covers social issues throughout-climate change, civil rights, women's rights. The resources used to explore these topics are "powerful, great texts that get kids thinking critically and seeing a different perspective on things," Miller said.

But the same lawmakers who have championed evidence-based literacy instruction-which includes rich curriculum-are trying to circumscribe some of the choices. Senate Leader Phil Berger, the Republican who sponsored the 2021 reading law, told Education Week in a statement that it's "unnecessary to insert woke dogma" into reading comprehension efforts.

Miller says the kind of issues Wake's curriculum covers need to be part of that frame.

"If you think about, what do we want of our students to be literate, what it all means, it's not just reading and writing and speaking and listening," Miller said. "It's being able to think and understand different perspectives."

A year ends with more questions than answers

What it all comes down to in North Carolina after a year of intensive training is this: Many school leaders and teachers still feel like they're in the beginning stages of a huge shift in both instructional practice and culture.

They're left with big questions: Who will help teachers make these changes and refine their practice? How do schools create a culture where these shifts persist, even as staff come and go? Is it sustainable to keep asking for more from teachers as the effects of the pandemic continue to ricochet through schools?

The answers may not come for a while. For one thing, the new legislation won't be fully implemented until the 2024-25 school year and it will take even longer for academic improvements to materialize. "Anything in education, it takes three to five years," said Amy Rhyne, the state department of public instruction's director of early literacy.

For another, the pandemic adds a layer of uncertainty to interpreting results. Many school leaders and teachers observed greater than normal growth in their students this year after using the new methods. But this was also the first year spent mostly in the classroom since the beginning of COVID. It's almost impossible to tease out those two variables.

"How are we thinking about measurement and evaluation of these efforts when we have a new baseline?" Woulfin, the implementation science researcher, asked. "What needs to be adapted, accounted for to account for this new reality?"

The pandemic has also introduced fears about higher-than-average teacher turnover-and the effect that might have on the implementation of new practices, especially after LETRS training ends in 2024. "We're putting training into people, but that training can walk out the door," said Bonasera, of the Center for the Collaborative Classroom.

Part of that sustainability challenge will fall to districts, as a consequence of teacher turnover. But part of it falls to the state's teacher-preparation programs. Some instructors are also taking LETRS now, and they're redesigning their own courses, said Monica Campbell, a professor of education at Lenoir-Rhyne University in Hickory, N.C. But it's going to be a process.

"The main concern is being able to complete the professional development in the amount of time that we have, and to really be able to take it in and think about it and talk about it, and process it," she said. "Program redesign is never simple. These things take a lot of time and energy."

Energy is what Olivares, the kindergarten teacher, is trying to muster for the summer ahead.

He feels drained from this past school year. He spent extra time on the weekends doing his assignments for LETRS training, sacrificing precious time with his wife and three kids. He felt like he put his role as "dad" on the back burner for a while, he said. And he doesn't anticipate things slowing down anytime soon.

He's starting grad school in the fall, and along with the other teachers at his school, he'll be completing four units of LETRS next year. Even so, he sought out another summer PD course to take, which promises to give him concrete strategies for applying the science of reading in his classroom that he doesn't feel like he has yet.

Stress and anxiety are starting to bubble up when Olivares thinks about the next few months, but he doesn't want to leave this opportunity on the table. He wants to move beyond the same question that he feels like he's been asking himself since the beginning of the year.

"You can read all about it, but how do you truly apply it?" Olivares said again.

For right now, at least, he feels like he has no choice but to figure that out by himself.

Sarah Schwartz is a reporter for Education Week who covers curriculum and instruction.

A version of this article appeared in the August 17, 2022 edition of Education Week as Why Putting The 'Science Of Reading' Into Practice Is So Challenging

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why Putting the 'Science of Reading' Into Practice Is So Challenging

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Philosophical disagreements, a rushed rollout, and a lack of ready-to-use materials have complicated one state's journey.

# data[].attributes.headline
The "Multiverse" of the Science of Reading

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The "Multiverse" of the Science of Reading

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The "Multiverse" of the Science of Reading | NEA

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With 40 states and D.C. establishing laws and policies around evidence-based instruction, the Science of Reading continues to be a trending topic in education.

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Can Scarborough’s Reading Rope Transform the Approach to Literacy Instruction?

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The Science of Reading uncovers the intricate ways that our brains learn to read. Scarborough’s Reading Rope is one of the most approachable ways to better understand the complex processes of what is happening in our brains as we are learning to read.

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Jan Hasbrouck (Author), Carolyn Denton (Author)

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The Reading Coach: A How-to Manual for Success

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Amazon.com: The Reading Coach: A How-to Manual for Success: 9781593184070: Jan Hasbrouck, Carolyn Denton: Books

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Supporting Teachers to Thrive: Exploring the Impact of School Climate and Teacher Self-efficacy on Teacher Stress

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In this explanatory sequential mixed methods study, I explored the relationship between school climate, teacher self-efficacy (TSE), and teacher stress in a sample of high school teachers in Western Canada. I collected quantitative (Phase 1) and qualitative (Phase 2) data. For the quantitative phase, 61 teachers completed questionnaires that measured the variables under study. I sought to understand the relationship between teacher stress, school climate, and TSE through correlations, moderation, and multiple regression. Quantitative results suggested no significant moderation effect of TSE between school climate factors (i.e., collaboration, student relations, school resources, decision-making and instructional innovation) and stress. However, when controlling for school climate, teachers’ self-efficacy had a significant negative effect on stress. Post hoc analyses also identified that teachers’ sense of student relations, instructional innovation, and collaboration predicted higher levels of TSE. The quantitative results informed the qualitative phase through the creation of a semi-structured interview. I interviewed five teachers by asking questions that explored their stress appraisal process (positive and negative) from a Cognitive Theory of Stress and Coping perspective and the role school climate and TSE played in this appraisal process. Consistent with quantitative findings, themes I identified through reflexive thematic analysis (TA) suggested that TSE acts as a protective factor against teacher threat appraisals by fostering a sense of control within an environment of collaboration and support. Teachers perceived various contextual factors as sources of threat appraisals, such as the unpredictable demands of addressing student needs and meeting instructional and assessment benchmarks in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. My study’s findings may inform policy and teaching practice to support educators in schools. By gathering quantitative and qualitative insights into how teachers appraise stressful situations and the transactions that they find challenging or harmful in a Canadian school context, this information can help school psychologists and school leaders foster TSE as a protective factor against stress.

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Hands-on resources for new and seasoned school coaches

This practical resource offers the foundational skills and tools needed by new coaching educators, as well as presenting an overview of the knowledge and theory base behind the practice. Established coaches will find numerous ways to deepen and refine their coaching practice. Principals and others who incorporate coaching strategies into their work will also find a wealth of resources.

Aguilar offers a model for transformational coaching which could be implemented as professional development in schools or districts anywhere. Although she addresses the needs of adult learners, her model maintains a student-centered focus, with a specific lens on addressing equity issues in schools.

Offers a practical resource for school coaches, principals, district leaders, and other administrators

Presents a transformational coaching model which addresses systems change

Pays explicit attention to surfacing and interrupting inequities in schools

The Art of Coaching: Effective Strategies for School Transformation offers a compendium of school coaching ideas, the book's explicit, user-friendly structure enhances the ability to access the information.

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The Art of Coaching: Effective Strategies for School Transformation

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The Art of Coaching: Effective Strategies for School Transformation [Aguilar, Elena] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. The Art of Coaching: Effective Strategies for School Transformation

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CEA survey reveals burnout, pay, top concerns of teachers

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Teacher Burnout Statistics: Why Educators Quit — Schools That Lead

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Burnout causes teachers to quit. Remedies include creating a supportive network, reducing workloads, and providing professional growth options.

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Teacher Burnout: Causes, Statistics, and Solutions [Definitive Guide]

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Teacher burnout is a serious and growing problem within the education sector, significantly impacting both teachers and their students. It’s not just a

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Verifying you are human. This may take a few seconds.

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Teacher Stress: A Crisis Ignored | Lisa Sanetti | TEDxUConn

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Stress and exhaustion is pushing too many out of the profession, but it's not up to educators to find better ways to "cope." The responsibility to improve working conditions lies with those lawmakers and officials who dictate what a teacher's day looks like.

Key Takeaways

1. Many school districts are still struggling with staff shortages and more educators are feeling burned out and demoralized.

2. Higher pay always helps with teacher retention, but improving working conditions-student behavior especially-has moved to the forefront of educators' concerns.

3. Lawmakers have not done enough to alleviate the crushing workload and undue stress that is pushing too many teachers out of the profession. Educators and their unions are working to change that.

Joe Holloway remembers when, not too long ago, public school educators were regarded as heroes.

Soon after in-person learning resumed, the national conversation around schools and educators turned bleak, polluted by "culture war" propaganda and anti-public education rhetoric that has only intensified over the past few months. School districts have been destabilized by severe staff shortages and more educators are considered leaving.

Meanwhile, says Holloway, "more and more has been asked of us. it doesn't seem to stop."

Higher salaries will always be a top priority , but better pay can't completely reduce the elevated levels of stress and anxiety that has plagued the teaching profession over the past decade, if not longer. The pressure of the job and the impact it has been having on educators and students hasn't been adequately acknowledged, let alone addressed.

That's why Holloway joined other members of the Connecticut Education Association (CEA) and elected officials at a press conference last November to spotlight educator burnout. They urged state lawmakers to step up and allocate sufficient funding to mitigate the factors that are pushing educators to exhaustion, hopelessness, and an early exit from the profession.

"Teaching has become mentally, emotionally and physically exhausting," says Elsa Batista, a world language teacher in Newington, Conn., who also spoke to reporters. "We are strong, resilient, and creative, but we need support, we need help in our classrooms. Right now, that's not happening, and we cannot afford to lose more teachers."

A Major Public Health Challenge

The authors called stress and burnout a "major public health challenge confronting the education system as teachers are essential individuals supporting children and youth in their formative years."

A continued failure to understand the factors that lead to high teacher turnover, such as teacher stress and burnout, is creating a ripple effect, explains Wendy Reinke, a University of Missouri professor in school psychology and co-author of study .

"If teachers struggle, instruction suffers, and students don't learn as they should," Reinke explains. "When there aren't enough teachers, schools may hire uncertified staff or increase class sizes, making effective instruction and learning less likely. Disruptive behavior also spreads-kids in disorderly classrooms carry those habits into the next grade."

"Burnout" has become a ubiquitous term, but it's likely not the most accurate word to describe what educators have been enduring . (Doris Santoro, professor of education at Bodoiwn College prefers "demoralization.") "Burnout" can imply some sort of weakness or deficit on the part of the individual educator and an inability to cope-a form of victim-blaming. This point of view can lead to an abundant supply of unhelpful self-help strategies.

For many educators, using the most precise word isn't as important as understanding the root causes.

Burnout is a systemic problem, and the burden is not on the individual educator to prove they can navigate through the enormous pressure placed on them, says Kim Kneller, a science teacher in Allentown, Penn. "People should take care of themselves, but you can't just yoga, breathe, and self-care yourself out of burnout."

Kneller, who in 2024 wrote her doctoral dissertation on teacher burnout, says the focus should be on the workplace. "The people that dictate what our daily lives look like-that's where there needs to be more awareness and accountability."

'Just One More Thing Added to our Plate'

"We want to work with all stakeholders on these issues," Joe Holloway says. "But teachers having more say in curriculum is a big sign of respect. The fact that politicians are making these decisions is preposterous."

"I think [working conditions] are probably everyone's number one," says Kneller. "Everyone I know that has left has not left because of money. They've left because of something that happened to them in their place of work. They just put a boundary down, or they felt like they were mistreated. It could be the constantly changing expectations."

Not only has the workload increased exponentially, so has micromanagement, says Nicholas Cream, a social studies teacher in Holyoke, Mass.

"It's always just one more thing added to our plate. And when it comes to our classrooms, we're not really trusted to do what we know will work for our students" Cream says. "If you don't have every single minute of your class planned out, it is seen as a problem."

Cream, who is also president of the Holyoke Teachers Association, says it sometimes feels like teachers are being "pushed out, not burned out."

And when schools adopt new technologies to ostensibly help educators do their jobs, the results can backfire. A 2024 study by Auburn University found that if new learning platforms such as Canvas or Schoology were introduced removing old requirements, teachers reported higher levels of burnout. "Instead of being used to replace old ways of completing tasks, the learning management systems were simply another thing on teachers' plates," the researchers reported.

As more tasks and responsibilities are added, the profession has been transformed-and not for the better, says Becky Bissegger, an elementary school teacher in Salt Lake City.

"School isn't fun. By that, I mean engaging for students and rewarding for educators. It's the opposite. It's like boot camp for a lot of students." Bissegger says.

The toxic political climate and attacks on public education that have intensified in recent months have only exacerbated an already tense and trying environment.

