# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Preventing the Spread of Contagious Diseases

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Preventing the Spread of contagious Diseases - some suggestions provided on how to stop the spread of diseases

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Protect the Patient, Clinician and Equipment with EZCOVER® Probe Cover Set

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
EZCOVER Probe Cover Set is a complete, ready-to-use sterile solution designed to support safe ultrasound procedures without compromising image quality.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) News, Research and Analysis - The Conversation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Browse Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) news, research and analysis from The Conversation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Understakers have had to take special precautions following a spike in COVID-19 related burials. EFE-EPA/Kim Ludbrook

The coronavirus pandemic has killed over a million people globally and disrupted healthcare and political systems, economies, social bonds and religious practices.

What can South Africa's Bill of Rights and international human rights treaties contribute to coronavirus responses and recovery strategies in the country and globally?

My central argument is that human rights provide tools to help states build fairer societies and economies. Such societies will be more resilient to future shocks.

A human rights-based approach to the pandemic is based on values. It prioritises the most disadvantaged and vulnerable and it is holistic. It also highlights international assistance and cooperation.

Value-based approach

The values of human dignity, equality and freedom lie at the heart of human rights, and are the founding values of South Africa's constitution. These values require the state and private actors to recognise that every life is equally valuable. Everyone should have the civil and political freedoms - and the economic, social and cultural means - to develop to their full potential.

Governments can promote these values by acknowledging people's agency. People should have meaningful opportunities to participate in response and recovery programmes. For example, a broad range of civil society bodies must get a chance to shape the budgetary decisions underlying economic recovery.

The goal of all response measures should be to create an environment in which all can live in dignity without excessive inequalities on grounds of race, gender and socio-economic status.

Setting priorities

Human rights help governments set priorities in responding to the pandemic. People who are most disadvantaged and vulnerable should be the central focus.

The pandemic and lockdowns have had the most severe impact on people living in poverty. In South Africa, that overwhelmingly means black people. Among them are people in overcrowded informal settlements without adequate water or the space to comply with social distance guidelines. Also harshly affected are workers in the informal sector, migrant workers, refugees and asylum seekers. Many have not been able to access economic relief.

Because traditional gender roles persist, women have had to bear the biggest burden of child care, home schooling and domestic work while trying to keep their jobs.

Human rights require states to put the needs of such groups first when it comes to budgets, laws, policies and programmes. Economic reforms and other pandemic responses should be based on a systematic human rights impact assessment.

Interdependence and accountability

The third contribution of human rights is that they oblige governments to develop a holistic, integrated response to the pandemic.

South Africa's constitution and international human rights law recognise that all human rights - civil, political, economic, social, cultural and environmental - are interdependent and interrelated. This means the right to life and health must be protected through science-based measures. Governments must also protect people's access to socio-economic rights like food, social security and education.

Countries without strong public healthcare systems, food distribution networks, access to water, social protection programmes or affordable, equitable internet access have struggled to cope with the pandemic. South Africa must strengthen its investments in socioeconomic rights and in the public service that is responsible for delivering these to people.

As the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has stated, economic, social and cultural rights are indispensable to pandemic strategies. Establishing universal healthcare systems and comprehensive social protection programmes will improve the resilience of societies to future shocks.

Eskinder Debebe/UN Photo / Handout

The pandemic has also shown the importance of civil and political rights and freedoms. Many countries, including South Africa, have adopted exceptional measures to curb the virus. These have limited, or even suspended, rights such as freedom of movement, assembly, expression and religion.

Lockdown measures have sometimes been enforced with heavy-handed action by security forces. People in informal settlements have borne the brunt of such abuses of power and violations of human rights.

While restrictions on civil and political liberties may be necessary to protect lives, human rights law requires that they go no further than what's strictly necessary to achieve this goal. It also requires safeguards to prevent abuses.

By respecting people's democratic rights and freedoms, and ensuring that limitations are not excessive, states help preserve trust in the legitimacy of the measures to contain the virus. Thus compliance is likely to be higher.

Effective remedies for human rights violations also help promote accountable government. A good example is the recent High Court judgment ordering the South African government to ensure that school meals are provided to all qualifying children, whether they are attending school or not.