"Teachers feel that there's an anti-public ed sentiment out there," Janet Sanders, a teacher in Herriman, UT told reporters in January. "It feels like we're being persecuted... We just feel threatened, and we feel for our students because we know that they will not be well served."

The Challenges Over Student Behavior

"Our students are coming into school every day with greater needs in every aspect of their lives, including around their mental health. But the support just isn't there to help teachers and staff," said Bissegger.

"That doesn't surprise me," says Nicholas Cream. "COVID changed a lot. With everything students bring into the space, you just cannot know how things are going hit or how hard a day is going to be."

Cream also suspects that the ongoing struggle over cellphones in the classroom has helped push behavioral concerns to the forefront of job stressors.

"We're all dealing with it. Students are addicted to these devices. But we're told we're the ones who must enforce the rules. Again, it all accumulates. We're all being weighed down by this daily work that has little to do with real teaching," Cream explains.

Changing the Narrative

Educators nationwide have voiced their support for clear and enforceable cell phone policies and, through their union, have successfully pushed districts to act. On other working conditions issues, including class size and more planning time, collective bargaining has proven time and time again to be an effective tool for educators.

In 2024, the Massachusetts Teachers' Association (MTA) was instrumental in a successful statewide ballot initiative in which voters decided to end the use of MCAS, a high-stakes standardized test, as a requirement for graduation . MTA President Max Page said lifting the graduation requirement will help improve working conditions by giving teachers more freedom in the classroom. "This creativity attracts students to the teaching profession and encourages them to stay," he said.

Educators are financially strapped, so higher pay is very important. But we also want to have safe, stable learning environments, and we want people to trust and have faith that we can do the job that we've been hired to do.

-Nicholas Cream , President of the Holyoke Teachers Association

Addressing the conditions that force too many educators to exit the profession is also the responsibility of lawmakers, who can prioritize long-term funding for public schools, along with the policies that Joe Holloway says, "can revitalize respect for this profession."

In January, on the eve of the new legislative session, the Utah Education Association (UEA) presented its own member survey of top educator concerns . "The results are clear," said UEA President Renée Pinkney. "Educators are calling on lawmakers to prioritize funding for long-term staffing solutions; reduce stress and burnout and provide behavioral health resources."

Changing the conversation about burnout to focus on the systemic, rather than individual, solutions is a positive first step, says Cream, especially in a treacherous political climate.

"I do think the narrative is changing, but we're still losing educators... We have people here that are really committed to their communities and to the young people that they serve. But we want to feel like we are trusted and cared about and given the tools and resources we need to succeed."

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Stress and exhaustion is pushing too many out of the profession, but it's not up to educators to find better ways to "cope." The responsibility to improve working conditions lies with those lawmakers and officials who dictate what a teacher's day looks like.

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Teacher Stress and Burnout Top Concerns in Connecticut Schools

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New CEA survey finds continuing challenges with student behavioral issues, insufficient pay, and lack of respect contributing to teacher shortage

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This issue brief describes the impact of various stressors on teachers and how those pressures can create a cycle of stress in the classroom that negatively affects student learning, and provides a series of recommendations aimed at ensuring teachers have opportunities for social and emotional development.

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Penny's situation was a familiar one for educators.

The middle school math teacher worried she was burned out. Her district had instituted an intense new set of math curriculum standards without providing resources to cover those lessons. She was constantly sick from the mold in her classroom, but when she reported it to administrators, they only painted over the mold. Rather than run serious student-disciplinary issues up the chain, her principal sent students back to class as if nothing had happened.

And Penny was beleaguered by parents who made ridiculous requests, such as "My children like it when their teachers attend their sports events. Your attendance at all of the attached games would be appreciated" and "Did you get the homework out of Brentley's locker?"

Historically, teachers' rates of "job strain," stress from high demand/low control work, are higher than the average rate of all workers. A joint American Federation of Teachers and Badass Teachers Association survey revealed that almost two-thirds of educators find work "always" or "often" stressful.

The media often use the phrase "teacher burnout" to describe educators' stress, exhaustion, and overwork. But after interviewing hundreds of teachers nationwide for my book The Teachers: A Year Inside America's Most Vulnerable, Important Profession, I believe "teacher burnout" is a myth-and the term should be ditched.

Experts have identified several causes of teacher burnout, including inadequate workplace support and resources; unmanageable workload; high-stakes testing; time pressure; unsupported, disruptive students; and a wide variety of student needs without the resources to meet them. Penny, whom I followed for a year for the book, experienced all of these issues, as do many teachers.

Coverage of teacher stress and burnout often emphasizes the negative effects of teachers' stress on students. Pennsylvania State University researchers described a "burnout cascade" with "devastating effects on classroom relationships, management, and climate," in which burned-out teachers become emotionally exhausted, can't manage "troublesome student behaviors," and quit. Or, the researchers claimed, surprisingly specifically, that teachers cope "by maintaining a rigid classroom climate enforced by hostile and sometimes harsh measures [while] bitterly working at a suboptimal level of performance until retirement." Authors of a 2020 study concluded that, "as hypothesized," students viewed teachers reporting higher levels of burnout as "significantly less socially and emotionally competent."

As I read those examples of teacher burnout literature, I was dogged by an unsettled feeling: While researchers mostly seemed sympathetic to teachers, their conclusions sometimes portrayed educators in a way I found disconcerting. Then I read two relatively splashy studies that crystallized what bothered me. A Belgian study warned of " burnout contagion," in which teachers can "catch" burnout from colleagues. The researchers concluded that because teachers in close coworker relationships exhibited similar levels of burnout, their study "indeed demonstrated that burnout is-to some extent-contagious."

In another paper, University of British Columbia researchers said that teachers experiencing higher burnout levels had students with higher morning cortisol levels. They called this transference "stress contagion," claiming, "it is possible that spending most of the school day in interaction with a stressed and burned-out teacher is taxing for students and can affect their physiological stress profile." The resulting media headlines further sensationalized the issue. A Quartz website article, titled "Classroom Contagion: Stress in the classroom can be as contagious as the flu," discussed "stressed teachers propagating at-risk students by 'infecting' them with elevated cortisol."

But the authors of the stress contagion study didn't test the same students' cortisol levels with a control teacher who was not, as they put it, "stressed and burned out." The students may have stressed out the teachers, rather than the other way around. Or, more likely, school conditions were stressing out both teachers and students alike, and the teachers were being blamed.

The takeaways instead depicted teacher burnout as a contagion that brought down coworkers and students, with teachers as the disease vectors. Rather than address the root causes stressing out teachers in the first place-insufficient classroom resources, support staff and administrative support; lack of input into decisions; unpaid overtime; high-stakes testing; and lack of disciplinary and other policy enforcement, all of which make a teacher's job harder and a student's experience worse-the messages scapegoated educators who are put in the impossible position of being ordered to meet shifting and expanding expectations by districts that don't give them the tools necessary to do so. Burned-out teachers aren't "significantly less socially and emotionally competent." They're handicapped by lousy school systems, ignorant officials, or out-of-touch administrators.

The premise of teacher burnout is a convenient fiction that blames teachers for not being able to cope rather than faulting school systems that set both teachers and students up to fail. This line of thinking isn't meant to diminish educators' thoroughly justified feelings of helplessness, stress, sadness, anxiety, frustration, and exhaustion. But let's shift blame to where blame is due. Instead of presenting the problem as teachers having high or even the highest burnout levels of all U.S. industries, as a 2022 Gallup poll found, we should reframe the issue: School systems are the employers worst at providing necessary supports and resources for employees.

Bowdoin College education professor Doris Santoro also determined that "teacher burnout" is an inaccurate diagnosis that causes school leaders to tell teachers to learn how to relax. "It is the term most commonly used to refer to teachers who appear unhappy in their jobs, say they've considered quitting, or seem resistant to adopt the latest reform initiative," Santoro wrote in the Phi Delta Kappan. She prefers the term "teacher demoralization."

Telling teachers to relax doesn't cut it. A meta-analysis of 20 years of studies of the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing teacher burnout, including strategies such as therapy, mindfulness and relaxation, concluded that "intervention effectiveness is generally small."

Instead of asking teachers to do the impossible and calling them "burned out" when they can't, school leaders should fix the underlying causes-school climate, staffing numbers, and resources-not just to prevent employee demoralization, but because that's how a proper workplace should operate.

"Looking back, I wasn't burned out," Penny told me last month. "Our school was just a mess."

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Teachers Aren't Burnt Out. They Are Being Set Up to Fail (Opinion)

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Instead of scapegoating teachers, let's look at the real causes of workplace stress and demoralization, writes best-selling author and teacher Alexandra Robbins.

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How to Coach a Teacher in Crisis (Opinion)

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Elena Aguilar shares 14 things to do when a teacher is in crisis mode—and four things not to do.

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Yet another survey confirms: Teachers and principals are stressed and burned out-and more than a quarter are experiencing symptoms of depression.

In fact, educators navigating pandemic-era schooling are faring worse than other working adults these days. That's according to a new nationally representative RAND Corporation survey of 2,360 teachers and 1,540 principals, conducted in January. The researchers fielded the same questions to a nationally representative sample of working adults to compare results and found that educators have worse well-being on all five of the indicators in the survey.

Nearly three-fourths of teachers and 85 percent of principals are experiencing frequent job-related stress, compared to just a third of working adults. Fifty-nine percent of teachers and 48 percent of principals say they're burned out, compared to 44 percent of other workers.

A silver lining? Most educators say they're coping well with job-related stress. And just under half of teachers and two-thirds of principals report being resilient, meaning they bounce back quickly after stressful or hard times.

In interviews, many educators "talked about how they still find great joy in their work," said Elizabeth Steiner, a policy researcher at RAND and a co-author of the report. "They don't want to leave teaching, but they find the context [in which they are teaching] stressful."

About one-third of teachers and principals said they were likely to leave their current job by the end of this school year, up from when RAND last surveyed educators in early 2021. Teachers of color were more likely to say they intended to leave than white teachers-41 percent compared to 31 percent.

District leaders and policymakers have been concerned about the possibility of educators leaving en masse at the end of this stressful school year. However, previous research suggests not everyone who says they'll leave will actually do so. A prepandemic analysis found that just one-third of teachers who indicated they would leave the profession as soon as possible actually did so.

And the RAND researchers estimated that only 19 percent of principals who reported on a previous survey that they intended to leave their jobs before the end of the 2020-21 school year resigned by fall 2021.

Even so, the researchers noted that district leaders should still take seriously teachers' and principals' intent to leave. Educators who experienced frequent job-related stress, burnout, symptoms of depression, and who were not coping well with stressors were more likely to say they intended to quit, they found.

"The intention-to-leave measure is still a very, very important indicator of job satisfaction," said Sy Doan, an associate policy researcher at RAND and a co-author of the report. "Despite the fact that it is an overestimate, ... it relates a lot to the general theme of educator well-being."

Educators are under a lot of stress

The new research broadly echoes past EdWeek Research Center data showing that teacher job satisfaction appears to be at an all-time low as their stress levels have skyrocketed since the start of the pandemic. While most schools were open for in-person learning this academic year, teachers still had to navigate staffing shortages, COVID-19 quarantines, interruptions in student learning, an uptick in misbehavior, and political tensions over what is taught in schools.

The RAND survey found that the top-ranked sources of job-related stress among teachers were:

Supporting their students' academic learning because they lost instructional time during the pandemic (47 percent),

Managing student behavior (29 percent),

Taking on extra work because of staff shortages (25 percent),

Supporting students' mental health and well-being (24 percent),

Spending too many hours working (23 percent), and

Having a salary that's too low (22 percent).

The top-ranked sources of job-related stress among principals were:

Staffing teaching and nonteaching positions at their school (56 percent),

Supporting teachers' and staff's mental health and well-being (44 percent),

Supporting students' academic learning because of lost instructional time (34 percent),

Supporting students' mental health and well-being (32 percent), and

Implementing COVID-19 mitigation strategies (31 percent).

Female teachers and principals were more likely to experience frequent job-related stress than their male counterparts, the survey found, perhaps due to child-care responsibilities, which disproportionately fall to women.

Also, Hispanic teachers-who make up about 9 percent of the workforce-were more likely to report poor well-being than any other teachers. One-third of Hispanic teachers experienced symptoms of depression compared with a quarter of non-Hispanic teachers. That difference remained significant even after the researchers controlled for the demographic characteristics of their schools.

The RAND survey, which over-sampled educators of color, also found that nearly half of principals of color and 36 percent of teachers of color said they experienced at least one incident of racial discrimination on the job this year. Those incidents include being held to a different set of standards and expectations than their peers because of their race or ethnicity; experiencing verbal or nonverbal microaggressions at school; and having people act as though they were uncomfortable approaching them because of their race.

Seventy percent of principals who experienced racial discrimination said that parents and family members of students were the source, while 56 percent of teachers who experienced such discrimination pointed to fellow staff as the culprits.

Both teachers and principals of color who work in schools in which at least half the teaching staff were people of color were less likely than their peers to report experiencing racial discrimination. Nationally, nearly 80 percent of teachers and 78 percent of principals are white.

Lean into timely mental health supports, researchers say

The RAND study found that positive school environments-in which educators are involved in decisionmaking and feel supported-are linked with better educator well-being and a decreased likelihood of leaving. Teachers and principals told RAND researchers that positive relationships with their colleagues help them cope with the stresses of their jobs.

District leaders should try to facilitate those positive relationships, paying close attention to the needs of educators of color, the RAND report says.

And districts should offer mental health supports, the researchers said. Twenty percent of principals and 35 percent of teachers said they either didn't have access to employer-provided mental health supports or didn't know whether they had access.

Sometimes, district offerings aren't convenient or are too limited to meet educators' needs, the researchers noted. For example, Steiner said that teachers complained in interviews that district wellness programs would start well after school ended, and they needed to get home or spend time grading and lesson-planning.

"There seemed to be a disconnect between what teachers and principals needed or found helpful and what districts are offering," she said.

An EdWeek Research Center survey, conducted in January and February, found that the most common step among school and district leaders to address staff mental health needs was offering professional development on self-care. But many teachers say sessions on superficial self-care-like breathing exercises, yoga, and reminders to take a bubble bath or go for a walk- are no substitute for the kind of broader, systemic change that would keep them from feeling that their jobs have become untenable.

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Stress, Burnout, Depression: Teachers and Principals Are Not Doing Well, New Data Confirm

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Yet another survey confirms: Teachers and principals are stressed and burned out-and more than a quarter are experiencing symptoms of depression. In fact, educators navigating pandemic-era schooling are faring worse than other working adults these days. That's according to a new nationally representative RAND Corporation survey of 2,360 teachers and 1,540 principals, conducted in January.

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Coaching Increases Teacher Retention – Digital Promise

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Each year, around 16 percent of U.S. teachers either move schools or leave the profession entirely,…

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Instructional Coaching - Instructional Coaching - Coaching Burnout

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Recently I received an email asking about coaching burnout. As I almost always do when I get a tou…

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'My Empathy Felt Drained': Educators Struggle With Compassion Fatigue | NEA

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With mental health in the national spotlight, experts worry that the impact of compassion fatigue and secondary traumatic stress on educators is being left out of the conversation.

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Children’s Literacy Initiative - Why Coaching is Key to Teacher Retention and Literacy Success

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Job-embedded coaching is the key to teacher retention and literacy success. By providing real-time support, fostering collaboration, and improving instruction, coaching helps educators thrive while driving student achievement. Learn how CLI’s coaching model transforms classrooms and communities.

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Offered by our Community Health team, the series of four classes is designed to introduce teachers to the ways trauma affects the brain, stress the importance of

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6 Core Principles of Trauma-Informed Care

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6 Core Principles of Trauma-Informed Care

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The 6 Core Principles of Trauma-Informed Care | REACH

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The 6 core principles of trauma-informed care lay the groundwork for effective trauma therapy. Find out how REACH Ohio can help you overcome your trauma.

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Understanding and mitigating the effects of secondary traumatic stress for educators

Roughly half of American school children have experienced at least some form of trauma - from neglect, to abuse, to violence. In response, educators often find themselves having to take on the role of counselors, supporting the emotional healing of their students, not just their academic growth.

With this evolving role comes an increasing need to understand and address the ways in which student trauma affects our education professionals.

In a growing number of professions, including firefighters, law enforcement, trauma doctors and nurses, child welfare workers, and therapists and case managers, it is now understood that working with people in trauma - hearing their stories of hardship and supporting their recovery - has far-reaching emotional effect on the provider.

The condition has numerous names: secondary traumatic stress (STS), vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue. The symptoms are similar in some ways to post-traumatic stress disorder: withdrawing from friends and family; feeling unexplainably irritable or angry or numb; inability to focus; blaming others; feeling hopeless or isolated or guilty about not doing enough; struggling to concentrate; being unable to sleep; overeating or not eating enough; and continually and persistently worrying about students, at when they're at home and even in their sleep.

But while STS is now well understood in many helping professions, there is a dearth of research, understanding, or acknowledgement of how it affects educators, according to Stephen P. Hydon, a clinical professor at the University of Southern California. One of the handful of studies of STS in schools found that more than 200 staff surveyed from across six schools reported very high levels of STS.

Teachers, counselors, and administrators may recognize the cumulative stressors that they face, but they don't always realize that their symptoms are a common reaction to working with traumatized children - and that these symptoms have a name.

STS can affect teachers' happiness, health, and professional practice. But Betsy McAlister Groves, a clinical social worker and former faculty member at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, says that she has often been surprised by the number of teachers, school counselors, and administrators who recognized the cumulative stressors that they faced in their schools but did not realize that their symptoms were a common reaction to working with traumatized children - and that these symptoms had a name.

For the success of their students and the health and success of their educators, it is essential for schools to acknowledge, appreciate, and address the reality and impact of STS head on.

How Schools Can Acknowledge Secondary Trauma
Building a Culture of Awareness
The very acknowledgement by school leaders that teachers might be experiencing STS is a step in the right direction. Too often, teachers feel that they are working alone. For teachers experiencing STS, this can be particularly dangerous, as it can easily exacerbate feelings of being overwhelmed, isolated, and hopeless.

School leadership should consider ways to appreciate staff both publicly and privately - not just by recognizing great work, but also by acknowledging that the work is difficult. Schools should connect school staff who might be experiencing STS with resources and make clear that symptoms are not a sign of weakness, but an indicator that they might need support because they work in an challenging profession.

School leaders should consider ways to appreciate staff both publicly and privately - not just by recognizing great work, but also by acknowledging that the work is difficult.

Create Peer Groups
We know that ensuring that teachers have dedicated time to work together - to build curriculum, share lesson ideas, and strategize about how best to support individual students - often results in improved academic success of students. Peer groups can be equally effective when trying to address the mental health of educators.

Peer support groups are an effective strategy to combat STS in other helping professions. Schools should replicate this practice, creating a regular space (maybe once a month, or even once a week) where teachers can come together to check in with each other about how they are doing emotionally. If possible, these meetings should be supported by a mental health professional, and teachers should get to share their experiences, learn strategies for understanding their stress responses, and gain skills to cope with STS.

Trauma-Informed Schools
School leaders should take a school-wide approach. There is a growing movement around creating trauma-aware schools - schools that recognize and are prepared to support community members affected by trauma and traumatic stress. Such schools deeply integrate social-emotional learning into their teaching, culture, and approach, understanding that the holistic health and wellbeing of their charges is essential for achieving academic success. To do this, trauma-informed schools focus on fostering a supportive caring culture, training their entire staff to recognize and support students suffering trauma.

While centered on supporting the emotional care and wellbeing of students, trauma-informed schools, by their nature, foster communities where educators have the understanding and tools to recognize and address STS in themselves and each other.

Resource for teachers and schools

Assess how your work as an educator might be affecting you (both positively and negatively) by using the Professional Quality of Life (ProQOL) self-assessment tool and exploring the toolkit created by Teaching Tolerance to learn self-care strategies.

Learn how, as an educator, you can begin to identify secondary traumatic stress and learn strategies for self care through the tip sheet created by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network.

Explore the resources created by the Trauma and Learning Policy Initiative, a collaboration between the Massachusetts Advocates for Children and the Harvard Law School.

How strong are your school's trauma-responsive programs and policies? Take the 20-minute evidence-informed Trauma Responsive Schools Implementation Assessment to find out - and learn ways to grow your school's work.

Learn about additional individual and organization strategies for addressing secondary traumatic stress, compiled by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

A framework for creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools, from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network.

A video about getting started with trauma-informed practices.

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Helping Teachers Manage the Weight of Trauma

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Understanding and mitigating the effects of secondary traumatic stress for educators Roughly half of American school children have experienced at least some form of trauma - from neglect, to abuse, to violence. In response, educators often find themselves having to take on the role of counselors, supporting the emotional healing of their students, not just their academic growth.

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How can school leaders end the burnout crisis? Here are 10 strategies for reducing burnout in your school or district.
In this third and final installment on our series on teacher burnout, you'll learn how to reduce burnout and improve teacher retention - leading to not only happy educators but also better academic outcomes for students.
Table of Contents

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. 2. Solutions to Educator Burnout
Mental Fitness as a Means of Addressing Burnout Mindfulness and Meditation Training Cognitive Behavior Therapy Emotional Intelligence Training Instructional Coaching Improving Student Discipline Enhanced Administrative Support Increased Teacher Autonomy Engaging Teachers in the Right Conversations
10.
Positive Behavior Supports Applications Instructional Coaching and Support Applications

Giving Teachers Choices About Teacher Burnout Care
Software Supports Conclusion
References

Solutions to Educator Burnout

Solving the educator burnout problem is a challenging endeavor, and as noted in part one and in part two, there are many factors - both personal and organizational - all of which can contribute to this problem.

Therefore, educational leaders must take a multivariate approach to supporting educators to alleviate burnout.

In general, teachers are very conscientious people. As such, they tend to expect perfection from themselves and that they can manage and handle anything in the classroom.

This has led to a perception that, as a teacher, one should just "push through" or "soldier on" through the burnout and not take specific steps to address the problem.
As evidence suggests, not addressing the causal factors of educator burnout could regress into clinical depression and severely debilitate the teacher.
When teachers were asked in a recent NEA survey what interventions should be implemented to help them with burnout, many potential solutions were highly rated. Of note was the need for more teachers as well as additional mental health and behavioral supports for students.

It was interesting that this survey apparently did not examine perceptions about internal or teacher aspects of burnout. Instead, the survey focused on external factors only.

From a broad perspective, the solutions to burnout must become less reactive and more preventative.

One way to consider this preventative approach is to consider the notion of "mental fitness."

1. Mental Fitness as a Means of Addressing Burnout

Mental fitness is analogous to physical fitness in that everyone can benefit from a regimen of activities that promote physical fitness (i.e., exercise, sleep, nutrition). The same can be said of mental fitness.

People can learn cognitive and behavioral skills that will give them the ability to better manage stress as it happens in their life. The notion is "Why wait?" until you are in distress to manage the stress.

Instead, learn how to cope with distress when you are emotionally and mentally strong to reduce likelihood of more serious concerns.

2. Mindfulness and Meditation Training

A common approach to supporting educators in their fight over burnout is to provide mindfulness and meditation options.

Research supports this approach:

In a systematic review of mindfulness for reducing burnout, Luken & Sammons (2016) found there is strong evidence for the use of mindfulness practice to reduce job burnout among health care professionals and teachers.

In a large meta-analysis, Lancu, Rusu & Măroiu (2018) found that mindfulness interventions had a significant positive effect on emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment.

Abenavoli, et. al. (2013) also found significant protective effects of mindfulness against burnout among educators.

3. Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Despite the apparent efficacy of mindfulness on improving burnout, the addition of cognitive behavioral methods to complement these interventions may prove to be even more impactful.

The results of a clinically controlled study demonstrated significantly greater improvements for the treatment of burnout, compared to the control condition, on all three central dimensions of BOS in teachers' emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment.

These positive treatment effects were maintained at six-month follow-up.

The authors concluded that CBT intervention has promise for supporting teachers in stressful occupational conditions and reducing their burnout (Ghasemi, Herman, & Reinke, 2022).

In a randomized controlled trial, Lloyd, Bond, & Flaxman (2013) found that cognitive behavior therapy significantly reduced emotional exhaustion in teachers.

4. Emotional Intelligence Training

Another area gaining attention is emotional intelligence (EI) training.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges, and defuse conflict.

Having high EI provides a better sense of self-efficacy, and, in turn, helps one avoid the feelings of professional burnout.

Emotional intelligence helps you build stronger relationships, succeed at school and work, and achieve career and personal goals (Pulido-Martos et al., 2016).

Teachers with higher levels of EI have skills which act as protectors against the various stress factors caused by work situations, potentially increasing the level of enthusiasm and dedication to the work (Brackett et al., 2011).

Emotional intelligence is a capacity that should be developed in teachers, since it gives the individual the ability to regulate their emotions in daily classroom situations, which leads to improved teaching practice, health, and mental well-being of the teacher (Pulido-Martos et al., 2016).

5. Instructional Coaching

The empirical evidence is convincing that instructional coaches reduce teacher attrition and improve teacher retention (Long, 2009).

Presumably, instructional coaches can improve professional efficacy and personal accomplishment (critical aspects of BOS) so teachers feel they are having positive impacts on their students.

According to current research, instructional coaching positively impacts outcomes for teachers regarding burnout (Aguilar, 2018).

The converging evidence is that making instructional coaches available to teachers, through high-quality guidance and collaboration, has the potential to mitigate the teacher retention crisis (Russel, J., 2019) and the potential onset of professional burnout.

Instructional coaching can also increase the degree and quality of administrative support provided to teachers.

Hughes et al. (2015) found that there are several areas of administrative support that are critical for reducing stress for teachers:

Emotional support: Teachers report that emotional support (e.g., reasonable expectations, trust, supportive environment) is essential.