International assistance and cooperation

The final principle that international human rights law, particularly the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, recognises is that of international assistance and cooperation. This principle acknowledges that the fates of all are intertwined. As UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres has noted:

If one country fails in its efforts to control the spread of the virus, all countries are at risk. The world is only as strong as the weakest health system.

International assistance and cooperation includes ensuring universal access to the benefits of scientific advances relating to COVID-19 such as in testing, treatments and vaccines. It also includes debt relief and development aid where economies have been devastated. The principle promotes global solidarity, which will be vital in efforts to beat the current and future pandemics.

Human rights require states to respond to the pandemic in ways that reduce inequalities and poverty, and promote participation, accountability and international solidarity. They can help South Africa and all countries to emerge better prepared for future crises.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why human rights should guide responses to the global pandemic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The coronavirus pandemic has killed over a million people globally and disrupted healthcare and political systems, economies, social bonds and religious practices. What can South Africa's Bill of Rights and international human rights treaties contribute to coronavirus responses and recovery strategies in the country and globally?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Global Challenge 8 - The Millennium Project

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
“Global Challenge 8 is to explore the evolving landscape of global health amid pandemics, climate change, and technological advancements.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Scientists and medical researchers have for years have differed over the exact definition of a pandemic ( is it a pandemic, or an epidemic), but one thing everyone agrees on is that the word describes the widespread occurrence of disease, in excess of what might normally be expected in a geographical region.

Cholera, bubonic plague, smallpox, and influenza are some of the most brutal killers in human history. And outbreaks of these diseases across international borders, are properly defined as pandemic, especially smallpox, which throughout history, has killed between 300-500 million people in its 12,000 year existence.

What About Covid-19 (the Novel Coronavirus)?

Beginning in December 2019, in the region of Wuhan, China, a new ("novel") coronavirus began appearing in human beings. It has been named Covid-19, a shortened form of "coronavirus disease of 2019." This new virus spreads incredibly quickly between people, due to its newness - no one on earth has an immunity to Covid-19, because no one had Covid-19 until 2019. While it was initially seen to be an epidemic in China, the virus spread worldwide within months. The WHO declared Covid-19 a pandemic in March, and by the end of that month, the world saw more than a half-million people infected and nearly 30,000 deaths. The infection rate in the US and other nations was still spiking.

With the coronavirus pandemic, people all over the world have become more aware of the best practices during a pandemic, from careful hand-washing to social distancing. Countries across the world declared mandatory staty-at-home measures, closing schools, businesses, and public places. Dozens of companies and many more independent researchers began working on tests, treatments, and vaccines. The push for the human race to survive the pandemic became the primary concern in the world.

The outcome of the Covid-19 pandemic is impossible to predict, at the time of this writing. But we can learn from pandemics in history to determine our best courses. These are our teachers - the Spanish flu, the AIDS pandemic, and more.

HIV/AIDS Pandemic (at its peak, 2005-2012)

Death Toll: 36 million
Cause: HIV/AIDS
First identified in Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1976, HIV/AIDS has truly proven itself as a global pandemic, killing more than 36 million people since 1981. Currently there are between 31 and 35 million people living with HIV, the vast majority of those are in Sub-Saharan Africa, where 5% of the population is infected, roughly 21 million people. As awareness has grown, new treatments have been developed that make HIV far more manageable, and many of those infected go on to lead productive lives. Between 2005 and 2012 the annual global deaths from HIV/AIDS dropped from 2.2 million to 1.6 million.

Flu Pandemic (1968)

Death Toll: 1 million
Cause: Influenza
A category 2 Flu pandemic sometimes referred to as "the Hong Kong Flu," the 1968 flu pandemic was caused by the H3N2 strain of the Influenza A virus, a genetic offshoot of the H2N2 subtype. From the first reported case on July 13, 1968 in Hong Kong, it took only 17 days before outbreaks of the virus were reported in Singapore and Vietnam, and within three months had spread to The Philippines, India, Australia, Europe, and the United States. While the 1968 pandemic had a comparatively low mortality rate (.5%) it still resulted in the deaths of more than a million people, including 500,000 residents of Hong Kong, approximately 15% of its population at the time.

Featured Schools

Asian Flu (1956-1958)

Death Toll: 2 million
Cause: Influenza
Asian Flu was a pandemic outbreak of Influenza A of the H2N2 subtype, that originated in China in 1956 and lasted until 1958. In its two-year spree, Asian Flu traveled from the Chinese province of Guizhou to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States. Estimates for the death toll of the Asian Flu vary depending on the source, but the World Health Organization places the final tally at approximately 2 million deaths, 69,800 of those in the US alone.

Flu Pandemic (1918)

Death Toll: 20 -50 million
Cause: Influenza
Between 1918 and 1920 a disturbingly deadly outbreak of influenza tore across the globe, infecting over a third of the world's population and ending the lives of 20 - 50 million people. Of the 500 million people infected in the 1918 pandemic, the mortality rate was estimated at 10% to 20%, with up to 25 million deaths in the first 25 weeks alone. What separated the 1918 flu pandemic from other influenza outbreaks was the victims; where influenza had always previously only killed juveniles and the elderly or already weakened patients, it had begun striking down hardy and completely healthy young adults, while leaving children and those with weaker immune systems still alive.

Sixth Cholera Pandemic (1910-1911)

Death Toll: 800,000+
Cause: Cholera
Like its five previous incarnations, the Sixth Cholera Pandemic originated in India where it killed over 800,000, before spreading to the Middle East, North Africa, Eastern Europe and Russia. The Sixth Cholera Pandemic was also the source of the last American outbreak of Cholera (1910-1911). American health authorities, having learned from the past, quickly sought to isolate the infected, and in the end only 11 deaths occurred in the U.S. By 1923 Cholera cases had been cut down dramatically, although it was still a constant in India.

Flu Pandemic (1889-1890)

Death Toll: 1 million
Cause: Influenza
Originally the "Asiatic Flu" or "Russian Flu" as it was called, this strain was thought to be an outbreak of the Influenza A virus subtype H2N2, though recent discoveries have instead found the cause to be the Influenza A virus subtype H3N8. The first cases were observed in May 1889 in three separate and distant locations, Bukhara in Central Asia (Turkestan), Athabasca in northwestern Canada, and Greenland. Rapid population growth of the 19th century, specifically in urban areas, only helped the flu spread, and before long the outbreak had spread across the globe. Though it was the first true epidemic in the era of bacteriology and much was learned from it. In the end, the 1889-1890 Flu Pandemic claimed the lives of over a million individuals.

Third Cholera Pandemic (1852-1860)

Death Toll: 1 million
Cause: Cholera
Generally considered the most deadly of the seven cholera pandemics, the third major outbreak of Cholera in the 19th century lasted from 1852 to 1860. Like the first and second pandemics, the Third Cholera Pandemic originated in India, spreading from the Ganges River Delta before tearing through Asia, Europe, North America and Africa and ending the lives of over a million people. British physician John Snow, while working in a poor area of London, tracked cases of cholera and eventually succeeded in identifying contaminated water as the means of transmission for the disease. Unfortunately the same year as his discovery (1854) went down as the worst year of the pandemic, in which 23,000 people died in Great Britain.

The Black Death (1346-1353)

Death Toll: 75 - 200 million
Cause: Bubonic Plague
From 1346 to 1353 an outbreak of the Plague ravaged Europe, Africa, and Asia, with an estimated death toll between 75 and 200 million people. Thought to have originated in Asia, the Plague most likely jumped continents via the fleas living on the rats that so frequently lived aboard merchant ships. Ports being major urban centers at the time, were the perfect breeding ground for the rats and fleas, and thus the insidious bacterium flourished, devastating three continents in its wake.

Plague of Justinian (541-542)

Death Toll: 25 million
Cause: Bubonic Plague
Thought to have killed perhaps half the population of Europe, the Plague of Justinian was an outbreak of the bubonic plague that afflicted the Byzantine Empire and Mediterranean port cities, killing up to 25 million people in its year long reign of terror. Generally regarded as the first recorded incident of the Bubonic Plague, the Plague of Justinian left its mark on the world, killing up to a quarter of the population of the Eastern Mediterranean and devastating the city of Constantinople, where at its height it was killing an estimated 5,000 people per day and eventually resulting in the deaths of 40% of the city's population.