Environmental support: The second most important kind of support is defined as "environmental support," exhibited when administrators effectively address negative student behavior and safety issues.

Instructional support: The third most important kind of support is instructional support, where teachers receive quality professional growth/development opportunities along with adequate resources and have a say in decisions that affect them (Harris, S., Davies, R., Christensen, S., Hanks, J., & Bowles, B., 2019).

In their seminal meta-analysis research, Nguyen, et al. (2019) conclude, "We find that student disciplinary problems, administrative support, and professional development, strongly influence whether teachers stay or leave teaching."

6. Improving Student Discipline

According to Thibodeaux, et al. (2015), student discipline is a top reason for teachers leaving the classroom. Student discipline needs to be more actively considered among the important variables to address teacher attrition (Ramos, J. & Hughes, T., 2020) and, as noted earlier, a central cause of BOS.

There is a growing body of research that supports improvements in disciplinary behavior, anti-social behavior, student bullying behavior, and peer victimization. These are directly related to implementing systematic positive behavior support systems, also known as PBIS (Bradshaw, Koth, Thornton, & Leaf, 2009).

Schools delivering PBIS methods with fidelity displayed lower levels of disruptive behavior problems and more prosocial behavior. There were also significant reductions in office discipline referrals (Bradshaw, C., Waasdorp, T., Leaf, P., 2012).

Therefore, district and school leaders should strongly consider implementing the tenets of PBIS across all classrooms, which will improve teacher working conditions and school climate, thus increasing teacher retention and reducing the incidence of professional burnout.

7. Enhanced Administrative Support

As noted earlier, administrative support for teachers is an important external factor for mitigating Burnout Syndrome.

A study of nearly 8,000 teachers (Kraft, Simon & Lyon, 2020) across nine states showed that leaders play a key role in supporting teachers' sense of success, particularly when the leaders focused on strong communication and collaboration with teachers.

According to teachers, lack of administrator support is reported to be the most critical component of school working conditions and can result in a nearly doubling of the teacher attrition rate (Sutcher, et al., 2019).

Kraft and Papay (2014) found that teachers who work in more supportive environments tend to develop skills and attributes that enable them to become more effective in increasing student achievement over time compared to teachers who report working in less supportive schools.

District leaders should institute processes to empower school leaders to become instructional leaders, mentors, and coaches for the teachers in their building.

Putting school leaders into the role of instructional coach and supporting classroom efforts, as opposed to basic evaluations, will greatly enhance teachers' perceived level of support.

Teachers frequently report that school leaders do not provide adequate support and expertise in dealing with student discipline issues.

To improve administrative support in this area, we must provide school leaders with the knowledge and skills to implement consistent school-wide discipline methods such as PBIS.

8. Increased Teacher Autonomy

Giving teachers more autonomy can improve job satisfaction, improve retention, and reduce burnout.

Multiple studies highlight the mediating effect of teacher autonomy in determining the effectiveness of school systems and structures. Teacher involvement in the design and implementation of learning opportunities is essential to effectively improve teacher morale and student achievement.

Additionally, systems that minimize administrative paperwork and set clear expectations for students and families can relieve pressure on teachers and reduce burnout (Santoro, 2021).

9. Engaging Teachers in the Right Conversations

Doris Santoro (2021) explains the value of certain types of conversations between school leaders and teachers. Santoro recommends school leaders initiate conversations about "good work," including:

What good work looks like

Obstacles to achieving good work

What's needed for good work

Immediate shifts to removing obstacles to good work

Santoro recommends school leaders get past simply following policy.

Rather, she encourages district and school administrators to respond with flexibility and commit to deep engagement with teachers about the issues preventing them from achieving their teaching goals and feeling rewarded.

10. Giving Teachers Choices About Teacher Burnout Care

Teachers know their circumstances best, and school leaders should give them choices with regard to the supports available to them.

It is important to approach the treatment of burnout from a multi-tiered perspective and provide supports based on individual levels of need and personal preference.

A preventive approach is required so people learn the cognitive behavioral skills and emotional intelligence to protect themselves from potential burnout before the effects of burnout are apparent.

Some people may be uncomfortable with one-on-one therapy for Burnout Syndrome or even group therapy, so consideration for a private, fully digital option should be made available.

Below is the Teacher BOS Conjecture Map that draws the linkages between the causes of Burnout Syndrome and the five key dimensions of the syndrome.

Teachers with BOS across these dimensions will have the identified major impacts on themselves and their students.

Using assessment data from teacher surveys, district leaders can identify the dimensions of concern and backward map to the causal factors to effect interventions and supports. Regardless of cause, teachers will require psychological supports to manage stress, anxiety, and depression.
Back to Table of Contents
Software Supports

Recently, there have been a number of online digital tools to help educators manage mental health concerns, and these tools have been offered from a variety of sources, such as health care providers.

A 2021 meta-analysis (Lou, et. al.) demonstrated that online CBT was more effective than face-to-face CBT at reducing depression symptom severity. There were no significant differences between the two interventions on participant satisfaction.

Therefore, districts should consider digital mental health platforms as a highly effective tool to offer to their educators.

Positive Behavior Supports Applications

To support the ever-critical positive school climate and culture districts need, SchoolMint Hero offers systematic implementation of the core practices of PBIS, such as:

Behavioral expectations

Reinforcement for meeting expectations

Consistency of teacher responses to student behavior

Frequent student feedback and corrective responses

When teachers have improved student behavior in the classroom, increased sense of self-efficacy, and reduced anxiety and stress, there will be a corresponding decrease in teacher attrition and burnout.

Instructional Coaching and Support Applications

The data is unequivocal that administrative support is effective in reducing teacher attrition and burnout.

SchoolMint Grow is a software platform that helps educational leaders and administrators engage in continuous improvement feedback with teachers, strategic problem-solving, and systematic planning to improve working conditions, increase administrator support, improve climate, enhance student outcomes, and decrease discipline issues.

SchoolMint Grow greatly increases the visibility of administrators as instructional leaders, helping teachers view their school leaders as highly supportive, thus improving teacher retention and reducing burnout.
Back to Table of Contents
Conclusion

Teaching has always been a highly rewarding profession, but it is a job with myriad challenges, particularly when considering the impacts of COVID-19.

The data is unequivocal that educators today are suffering from significant professional burnout and in many cases burnout syndrome. Consequently, many are leaving or are considering leaving the profession at a high rate.

Despite these challenges, many talented teachers nationally remain committed to helping their students and uplifting their communities.

To continue this critical work and support the needs of all students, our nation's educators need a multifaceted array of organizational interventions and personal support systems from educational leaders to ensure burnout does not impact their practice or personal well-being.
Back to Table of Contents
References

Aguilar, E. "Emotional Resilience: The Missing Ingredient." Educational Leadership, vol. 75, no. 8, 2018, pp. 24-30.

Abenavoli, R. M., Jennings, P. A., Greenberg, M. T., Harris, A. R., & Katz, D. A. "The Protective Effects of Mindfulness Against Burnout Among Educators." Psychology of Education Review, vol. 37, no. 2, 2013, pp. 57-69

Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., & Salovey, P. "Emotional Intelligence: Implications for Personal, Social, Academic, and Workplace Success." Social and Personality Psychology Compass, vol. 5, no. 1, 2011, pp. 88-103.

Bradshaw C. P., Koth, C. W., Thornton L. A., Leaf P. J. "Altering School Climate Through School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: Findings from a Group-Randomized Effectiveness Trial." Prevention Science, vol. 10, no. 2, 2009, pp. 100-115.

Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., & Leaf, P. J. "Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Student Outcomes: Results from a Randomized Controlled Effectiveness Trial in Elementary Schools." Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, vol. 12, 2010, pp. 133-148.

Ghasemi, F., Herman, K. C., & Reinke, W. M. "A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach to Teacher Burnout: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Group Therapy Program." Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 2022, pp. 1-9. PubMed, DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2022.2103118.

Harris, S. P., Davies, R. S., Christensen, S. S., Hanks, J., & Bowles, B. "Teacher Attrition: Differences in Stakeholder Perceptions of Teacher Work Conditions." Education Sciences, vol. 9, no. 4, 2019, p. 300.

Hughes, A., Matt, J., O'Reilly, F. "Principal Support is Imperative to the Retention of Teachers in Hard-to-Staff Schools." Journal of Education and Training Studies, vol. 3, no. 1, 2015, pp. 129-134.

Kraft, M., Simon, N., Lyon, M. "Importance of Teacher Working Conditions During the COVID-19." EdWorkingPaper: 20-279, 2020.

Iancu, A.E., Rusu, A., Măroiu, C. et al. "The Effectiveness of Interventions Aimed at Reducing Teacher Burnout: A Meta-Analysis." Educational Psychology Review, vol. 30, 2018, pp. 373-396.

Lloyd, J., Bond, F. W., & Flaxman, P. E. "The Value of Psychological Flexibility: Examining Psychological Mechanisms Underpinning a Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Intervention for Burnout." Work & Stress, vol. 27, no. 2, 2013, pp. 181-199.

Nguyen, Tuan D., Lam Pham, Matthew Springer, and Michael Crouch. "The Factors of Teacher Attrition and Retention: An Updated and Expanded Meta-Analysis of the Literature." EdWorkingPaper: 19-149, 2019.

Pulido-Martos, M., Augusto-Landa, J. M., & López-Zafra, E. "Estudiantes de Enfermería en prácticas clínicas: el rol de la inteligencia emocional en los estresores ocupacionales y bienestar psicológico." Index de Enfermería, vol. 25, no. 3, 2016, pp. 215-219. (Translated)

Santoro, D. A. "Structural Supports to Promote Teacher Well-Being." EdResearch for Recovery, no. 19, 2021, pp. 1-6.

Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., & Carver-Thomas, D. "Understanding Teacher Shortages: An Analysis of Teacher Supply and Demand in the United States." Education Policy Analysis Archives, vol. 27, no. 35, 2019.

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How to Solve the Teacher Burnout Crisis: 10 Strategies

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In this final installment in our series on burnout in teachers, you'll learn ways to reduce teacher burnout through 10 strategies as well as support tools.

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Sources of teacher efficacy in teaching reading: success, sharing, and support

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Teacher self- and collective efficacy are important motivational factors in determining teachers’ effort in their professional practice. Teachers’ higher levels of self- and collective efficacy are positively associated with student achievement in…

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Collective Teacher Efficacy is the collective belief of teachers in their ability to positively affect students. With an effect size of d=1.57 Collective Teacher Efficacy is strongly correlated with student achievement. Here is a quick overview of John Hattie's "new number one" influence.

John Hattie and his team have presented Collective Teacher Efficacy (CTE) as the "new number one" influence related to student achievement several times, e.g. at the Annual Visible Learning Conference (2016) or the Collaborative Impact Conference 2017. Although Hattie's latest published list of 195 effects in The Applicability of Visible Learning to Higher Education (2015) puts CTE only in second place, its effect size of d=1.57 is still huge: it is more than two times bigger than that of feedback ( d=0.72), and almost three times bigger than the effect of classroom management ( d=0.52). The message seems to be clear: together teachers can achieve more, especially if they collectively believe that they can do so!

Hattie's new factor is based on Rachel Jean Eells' "Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Collective Teacher Efficacy and Student Achievement" ( PDF). For her Ph.D. thesis at the Loyola University Chicago, she has conducted a meta-analysis of 26 studies on Collective Teacher Efficacy and found that "the weighted average effect size of r-mean (outlier removed) was 0.617″. This number can easily be converted into Cohen's d=1.568, the number Hattie reports.

The concept of Collective Teacher Efficacy itself is much older. It was introduced in the 1990s by Albert Bandura and is rooted in his concept of self-efficacy, Bandura (1993, 1997). He defines collective efficacy as "a group's shared belief in the conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given levels of attainment." Bandura found that the positive effects of CTE on student academic performance more than outweigh the negative effects of low socioeconomic status.

His findings were later confirmed by Goddard, Hoy, and Hoy (2000). In their studies, they could demonstrate that between-school differences of collective teacher efficacy were more important in explaining student achievement than socioeconomic status. Moreover, Hoy, Sweetland, and Smith (2002) found that the strength of CTE helps the positive effects of individual teacher efficacy and vice versa. A stronger collective teacher efficacy seems to encourage individual teachers to make a more effective use of the skills they already have.

According to Hattie's presentation at the Collaborative Impact Conference 2017 "Collective Teacher Efficacy" is not about making teachers feel good about themselves. It is more complicated than just believing you can make a difference collectively. One of the authors that come closest to Hattie's definition "collaborative conversation based on evidence" is Jenni Donohoo with her book " Collective Efficacy: How Educators' Beliefs Impact Student Learning ".

For further reading and a practical guide about how to build Collective Teacher Efficacy in your school, you should read the short and excellent Issue Brief " Building Collective Efficacy " by Dana Brinson and Lucy Steiner.

Update

In recent a video John Hattie explains what Collective Teacher Efficacy is, and what it isn't. Have a look.

References:

BANDURA, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28 (2), 117-148. (Abstract)

BANDURA, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY, US: W H Freeman. (Book)

BRINSON & STEINER (2007): Building Collective Efficacy: How Leaders Inspire Teachers to Achieve. Issue Brief. The Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement. ( PDF)

EELLS, R. J. (2011): Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Collective Teacher Efficacy and Student Achievement, (Abstract / Full text)

GODDARD, HOY, WOOLFOLK HOY (2000): Collective Teacher Efficacy: Its Meaning, Measure, and Impact on Student Achievement. In: American Educational Research Journal Vol 37, Issue 2, pp. 479 - 507 (Abstract)

HATTIE, J. (2015): The Applicability of Visible Learning to Higher Education. In: Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 1 (1), 79-91. (Abstract)

HATTIE, J. (2016). Third Visible Learning Annual Conference: Mindframes and Maximizers, Washington, DC, July 11, 2016. (Programme)

HOY, SWEETLAND, SMITH (2002). Toward an organizational model of achievement in high schools: The significance of collective efficacy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38 (1), 77-93. (Abstract)

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Collective Teacher Efficacy (CTE) according to John Hattie - VISIBLE LEARNING

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Collective Teacher Efficacy is the collective belief of teachers in their ability to positively affect students. With an effect size of d=1.57 Collective Teacher Efficacy is strongly correlated with student achievement. Here is a quick overview of John Hattie's "new...Read more ›

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The importance of individual teachers has emerged in sharp focus over the past decade, with compelling evidence that teachers have large effects on a range of student outcomes. Wide variability in teacher effectiveness, both across and within schools, highlights the persistent challenge of providing students with access to high-quality teachers. However, traditional efforts to increase teacher quality through professional development (PD) have been largely ineffective. That may be changing, as a new form of PD, teacher coaching, has emerged to disrupt the PD industry.

Historically, PD has been dominated by daylong seminars that took teachers out of the classroom and delivered the same tips and tricks to an entire department, grade level, or school. But as research has found, these programs to have little or no effect on teacher quality. Some training has shifted to a customized, smaller-scale approach: instructional coaching, whereby an expert mentor works one-to-one with teachers to provide a steady stream of feedback and suggest new techniques based on frequent classroom observations. By the 2015‒16 school year, 27 percent of public K‒12 schools reported having a reading coach on staff, 18 percent had a math coach, and 24 percent had a general instructional coach, according to the National Teacher and Principal Survey.

Researchers have studied individualized coaching programs for decades, but only began to evaluate their effects using randomized control trials in the last dozen years. We set out to examine what this growing literature now says about the efficacy of teacher coaching as a development tool. Does one-to-one coaching help teachers get better? If so, how powerful a strategy might this be to improve teacher practice and student outcomes?

Our analysis of results from across 60 studies found that coaching works. With coaching, the quality of teachers' instruction improves by as much as-or more than-the difference in effectiveness between a novice and a teacher with five to 10 years of experience, a more positive estimated effect than traditional PD and most other school-based interventions. However, larger coaching programs are less effective than smaller ones, raising questions about whether coaching can be brought to scale in a way that preserves its impact.
Teacher Development Gets Personal
Public school systems in the United States spend billions of dollars annually on PD to help teachers meet the diverse needs of their students-with limited results. Most PD remains of the "sit and get" variety: one-off workshops delivered to large groups, with little obvious connection to the needs of individual teachers or classrooms. Rigorous studies find that PD programs more often than not fail to produce systematic changes in teachers' instructional practice, much less improvements in student achievement, especially when implemented at scale.

Yet expectations for teachers have grown in recent years, as states have adopted new college- and career-ready standards and as education agencies increasingly emphasize the importance of balancing expert content delivery with nurturing the social-emotional skills that are also important for students' lifelong success. Taken together, teachers' expected roles range from content expert, curriculum developer, and pedagogue, to social worker, psychologist, mentor, and motivator. Every teacher has dimensions of this interrelated skill set on which they can improve-a complex and dynamic reality reflected in the one-to-one coaching model, which seeks to align the support provided to individual teachers to their unique challenges and needs.

Most teacher-coaching programs share several key features, but no one set of features defines all coaching models. In our review of the literature, we encountered multiple, sometimes conflicting, definitions of teacher coaching. Some envision coaching as a form of implementation support to ensure that new teaching practices or teaching materials-often introduced in an initial group training session-are executed with fidelity. Others see coaching as a tool that enables teachers to learn and apply new pedagogical practices to support student learning. The role of the coach may be performed by a range of personnel, including administrators, master teachers, curriculum designers, external experts, and other classroom teachers.

Synthesizing this body of theoretical work, we characterize coaching as an observation and feedback cycle in which coaches model research-based practices and work with teachers to incorporate these practices into their classrooms. In contrast to traditional PD, coaching is intended to be individualized, time-intensive, sustained over the course of a semester or year, context-specific, and focused on discrete skills. Coaches engage in a sustained professional dialogue with teachers focused on developing skills to enhance their classroom practice; ideally, the specific skills targeted for development differ based on individual teacher needs.
Examining the Teacher Coaching Literature
As researchers, we have worked to develop and evaluate several coaching programs, including the MATCH Teacher Coaching program operated by the eponymous Boston charter-management organization and the Mathematical Quality of Instruction Coaching program developed by Heather Hill and colleagues at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. The results of these studies were encouraging, particularly with respect to the degree to which the programs generated noticeable changes in teachers' practice. Yet studies of discrete programs cannot, on their own, speak to the efficacy of coaching as a new model for teacher professional development. To address that broader question, we sought to synthesize results across the full body of research on instructional coaching programs.

We conducted a meta-analysis of the literature on coaching by collecting, coding, and analyzing the findings across all rigorous evaluations of teacher coaching in developed countries published through 2017. This first enabled us to estimate the average effect of all coaching programs-or at least all those that have been subjected to rigorous evaluation-on teacher practice and student achievement. We also used the same information to determine whether coaching programs with certain characteristics produce stronger results.

A meta-analysis is only as good as the underlying studies it aggregates. Ours includes only randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental research designs that could credibly isolate the effect of coaching. We further restricted our review to studies that focus on two key outcome measures that we see as critical components in the theory of action linking coaching to increased student skill: measures of teachers' instructional practice as rated by outside observers and direct measures of student achievement on standardized assessments.

In total, we identified 60 studies on teacher coaching that met these requirements. It is remarkable that such a rich set of empirical research has emerged over the last decade given that a landmark review in 2007 looking at all research on teacher PD found only nine studies that supported causal inferences.

In order to draw comparisons and synthesize the studies' findings, we rescaled their results to effect size units that measure the change in outcomes due to the coaching program in standard deviations-that is, relative to how much the relevant outcome varies across the teachers or students in the study sample. We also coded studies to track unique elements of the coaching models such as their size, their focus on content or teaching skill, whether they are paired with workshops or curriculum materials, and whether they were delivered in person or via videoconference platforms.
Does Teacher Coaching Work?
Teacher coaching has large positive effects on both instructional practice and student achievement (see Figure 1). On average, coaching improves the quality of teachers' instruction and its effects on student achievement by 0.49 standard deviations and 0.18 standard deviations, respectively. For both outcomes, the magnitude of the effect of coaching is comparable to or exceeds the largest published estimates of the difference in performance between a novice teacher and an experienced veteran. Our estimates of the effectiveness of teacher coaching as assessed on these two outcome measures also compare favorably when contrasted with the larger body of literature on teacher PD, as well as most other school-based interventions.

These findings may come as a surprise given researchers' general inability to identify characteristics that differentiate highly effective from ineffective teachers. However, one exception to the disappointingly weak relationships between teachers' skill and their observable characteristics like certification, licensure, or even content knowledge is the quality of teachers' classroom practice. Teachers with strong behavior-management skills and the ability to deliver cognitively demanding, error-free content produce substantively and substantially larger student-achievement gains than other teachers without these skills. It should perhaps not be a surprise, then, that teacher coaching is able to improve student outcomes because of the interventions' specific attention to teachers' core classroom practices.

Even so, our analyses suggest that noticeably improving student achievement likely requires large improvements in teachers' instructional practice; the observed improvement in instructional practice due to coaching is significantly larger than the resulting impact on student outcomes (see Figure 2). This may explain why other PD programs such as generalized workshops, which may produce more moderate improvements on intermediate outcomes such as teacher knowledge or classroom practice, do not have similar effects on student outcomes.

Teacher coaching is a rare model of PD that has been shown to improve teacher practice to the degree required to impact student-achievement outcomes. However, even here, relatively large improvements for teachers turn into much more moderate gains for students.
Taking Coaching to Scale
Although these findings demonstrate the potential of coaching as a development tool, questions remain about the features of effective coaching programs and the feasibility of providing coaching more broadly. Do schools have enough expert teachers who can serve as coaches across content areas? If not, where might schools find coaches? Will PD budgets support the relatively high costs of implementing coaching with fidelity?

Our analysis of the relationship between various program characteristics and their impacts is able to address some of these questions. Surprisingly, we find little evidence that coaching "dosage"-that is, the number of times teachers and coaches meet-is associated with the effectiveness of a given coaching program. We interpret this descriptive finding to mean that, when comparing across coaching programs, quality matters more than quantity. Coaching models that build in frequent observation and feedback cycles are not uniformly better; other program elements such as coach quality matter, too. We speculate, however, that for an individual coaching program of fixed quality, it is likely better to have more coaching cycles, not fewer.

Further, we find little difference in the effectiveness of coaching programs delivered online versus face to face. This suggests that schools that lack in-house coaches are still able to implement coaching programs through the use of digital video recorders to capture instruction and online videoconferencing to interact with coaches. Although this technology is not cheap, the cost of these tools has dropped rapidly in recent years, and the technology could support both teacher PD and evaluation efforts.

These findings show the potential feasibility of expanding teacher coaching across schools and districts, but other results show how difficult maintaining program fidelity may be. Looking at the size of coaching programs, we find that the average effectiveness of the coaching program declines as the number of teachers involved increases, suggesting the difficulty of successfully taking such programs to scale. Our analyses of both instruction and achievement depict a clear negative relationship between program size and program effects, consistent with a theory of diminishing effects as programs are scaled up.

We see similar patterns when we test more formally for evidence of potential scale-up implementation challenges by comparing effect sizes between two types of studies: those with fewer than 100 teachers and those with 100 teachers or more (see Figure 3). The average effects in larger studies are only one-third to one-half as large as large as those found in smaller studies. Additional analyses confirm that these differential results are not driven by a pattern in which studies of smaller coaching programs with small or no effects are less likely to be published because of their limited precision.
Key Considerations for Scaling Up
In our view, the growing body of research on teacher coaching provides strong evidence of its effectiveness as a development tool. However, our meta-analysis also raises difficult questions about whether and how to implement coaching programs at scale. Several factors likely contribute to the diminishing returns to coaching as the size of programs increases, including coach quality, financial constraints, standardization, and teacher engagement and school climate.

Coach quality: A fundamental challenge to scaling up coaching programs is finding enough expert coaches able to deliver these services. After all, coaches are the intervention. Most of the studies we examine had only a handful of coaches, many of whom were key program staff or even program developers. Scaling up from a small corps of coaches to a large staff requires new systems for recruiting, selecting, and training coaches. These systems are still largely underdeveloped in most contexts. Research that seeks to understand the characteristics and skills of effective coaches (such as teaching/coaching experience, content knowledge, and rapport with teachers) can aid in the development of these systems.

Financial constraints: Teacher coaching is a relatively expensive form of PD due to the large personnel costs of hiring coaches who meet with teachers on a regular basis. There are very few economies of scale available when the primary intervention is one-to-one interaction. Efforts to scale up coaching often lead to programmatic changes to cut costs, such as having coaches meet less frequently with each teacher or even coaching teachers in small groups. While we do not have definitive evidence on the effect of these adaptations, we suspect that they may decrease the efficacy of coaching as a PD tool.

Standardization: Scaling up coaching can require building more formal sets of systems and structures to ensure program fidelity, which may have the unintended consequence of constraining a coach's ability to tailor her approach to the individual needs of each teacher. Because coaching is by definition differentiated, we see a need for program developers to think critically about how they can implement organizational structures and systems that provide scaffolded supports to individual coaches without restricting their judgment and flexibility.