Antonine Plague (165 AD)

Death Toll: 5 million
Cause: Unknown
Also known as the Plague of Galen, the Antonine Plague was an ancient pandemic that affected Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece, and Italy and is thought to have been either Smallpox or Measles, though the true cause is still unknown. This unknown disease was brought back to Rome by soldiers returning from Mesopotamia around 165AD; unknowingly, they had spread a disease which would end up killing over 5 million people and decimating the Roman army.

*New Coronavirus & Public Health Articles*

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Outbreak: 10 of the Worst Pandemics in History - MPH Online

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Scientists and medical researchers have for years have differed over the exact definition of a pandemic (is it a pandemic, or an epidemic), but one thing everyone agrees on is that the word describes the widespread occurrence of disease, in excess of what might normally be expected in a geographical region.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Global Impact of COVID-19: A Comprehensive Analysis of Its Effects on Various Aspects of Life

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In this study COVID-19 effects on different aspects of life that how this virus created a mess in every discipline of life starting from a small tuck shop of a street to a huge business with a chain between different countries; and some preventive…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Black Death was the second pandemic of bubonic plague and the most devastating pandemic in world history. It was a descendant of the ancient plague that had afflicted Rome, from 541 to 549 CE, during the time of emperor Justinian. The bubonic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, persisted for centuries in wild rodent colonies in Central Asia and, somewhere in the early 1300s, mutated into a form much more virulent to humans.

At about the same time, it began to spread globally. It moved from Central Asia to China in the early 1200s and reached the Black Sea in the late 1340s. Hitting the Middle East and Europe between 1347 and 1351, the Black Death had aftershocks still felt into the early 1700s. When it was over, the European population was cut by a third to a half, and China and India suffered death on a similar scale.

Traditionally, historians have argued that the transmission of the plague involved movement of plague-infected fleas from wild rodents to the household black rat. However, evidence now suggests that it must have been transmitted first by direct human contact with rodents and then via human fleas and head lice. This new explanation better explains the bacteria's very rapid movement along trade routes throughout Eurasia and into sub-Saharan Africa.

At the time, people thought that the plague came into Mediterranean ports by ship. But, it is also becoming clear that small pools of plague had been established in Europe for centuries, apparently in wild rodent communities in the high passes of the Alps.

The remains of Bubonic plague victims in Martigues, France.

We know a lot about the impact of the Black Death from both the documentary record and from archaeological excavations. Within the last few decades, the genetic signature of the plague has been positively identified in burials across Europe.

The bacillus was deadly and took both rich and poor, rural and urban: the daughter of King Edward III of England died of the plague in the summer of 1348. But quickly-at least in Europe-the rich learned to barricade their households against its reach, and the poor suffered disproportionately.

Strikingly, if a mother survived the plague, her children tended to survive; if she died, they died with her. In the late 1340s, news of the plague spread and people knew it was coming: plague pits recently discovered in London were dug before the arrival of the epidemic.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder's 1562 painting "The Triumph of Death" depicts the turmoil Europe experienced as a result of the plague.

The Black Death pandemic was a profound rupture that reshaped the economy, society and culture in Europe. Most immediately, the Black Death drove an intensification of Christian religious belief and practice, manifested in portents of the apocalypse, in extremist cults that challenged the authority of the clergy, and in Christian pogroms against Europe's Jews.

This intensified religiosity had long-range institutional impacts. Combined with the death of many clergy, fears of sending students on long, dangerous journeys, and the fortuitous appearance of rich bequests, the heightened religiosity inspired the founding of new universities and new colleges at older ones.

The proliferation of new centers of learning and debate subtly undermined the unity of Medieval Christianity. It also set the stage for the rise of stronger national identities and ultimately for the Reformation that split Christianity in the 16 th century.