Teacher engagement and school climate: Bringing coaching to scale likely would include a prescriptive approach, requiring teachers who may be hesitant or resistant to engage in the coaching process to take part. This may be understandable given an expanded emphasis on linking scores from classroom observation rubrics to high-stakes job decisions. However, coaching is unlikely to be successful without teachers' openness to feedback and willingness to adapt their practice. Here, school leaders have a key role to play in creating a culture of trust and respect among administrators and staff in order to ease teachers' concerns and increase their willingness to actively engage.
Looking Ahead
We see real potential for coaching programs to innovate and address many of these challenges. As an inherently customizable intervention, coaching may be well suited to meeting a variety of teacher-development needs. For example, new technologies are powering distance or virtual programs, which draw on coaches from afar to provide specialized development to teachers in small and rural districts who may not ordinarily be partnered with instructional experts in their specific grades and subject areas. Coaching also is being paired with computer-simulation-based student teaching, which allows teachers to teach a lesson, receive feedback, and immediately try it again. Finally, emerging peer coaching models present a promising approach to creating observation and feedback cycles that leverage expertise within a school building, by pairing up teachers with different strengths and weaknesses to observe each other's practice and provide suggestions.

As researchers and practitioners continue to develop and refine coaching programs, we encourage them to consider the delicate balance between efficiency and efficacy. Coaching in all forms is a resource-intensive intervention that requires fairly sizable investments, both in terms of money and staff. Expanding coaching will require policymakers and administrators to engage in critical conversations about how current expenditures on PD could be used more effectively. For example, one approach may be to reallocate some PD spending to provide high-cost but effective PD programs like coaching to schools or teachers most in need of support, rather than uniformly providing less-effective and less-expensive traditional PD for all schools and teachers.

Ultimately, strengthening the teacher workforce will require improving the classroom performance of individual teachers. Given the decades of investment in traditional PD for relatively small returns, policymakers and educators should support innovation in this sector. Coaching can provide a flexible blueprint for these efforts, but questions remain about the factors and local contexts that can influence its effectiveness. It remains to be seen whether coaching is best implemented as smaller-scale targeted programs tailored to local contexts, or if it can be taken to scale in a high-quality and cost-effective way.

Matthew A. Kraft is an associate professor of education and economics at Brown University. David Blazar is an assistant professor of education policy and economics at the University of Maryland, College Park. The full meta-analysis on which this article is based is available at the Review of Educational Research.

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The importance of individual teachers has emerged in sharp focus over the past decade, with compelling evidence that teachers have large effects on a range of student outcomes. Wide variability in teacher effectiveness, both across and within schools, highlights the persistent challenge of providing students with access to high-quality teachers.

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Many teachers deal with chronic stress and trauma, and these strategies help focus on adult well-being.

In schools across the country, teachers are receiving training in how to create trauma-informed classrooms. They're hearing about the impacts of trauma on the body and mind and the ways in which trauma can manifest in students' classroom behaviors, attendance, and retention. Administrators will rehearse new scripts for dealing with misconduct in ways that center empathy and restorative practice. Many schools will become places that make responding to trauma something that is transformative. Yet few will consider and address adults' trauma.

Since the creation of the term trauma-informed care (TIC) in 2001, education has been a leading field in the world's pursuit to understand the connections between body, mind, and behavior. As a subject matter expert with over 10 years of experience in trauma-informed care, I am encouraged to see how far-reaching this theoretical approach to interpersonal dynamics has become. However, the absence of teacher and administrator care resounds.

While the myriad needs of the students whom we serve are paramount, trauma-informed care isn't sustainable when educators are also traumatized or chronically stressed. As teachers, we may learn in professional development about how adverse childhood experience (ACE) scores impact learning, but not about how our own scores may impact our capacity to compartmentalize. We may hear that a calm prosody in our voice is key, then turn around to hear belittling words from those with whom we work, said in the exact manner that we were just told to refrain from.

Teaching demands that we give, give, give. But what if we feel like we have nothing left to offer?

Empty Cup Syndrome

I created the term Empty Cup Syndrome (ECS) to describe what so many of us have felt: like we are emotionally dry but expected to have a wellspring to draw from. Worse yet, sometimes our burnout is punished, creating a cycle of shame and reprimand. In discussions about teacher turnover rates, the prospects of raising salaries and boosting benefits get much applause, but the teachers who struggle with bullying from peers and students, or who are worked past exhaustion, are overwhelmingly ignored.

ECS is real and requires systemic support. However, pushback can come from all sides. Years ago, I heard a principal argue during a training session that they were there to help traumatized students and that adult teachers should know how to handle the stress of their past without any additional help. They went on to suggest that any teacher at their school who complained of ECS should switch schools, and possibly careers. "We spend hours learning about the polyvagal systems of our students, but nothing about how our own nervous systems need help-and that's not another pizza lunch or jeans day," one attendee commented.

From Covid-19 to school-based violence, teachers need trauma-informed care more than ever. With these realities in mind, what can we do to create holistically trauma-transformed schools?

Remember: Many Teachers are Trauma Survivors, Too

From childhood trauma to recent events such as domestic or dating violence, medical trauma, and more, teachers and administrators often navigate their own real trauma. In my first teaching position, I watched as an educator was let go because they were a victim of domestic violence. The fact that they had shared in confidence that they were fleeing abuse was justified as a danger to the campus, and instead of amping up security for everyone, they were dismissed and left to be more vulnerable to further harm.

A few years ago, a teacher disclosed to me that they were sexually assaulted on a date and had to go into the classroom the next day and act as if everything was fine. Just as we switch the script from asking why a student is misbehaving to what might be the story behind their behavior, so should we do the same with our colleagues. If a teacher seems disengaged, depressed, or overwhelmed, instead of looking at these behavioral manifestations as the problem, we can instead ask that individual how we can better support the roots of their observable actions and emotions.

Respect Each Other's 'Spoons'

Spoon Theory is a concept created by Christine Miserandino that individuals with disabilities and chronic illnesses use to describe limited stamina. It reminds us that everyone has a different level of energy to expend throughout the day, and for some people, that energy is not easily replenished, and using it all can have devastating consequences.

Many teachers have visible and invisible disabilities that add to their stress load, and everyone, regardless of ability, can check in and ask who is feeling depleted and who has a little extra energy, and strategize together about redistributing the energy load. Doing so may look like having teachers take turns co-planning lessons, offering regular check-ins where teachers can ask for help with tasks, and/or providing accommodations (e.g., noise-decreasing earplugs, chairs instead of required standing, etc.). These micro efforts can have systemic impacts on well-being and retention.

Prevent and Destigmatize Secondary Trauma

Any discussion of trauma-informed care should also center secondary trauma, a potential consequence of exposure to students' and colleagues' trauma, and offer teachers research-informed tools with which to address it. For example, offering teachers longer or more frequent break times, options for collegiate coaching, counseling, chaplaincy, and/or support groups can all go a long way.

So many of these resources are low to no cost, while others do require a reallocation of resources. But which would we rather have: the cost of more support services, or the cost of high turnover and frequent onboarding?

Pouring from an empty cup may be something that we have long excused as coming with the territory of teaching, but it doesn't need to be our future. Our students need trauma-informed care in every aspect of their learning, and to live up to this objective, our teachers need to receive it, too.

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Trauma-informed care is often discussed in relation to students-few approaches focus on teachers. These strategies fill the gap.

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A teacher shares how she has worked to gain perspective on her responses to situations and found impactful ways to break negative habits.

It had been a long time since I taught a new course, so I was feeling anxious. Then, for the whole semester, my high school students had unnervingly flat expressions. They answered discussion questions with as few words as possible-even with partners or small groups. My magic trick of connecting with students through journal entries worked with only a few. I devoted countless hours to the course, with seemingly little results. I concluded that the students were having a miserable experience, and as a result, I was miserable-and exhausted.

At the end of the semester, I almost cried with relief when my anonymous course evaluations were overwhelmingly positive. (I could have done some midterm evaluations and saved myself some suffering!) As a seasoned teacher, how had I so badly misread my students' experience, especially when I see myself as someone who generally has an accurate read on the classroom vibe?

Previous Trauma Can Present Challenges to Teachers

I posed this question to my therapist, who explained that people who've experienced trauma in their childhood are often hypervigilant, always alert for signs of potential danger, so we tend to read neutral faces as displeased-especially when we're in an unfamiliar situation. Ironically, I had known about those studies as they applied to students in the classroom but never imagined that they applied to me. This conversation led me to think again about the ways that childhood trauma can shape teachers-particularly those who took on the caretaker role in a chaotic family.

In my many years teaching and working as a mentor for new teachers, I've noticed that those of us who were caretakers as children, like me, often have extraordinary strengths and some common challenges in our work.

1. We are calm, proactive leaders in emergencies. Our unpredictable childhoods trained us to be focused and effective in a crisis. But we can also have a pervasive sense of nervousness when our lives are calm, as if we are on high alert for the next danger. This hypervigilance tires our minds and bodies.

2. We value structure and predictability. Because we grew up in chaos, calm usually makes us feel safe. Generally, our appreciation for order serves students, but sometimes, in our desire to maintain a sense of control, we can be overly rigid with rules and routines and waste energy fighting small battles. Sometimes our rules don't give our students enough room for creativity and spontaneity-or to make mistakes and learn from natural consequences.

3. We are highly attuned to other people's emotions. As children, to keep ourselves safe, we learned to quickly register other people's mental states and to manage the feelings of the adults in our lives. These skills can be a superpower in the classroom: We tend to value students' emotional lives, understand how emotions influence learning, and create a classroom in which students feel seen, safe, and valued.

At the same time, we can take too much responsibility for our students' emotions and spend a lot of energy attending to their sadness and anger. In the process, we might unintentionally communicate that certain feelings are dangerous, intolerable, or effective tools to get attention. We might even set our standards too low because we are afraid of students' frustration as they stretch toward an achievement that feels just out of reach.

4. We feel valuable when we are of use to others. We like to help! Sometimes, however, we do too much for students (or colleagues). This doesn't give others the space to struggle through obstacles and earn the growth that the challenge will give them. We tire ourselves and create dependence in others.

5. We are mission-driven. We believe teaching is valuable work and are highly committed. At the same time, we may ask our work to give us a sense of worth that we didn't get in our childhood. We may long for our students and their families to love us, admire us, and affirm our value-a job that isn't theirs to fill.

As a result, we may also develop unhealthy perfectionism and workaholism. We believe we should be perfectly organized and timely, have the most dynamic lessons in the universe, and never hurt anyone's feelings or make a mistake. These standards are impossible and exhausting.

3 Strategies That Help Break Negative Habits

The first step in outgrowing our problematic beliefs and habits is awareness. Everyone's path is different, but here are some strategies that helped me.

1. Try journaling. Early in my career, I started keeping a journal. Writing helped me to see my past and present more objectively and to set and monitor goals. I also regularly read books that supported my personal growth.

2. Try therapy. Mid-career, I began working with a skilled therapist, who helped me see patterns I hadn't been able to recognize through my writing and reading. For example, I learned early in life to rely only on myself, but I began to recognize the power of asking for support from others: A school has a team of experts devoted to helping students.

I began having more honest conversations with my colleagues about teaching challenges and learned that I am not alone in my struggles. I developed a more realistic sense of my limits: We need communities and healthy systems in order to help students.

3. Explore mindfulness. More recently, I have been developing a mindfulness practice, which has improved my ability to pause and pay attention to what is happening in the present moment. Those of us who have had trauma in childhood are often disconnected from our bodies, so learning to recognize simple needs-such as when I am tired, hungry, or thirsty-has been more important than I ever imagined for becoming the person I want to be in the classroom.

As a result, I've also become more attuned to my emotions-more able to name them, accept them, treat them with kindness, and listen to the messages they are trying to give me. When I can pause in the midst of a busy day or challenging conflict, I am less reactive and more able to make wise choices.

Be Patient With and Kind to Yourself

As someone who likes to be proactive and capable, I've had to be patient with my slow speed of change. (Even after all these years of devoted personal growth, when faced with those students with expressionless faces, I still spun all kinds of stories!)

I'm also in the process of changing my methods: I used to try to improve myself through self-criticism and willpower, which led to tension, discouragement, and weariness. Now, I am learning that, just like students, I thrive when I treat myself with gentle kindness, curiosity, and respect; when I forgive myself; when I have a sense of humor; and when I claim my strengths and see my challenges, not as failures, but as opportunities for growth.

Doing this can help us create more space in the classroom: more room for us all to be human; more room for laughter, spontaneity, mutual appreciation; more ability to be present with the learning opportunities that the moment presents-and more energy for the work.

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Moving Beyond Childhood Trauma to Be a Better Teacher

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A teacher shares how she has worked to gain perspective on her responses to situations and found impactful ways to break negative habits.

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The Literacy Coach’s Survival Guide: Essential Questions and Practical Answers, 2/e

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Cathy A. Toll ISBN-13: 9780872071568 184 pages • 7 x 9 2014 In the decade since the first edition of The Literacy Coach’s Survival Guide, education has changed considerably. One thing that has not changed is Cathy Toll’s leadership in the field. Drawing on her vast experience with thousands of coaches across the world

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A widely used, highly effective approach to student success, Student-Focused Coaching (SFC) helps instructional coaches and teachers work collaboratively to improve student outcomes using evidence-based practices. This is your one-stop, step-by-step guide to instructional coaching in K-12 schools using the field-tested, research-based SFC model.

Featuring a foreword by Jim Knight, the leading voice on instructional coaching, this book was coauthored by the lead developer of the SFC model (Jan Hasbrouck) and an experienced instructional coach and trainer (Daryl Michel). These expert authors help you master the three key roles of coaching: Facilitator, Collaborative Problem-Solver , and Teacher/Learner . You'll discover how to build respectful and mutually beneficial professional relationships with every teacher-from the most eager to the most reluctant-and work together to help all students learn and thrive in the classroom. To help you put the SFC model into action, the book offers practical activities and materials, including application exercises, reflection exercises, virtual coaching tips, and 20+ pages of ready-to-use downloadable forms.

LEARN HOW TO

PRACTICAL DOWNLOADS: The book includes access to 20+ pages of downloadable materials for coaches, including worksheets, checklists, tracking sheets, and self-assessments.

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Student-Focused Coaching: The Instructional Coach's Guide to Supporting Student Success through Teacher Collaboration

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Student-Focused Coaching: The Instructional Coach's Guide to Supporting Student Success through Teacher Collaboration

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From time constraints to a de-emphasis on literacy to a limited research base, coaches in middle schools face challenges that do not exist in the elementary grades.

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How to Reduce Stress & Burnout, a Toolkit for Educators - Breathe For Change

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In this toolkit, you will gain 7 mindful strategies that can be added to your personal practice.

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8 Ways Educators Can Build Emotional Resilience and Prevent Burnout

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Case Study Scenarios for breakout groups

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How to Maximize Literacy Coaches’ Time—and Talent Featuring Leslie Zoroya - Season 2, Episode 4

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Student-Focused Coaching (SFC) is a highly effective way to improve educator professional development and learning and student outcomes-but to succeed, coaches need to be empowered to lead alongside supervisors and other teacher leaders. Building on Hasbrouck & Michel's widely used guide, Student-Focused Coaching , this book shows educational leaders how to develop and lead a sustainable coaching model. It emphasizes that leadership isn't defined by a title-anyone with insight, commitment, and a student-focused mindset can serve in a coaching role and make a lasting impact.

Aligned with Implementation Science and developed by two internationally known consultants, this is the practical guidebook educational leaders need to build their knowledge of coaching and master their critical role in the coaching system as instructional leaders. Administrators, supervisors, and other leaders will gain expert guidance, actionable strategies, purposeful exercises, and engaging activities for supporting the transformative work of coaches. As more states mandate coaching as part of their reform efforts, this thought-provoking book will help a wide variety of educational leaders grow sustainable coaching programs that bridge the research-to-practice gap and cultivate student success.

LEARN HOW TO:

Create the conditions and culture to implement and sustain a coaching model

Establish clear and open communication about roles and responsibilities

Prioritize de-implementation of outdated or ineffective practices before introducing new initiatives

Plan and execute professional development and learning to ensure the successful transfer of research- and evidence-based skills to the classroom

Lead complex change-not just manage it-by modeling expectations through shared leadership, collaboration, and continuous learning

Use a structured Collaborative Problem-Solving Process to strengthen teamwork and prioritize foci

PRACTICAL FEATURES: Instructional leaders will strengthen their skills and take confident next steps with the reflection prompts, application exercises, and action items in each chapter.

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Instructional Leadership in Student-Focused Coaching: Creating Effective Systems to Cultivate Student Success

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Instructional Leadership in Student-Focused Coaching: Creating Effective Systems to Cultivate Student Success [Michel Ph.D., Dr. Daryl, Brookhart MAT MEd, Dawn] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Instructional Leadership in Student-Focused Coaching: Creating Effective Systems to Cultivate Student Success

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This position statement was written for K-12 teachers in order to focus on the role and importance of literacy coaches. The NCTE Executive Committee commissioned this work by approving a recommendation to archive Standards for Middle and High School Literacy Coaches (2006). A literacy coach is positioned as an individual who serves both teachers and students in an effort to elevate their voices in literacy learning. Relationship building must be foremost for literacy coaches, as coaches should understand the learning styles and needs of each teacher and student in order to provide a differentiated, equitable approach to coaching and instruction (Morgan et al., 2019). The current statement highlights the following messages: (1) Literacy coaches support a collaborative learning process with the K-12 teacher to create an inspired environment of learning for the teacher and students in the classroom. (2) K-12 literacy coaches center student voice, rather than assuming a deficit approach. (3) Literacy coaches reach students across grade levels and a range of language levels, incorporating technology throughout their work, when applicable. (4) Literacy coaches balance the various roles of a literacy professional. (5) Literacy coaches elevate the work of content-area teachers. (6) It is important to create a culture that values a literacy coaching framework across a range of educational settings. Insights gleaned from previous NCTE position statements-including The Act of Reading: Instructional Foundations and Policy Guidelines; NCTE Position Paper on the of English Teachers in Educating English Language Learners; Position Statement on Indigenous Peoples and People of Color (IPOC) in English and Language Arts Materials; Definition of Literacy in a Digital Age; and Shifting from Professional Development to Professional Learning: Centering Teacher Empowerment-as well as Jim Knight's (2004) and Cathy Toll's (2005) literature on instructional/literacy coaching, along with disciplinary literacy scholars Elizabeth Moje (2008), Timothy Shanahan and Cynthia Shanahan (2012), Peter Smagorinsky (2015), Michael Manderino (2017), Paula Di Domenico (2017), and Regie Routman (2018) guided its creation.
Key dimensions:

Job-embedded professional learning

Partner in the process = literacy coach + teacher + students

Interchangeable roles in co-mentoring

Collaborative and continuous conversations

Shared vision for teaching and learning

Adaptive and responsive teaching

Centering student and teacher voices

Reflective practice

Strengthening a culture and community of learners

Creating an environment that facilitates literacy coaching and a commitment to collective responsibility and ongoing improvement

Flexibility of coaching to support diverse twenty-first-century learners who span a range of educational contexts and settings

STATEMENT
Educators who work collaboratively to assess, differentiate, and provide meaningful feedback have a greater ability to move learners forward through reflective practice and meaningful instruction. It is from this place of collaboration that we can truly raise the expectations for lifelong learners. Rather than focus solely on the standards, we remind ourselves to unite the whole school community in a way that develops "collaborative expertise" (Hattie, 2015, p. 5). When this happens, the whole child, the teacher, the leader, the parent, and the community become even more passionate about growth of readers, writers, and thinkers.

As John Hattie notes, we should avoid the distractions and intermittent solutions that pull us away from a long-term, system-wide focus on student learning. By keeping our eyes, minds, and hearts focused on identifying the varied expertise in our schools, we can then nurture and capitalize on that expertise. A literacy coach "partners with teachers for job-embedded professional learning that enhances teachers' reflection on students, the curriculum, and pedagogy for the purpose of more effective decision making" (Toll, 2014, p. 10).
Issue Defined
Literacy coaching has been proven successful as a personalized professional development framework that can assist teachers in meaningful implementation of literacy instruction (Biancarosa et al., 2010; Elish-Piper & L'Allier, 2011; Matsumura et al., 2010).

Literacy coaching is a personalized form of professional development that spans K-12. During literacy coaching, the teacher and the literacy coach come together to have conversations about classroom instruction and student achievement. In addition, a literacy coaching model includes opportunities for the coach and the classroom teacher to collaborate on beliefs about instruction and pedagogy (Toll, 2005). The literacy coach may model lessons for the classroom teacher, serve as a co-teacher, and assist in the planning and implementation of explicit literacy instruction to help students become independent thinkers, readers, communicators, and problem solvers. As a result of these meetings, the literacy coach and the classroom teacher may engage in continuous dialogue throughout the school year. Through dialogue, both educators may craft thoughtful questions and responses to approaches, leading to reflection on practice. This reflection is essential if educators are to create new meaning and draw conclusions regarding their pedagogy (Berliner, 2001).

Research supports that teachers value collaboration with a literacy coach (Pomerantz & Pierce, 2013), and that coaching can make a difference when it comes to the implementation of literacy instruction (Vernon-Feagans et al., 2012; Elish-Piper & L'Allier, 2011; Matsumura et al., 2010; Biancarosa et al., 2010).
Key Components of Professional Learning Role

Literacy coaching draws upon adult learning theory. According to Rohlwing and Spelman (2014), adults learn through experience, reflection, dialogue, and context. Literacy coaching involves coaches and teachers interacting socially within the larger context of a school, drawing upon specific cultural beliefs and practices of educators. Those social interactions include dialogue and conversation meant to foster meaningful reflection and discovery of new ideas, resulting in the transformation of teacher beliefs and practices.

A literacy coaching program must include time for long-term, one-on-one dialogue between the teacher and literacy coach in order for reflection to occur(Pletcher et al., 2019).The coaching conversations must be collaborative, establishing the coach and teacher as a team working toward specific literacy goals. The ongoing dialogue should include the literacy coach and teacher focusing on identifying essential skills required to read, write, and communicate in the teacher's particular discipline; in addition, the dialogue should prompt teacher reflection on explicit literacy instruction that includes communicating clearly to students the purpose of studying a particular subject and modeling how the experts in that subject approach text, think, speak, and do the discipline.

Literacy coaches who are knowledgeable about discipline-specific literacy skills are an essential part of the K-12 literacy program. Literacy coaches need to understand the literacy demands of each academic domain in order to challenge the content-area teacher's thinking with appropriate questions and suggestions (Spires et al., 2016). The literacy coach can help the teacher see how literacy instruction should emerge out of the need for students to comprehend complex texts, engage in specialized writing practices, and learn the language of that discipline (Smagorinsky, 2015). The literacy coach must be knowledgeable about resources they can provide to teachers as they work to implement this specialized instruction. Finally, the coach should establish an environment where the teacher feels safe to ask questions and take risks in the classroom.

Recommendations for Implementation of Literacy Coaching in the K-12 Classroom
Dimension 1: Literacy coaches support a collaborative learning process with the K-12 teacher to create a successful learning environment for the teacher and the students in the classroom.

Literacy coaches should first build trust and a relationship with the classroom teacher and students within a classroom to effectively create an environment for learning (Morgan et al., 2019). Cultivating these relationships will allow each participant to engage in a meaningful learning experience.

The role of the literacy coach is to facilitate and encourage deep thinking within the classroom teacher and to allow for the teacher to reflect on their own literacy practice (Hudson & Pletcher, 2020).

Daily techniques, such as questioning and reflection, should be modeled by the literacy coach rather than expressly stated to allow for teacher introspection and individualized growth (Hudson & Pletcher, 2020). These practices can then be replicated by the teacher as they instill these same skills in their students.

Constructive feedback should be modeled at each level of the process, as providing assessment is a critical part of learning and growth (Morgan et al., 2019). The literacy coach, teacher, and students should create a symbiotic system of learning within the classroom environment.

Literacy coaches must acknowledge and focus on the different strengths of each teacher they serve (Morgan et al., 2019). Just as we differentiate learning for students, a differentiated approach to coaching is paramount for teacher growth.

The experience of expert, veteran teachers should be considered and utilized by the literacy coach, as one-to-one coaching is not always tenable. The literacy coach should cultivate internal leadership to empower teachers and allow for the coach to tend to novice teachers and other responsibilities of their role (Pletcher et al., 2019).

Literacy coaches themselves must receive coaching, just as the teachers with whom they collaborate do. Professional development of literacy coaches can occur inside the building through collaboration with administration and expert teachers, or externally through courses and training specific to their discipline (Pletcher et al., 2019).

Dimension 2: K-12 literacy coaches center teacher and student voices, rather than assuming a deficit approach.

An integral part of coaching and learning ensures that educators honor the lives, cultures, languages, and histories of every reader and writer in our classrooms (Souto-Manning & Martell, 2016). The NCTE position statement on Expanding Opportunities: Academic Success for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students affirms this statement.

Teachers and students work collaboratively to define the criteria they will use to assess the work. This may involve co-creating with a teacher, with peers, or with experts who work in the field of their study (Kallick & Zmuda, 2017).

"As coaches study the process or products of student work, they develop the capacity to describe and observe the work before making judgments" (Kallick & Zmuda, 2017, p. 102). Students need to build a habit of "striving for accuracy, with the full realization that they are also striving for excellence" (Kallick & Zmuda, 2017, p. 103).

Culturally responsive coaching is based upon being in partnership with teachers, helping them see what they can enhance to help students step into their learning in powerful ways. The coach needs to understand what truly makes instruction "responsive," ensuring that affirming and validating texts and practices are represented, as described in the Position Statement on Indigenous Peoples and People of Color (IPOC) in English and Language Arts Materials

This process involves an assessment of how the teacher is igniting intellectual curiosity and chunking content, ensuring that there are cognitive hooks that draw upon students' understanding and current experience (Hammond, 2014).

When establishing a culture of coaching, the role of the coach is to empower and collaborate with teachers and students, espousing a belief system that is steeped in improvement rather than remediation. Routman (2014) states, "Schools that are high achieving have a culture of 'each one, teach one' . . . as the level of teaching expertise in a school varies . . ." (p. 210).

Dimension 3: Literacy coaches reach students across grade levels and a range of language levels, incorporating technology throughout their work, when applicable.

Literacy coaches provide opportunities for teachers to reflect upon their practice, which, in turn, supports students in their progress in the area of reading, as discussed in The Act of Reading: Instructional Foundations and Policy Guidelines. Questioning provided by the literacy coach supports the teacher in specifying which areas of their practice they may want to focus on or alter to best meet the needs of their current students at that time. This is especially important for students who are ELLs-see NCTE Position Paper on the of English Teachers in Educating English Language Learners.

Literacy coaches offer reflection and observation of ELL learning and the methods employed by the teacher. "Capturing teacher language and the instructional interaction helps create an overview and record of the lesson," which can be used as a tool for teacher reflection in a later conversation (Morgan & Bates, 2020, p. 679).

Hudson & Pletcher (2020) note that "when focused on authentic data collected by teachers in their classrooms, the conversation's emphasis is on instructional strategies that would best support students' growth in reading. This concrete set of data helps the teacher and the coach work together to determine where the needs exist" (p. 3).

Literacy coaches can further leverage technology to record a portion of a lesson via video or voice recorder, which allows the coach and teacher to later revisit the lesson in a manner that allows the teacher to reflect as they observe themselves.

Literacy coaches use multiple sources of data, including anecdotal records, stories, literacy snapshots, photographs, video, and social media to capture moments of learning and growth through transparency and celebration of learning.

Literacy coaches support diverse levels of learners by encouraging "educators to consider the effects and side effects of the learning environments we embody and the instruction we enact . . ." as student needs are changing continuously with a range of skills, competencies, and dispositions (Morgan et al., 2019, p. 386). The Definition of Literacy in a Digital Age supports this statement.

Dimension 4: Literacy coaches in a K-12 setting need to balance the various roles of a literacy professional in order to effectively meet the needs of students, teachers, and administrators.

Time spent in the classroom with an individual teacher could be for a model lesson, observation, planning, or co-teaching.

Additional pockets of time should be devoted to planning for and facilitating coaching conversations in order to guide reflective practice in teachers' literacy practices and beliefs. Coaching conversations provide a forum for teachers "to think deeply about their students, reflect on their classroom practices, and take ownership of problem solving for issues that arise in their literacy block" (Pletcher et al., 2019, p. 689).

It is important that K-12 literacy coaches stick to a schedule while remaining flexible. While a consistent schedule is key to developing purposeful work with teachers, it is important for coaches to remain flexible, as tasks may change throughout the year.

K-12 literacy coaches must balance their professional development agenda with those of teachers. A teacher survey that offers teachers opportunities to choose what they want to study can be quite powerful. In addition, inviting teachers to complete instructional support forms and to choose from a coaching menu empowers teachers to contribute to their own professional development. Shifting from Professional Development to Professional Learning: Centering Teacher Empowerment further discusses this lens.

Administrators need to support K-12 literacy coaches to create a schedule that allows the literacy professional with the flexibility to alternate between their respective roles. Formulating a job description with their administrator and revising it, as needed, to best match their given role on their campus is important.

Dimension 5: Collaborative coaching conversations can enlist a range of conversational elements to empower and honor all voices.

Language that affirms the classroom teacher's knowledge and expertise causes deep thinking and reflection.

Literacy coaches also engage in student-centered coaching conversations that reflect continuous study and improvement for all learners.

Language that is nonthreatening and does not pressure the classroom teacher to implement too many instructional strategies or lessons at once is recommended (Heineke, 2013), as is language that expresses empathy for the teacher's busy schedule.

Use language that establishes the coach and teacher as an equitable team (Knight, 2004): We are in this together. I am working with you and am there for you. I will follow through for you-"partnership at its core is a deep belief that we are no more important than those with whom we work, and we should do everything we can to respect that equality" (p. 33).

Use language that addresses the larger purpose of studying a discipline: What are the essential skills/thought processes required for students to read, write, and communicate in a specific academic discipline (Moje, 2008; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2012; Lee & Spratley, 2010)?

Use language that prompts the teacher to reflect on the student perspective: What questions will students ask when engaging in disciplinary literacy (Di Domenico et al., 2017; Hudson & Pletcher, 2020)? How will students react as they analyze this visual? What will students find challenging? What will students find engaging about the texts in a specific discipline, including print and nonprint texts? Can students relate to an author's perspective?

Dimension 6: The universal role of the teacher as a literacy leader should be recognized and valued.

Affirm teachers as students and learners, with an emphasis on learners who assume increasing responsibility for self-directing learning and elevate teaching and learning for all (Routman, 2018, p. 137).

Teachers who do not have access to a literacy coach through their school can utilize literacy coach guidelines as outlined in this document, as well as from other professional articles, to participate in guided reflection on individual teaching practices. Questions from Morgan and Bates in the section "Examining Notes" would be a helpful place to begin. Particular attention to the organization and "well-captured" nature of the notes will impact usefulness during reflection (Morgan & Bates, 2020, p. 680-81).

Teachers can locate additional professional development resources in the form of books, websites, blogs, and videos that they personally curate (Morgan et al., 2019).

After a goal has been established, a teacher can work on achieving small incremental increases toward the goal over a period of time. This makes the goal more achievable in gradually shifting the literacy culture of the classroom. Morgan et al. suggest the 1% model, moving 1% closer to the goal each day. "Teachers may decide on a goal to increase the volume of reading for students. The teachers identify 1% improvements that could help them reach the larger goal in a manageable and systematic way. An agreed-upon 1% improvement may include adding minutes incrementally until a designated time is reached. Another 1% improvement could be offering book talks once a week to generate student interest and motivation" (2019, p. 386).

Teachers working with each other in lieu of a literacy coach should focus their reflections to be shorter and focused. Pletcher et al. noted "a 12-15-minute conversation can be just as powerful as a 30-minute coaching conversation" (2019, p. 696).

School members subscribe to the belief that "everyone in the community needs to excel, and that requires doing what we can to support each other every day to improve teaching and learning for all" (Routman, 2014, p. 210)-and that values the literacy coach as a lifelong learner.

Research Basis for Recommendations
Berliner, D. C. (2001). Learning about and learning from expert teachers. International Journal of Educational Research, 35, 463-482.

Biancarosa, G., Bryk, A. S., & Dexter, E. R. (2010). Assessing the value-added effects of Literacy Collaborative professional development on student learning. The Elementary School Journal, 111(1), 7-34.

Di Domenico, P. M., Elish-Piper, L., Manderino, M., & L'Allier, S. K. (2017). Coaching to support disciplinary literacy instruction: Navigating complexity and challenges for sustained teacher change. Literacy Research and Instruction, 57(2), 81-99.

Elish-Piper, L., & L'Allier, S. K. (2011). Examining the relationship between literacy coaching and reading gains in grades k-3. The Elementary School Journal, 112(1), 83-106.

Hammond, Z. (2014). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain. Corwin.

Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge.

Hattie, J. (2015). What doesn't work in education: The politics of distraction. Pearson.

Heineke, S. F. (2013). Coaching discourse: Supporting teachers' professional learning. The Elementary School Journal, 113(3), 410-433.

Hudson, A. K., & Pletcher, B. (2020). The art of asking questions: Unlocking the power of a coach's language. The Reading Teacher, 74(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1911

Kallick, B., & Zmuda, A. (2017). Students at the center: Personalized learning with habits of mind. ASCD.

Knight, J. (2004). Instructional coaches make progress through partnership. Journal of Staff Development 25(2), 32-37.

Lee, C. D., & Spratley, A. (2010). Reading in the disciplines: The challenges of adolescent literacy. Carnegie Corporation of New York.

Matsumura, L. C., Garnier, H. E., Correnti, R., Junker, B., & DiPrima Bickel, D. (2010). Investigating the effectiveness of a comprehensive literacy coaching program in schools with high teacher mobility. The Elementary School Journal, 111(1), 35-62.

Moje, E. B. (2008). Foregrounding the disciplines in secondary literacy teaching and learning: A call for change. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(2), 96-107.

Morgan, D. N., & Bates, C. C. (2020). Coaching notes: Considerations and possibilities. The Reading Teacher, 73(5), 678-681. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1892

Morgan, D. N., Bates, C. C., Aker, L. D., Dawson, J., Doswell, B. D., Lancaster, P., Puig, E. A., & Williams, J. L. (2019). Coaching and professional learning: Looking for inspiration. The

Reading Teacher, 73(3), 385-389. https​://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1859

Pletcher, B. C., Hudson, A. K., John, L., & Scott, A. (2019). Coaching on borrowed time: Balancing the roles of the literacy professional. The Reading Teacher, 72(6), 689-699. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1777

Pomerantz, F., & Pierce, M. (2013). "When do we get to read?" Reading instruction and literacy coaching in a "failed" urban elementary school. Reading Improvement, 50(3), 101-117.

Rohlwing, R. L., & Spelman, M. (2014). Characteristics of adult learning: Implications for the design and implementation of professional development programs. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices (pp. 231-245). Guilford Press.

Routman, R. (2014). Read, write, lead: Breakthrough strategies for schoolwide literacy success. Stenhouse.

Routman, R. (2018). Literacy essentials: Engagement, excellence, and equity for all learners. Stenhouse.

Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2012). What is disciplinary literacy and why does it matter? Topics in Language Disorders, 32(1), 7-18.

Smagorinsky, P. (2015). Disciplinary literacy in English language arts. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 59(2), 141-146.

Souto-Manning, M., & Martell, J. (2016). Reading, writing, and talk: Inclusive teaching strategies for diverse learners, K-2. Teachers College Press.

Spires, H. A., Kerkhoff, S. N., & Graham, A. C. K. (2016). Disciplinary literacy and inquiry: Teaching for deeper content learning. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 60(2), 151-161.

Toll, C. (2005). The literacy coach's survival guide. International Reading Association.

Toll, C. (2014). The literacy coach's survival guide (2nd ed). International Reading Association.

Vernon-Feagans, L., Kainz, K., Amendum, S., Ginsberg, M., Wood, T., & Block, A. (2012). Targeted reading intervention: A coaching model to help classroom teachers with struggling readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 35(2), 102-114.
STATEMENT AUTHORS
Anne Katz, Chair, Georgia Southern University, Savannah

Kaitlynn Cooper, McQueen High School, Reno, NV

JoEllen McCarthy, Northport, NY

Bilal Polson, Northern Parkway School, Uniondale, NY

Kathy Smith, Downers Grove North High School, IL

Caitlin Spears, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
This position statement may be printed, copied, and disseminated without permission from NCTE.

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Elevating Student Voice: The Role and Importance of Literacy Coaches for K-12 Teachers

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OVERVIEW This position statement was written for K-12 teachers in order to focus on the role and importance of literacy ...

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Brady, S. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Implications from Post-NRP research. In S. Brady, D. Braze, & C. Fowler (Eds.), Explaining individual differences in reading (pp. 69-96), London: Psychology Press.

Denton, C. A., Fletcher, J. M., Taylor, W. P., Barth, A. E., & Vaughn, S. (2014). An experimental evaluation of Guided Reading and explicit interventions for primary-grade students at-risk for reading difficulties. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 7(3), 268-293.

Ehri, L., Nunes, R. S., Stahl, S., & Willows, D. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71, 393-447.

Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke, J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from the NCEE website: http://whatworks.ed.gov

Kilpatrick, D. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

McCardle, P., & Chhabra, V. (Eds.). (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore, MD, Paul H. Brookes.

National Early Literacy Panel (NELP). (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child and Human Development.

Seidenberg, M. (2017). Language at the speed of sight: How we read, why so many can't, and what can be done about it. New York: Basic Books.

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Structured Literacy Instruction: The Basics

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Structured Literacy prepares students to decode words in an explicit and systematic manner. This approach not only helps students with dyslexia, but there is substantial evidence that it is effective for all readers. Get the basics on the six elements of Structured Literacy and how each element is taught.

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John Hattie on Teacher Collective Self-Efficacy

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John Hattie on Teacher Collective Self-Efficacy

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An interview with John Hattie by James Nottingham, creator of the Learning Pit: What is Collective Efficacy?

More info at: www.challenginglearning.com/portfolio/visible-learning

Professor John Hattie of the University of Melbourne, Australia, is a global authority on education effectiveness. His extensive research is the world’s largest evidence base on what works best in schools to improve learning.

For more information about his work, go to www.visiblelearning.com 

This interview was hosted by James Nottingham, creator of the Learning Pit® and owner/director of Challenging Learning, a group of six companies in six countries. For more information about his work, go to www.challenginglearning.com

The interview was recorded in Stockholm during a conference tour that Hattie and Nottingham were going together, 2017

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CT.gov - Connecticut's Official State Website

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Center for Literacy Research and Reading Success

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Center for Literacy Research and Reading Success

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Visible Learning for Literacy, Grades K-12

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Ensure students demonstrate more than a year’s worth of learning during a school year by implementing the right literacy practice at the right m…