Depiction of the Great Plauge of London in 1665 (left). A copper engraving of a seventeenth-century plague doctor (right).

The disruption caused by the plague also shaped new directions in medical knowledge. Doctors tending the sick during the plague learned from their direct experience and began to rebel against ancient medical doctrine. The Black Death made clear that disease was not caused by an alignment of the stars but from a contagion. Doctors became committed to a new empirical approach to medicine and the treatment of disease. Here, then, lie the distant roots of the Scientific Revolution.

Quarantines were directly connected to this new empiricism, and the almost instinctive social distancing of Europe's middling and elite households. The first quarantine was established in 1377 at the Adriatic port of Ragussa. By the 1460s quarantines were routine in the European Mediterranean.

Major outbreaks of plague in 1665 and 1721 in London and Marseille were the result of breakdowns in this quarantine barrier. From the late 17th century to 1871 the Habsburg Empire maintained an armed "cordon sanitaire" against plague eruptions from the Ottoman Empire.

Michel Serre's painting depicting the 1721 plague outbreak in Marseille.

As with the rise of national universities, the building of quarantine structures against the plague was a dimension in the emergence of state power in Europe.

Through all of this turmoil and trauma, the common people who survived the Black Death emerged to new opportunities in emptied lands. We have reasonably good wage data for England, and wage rates rose dramatically and rapidly, as masters and landlords were willing to pay more for increasingly scarce labor.

The famous French historian Marc Bloch argued that medieval society began to break down at this time because the guaranteed flow of income from the labor of the poor into noble households ended with the depopulation of the plague. The rising autonomy of the poor contributed both to peasant uprisings and to late medieval Europe's thinly disguised resource wars, as nobles and their men at arms attempted to replace rent with plunder.

At the same time, the ravages of the Black Death decimated the ancient trade routes bringing spices and fine textiles from the East, ending what is known as the Medieval World System, running between China, India, and the Mediterranean.

By the 1460s, the Portuguese-elbowed out of the European resource wars-began a search for new ways to the East, making their way south along the African coast, launching an economic globalization that after 1492 included the Americas.

And we should remember that this first globalization would lead directly to another great series of pandemics, not the plague but chickenpox, measles, and smallpox, which in the centuries following Columbus's landing would kill the great majority of the native peoples of the Americas.

In these ways we still live in a world shaped by the Black Death.
-Posted June 2, 2020 This content is made possible, in part, by Ohio Humanities, a state affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities. Any views, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this content do not necessarily represent those of the National Endowment for the Humanities.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Black Death, Globalization, and the World Today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Black Death was the second pandemic of bubonic plague and the most devastating pandemic in world history. It was a descendant of the ancient plague that had afflicted Rome, from 541 to 549 CE, during the time of emperor Justinian.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Read more about risks of HIV/AIDS exposure, including the challenges in calculating, types of sex with varying percentages, and interpreting the numbers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Working for Health Programme is a joint partnership between the World Health Organization (WHO), International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to expand and transform the health and social workforce to drive inclusive economic growth and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Working for Health contributes to universal health coverage and to SDG 3, 4, 5 and 8 (health, education, gender equality, decent work and economic growth) through the Five-Year Action Plan on Health Employment and Inclusive Economic Growth 2017-2021. In 2020, Working for Health supported thirty-two countries and two regional economic areas namely, the Southern African Development Community and the West African Economic and Monetary Union. The Working for Health Programme supports strengthening health workforce data globally through the International Platform on Health Worker Mobility Platform on Health Worker Mobility and Inter-Agency Data Exchange (IADEx).
The Global Health Workforce Network
The WHO led/coordinated network Global Health Workforce Network was established in 2016, following a request by Member States and building on a proposal by the Board of the Global Health Workforce Alliance. The Network operates within WHO as a global mechanism for stakeholder consultation, dialogue and coordination on comprehensive and coherent health workforce policies in support of the implementation of the Global Strategy on Human Resources for Health and the recommendations of the Commission.
Key national and local partners

ministries of health, education, labour, finance, national planning, gender, youth

professional associations and trade unions

regulatory authorities

private providers

civil society.

Key international partners
International Labour Organization (ILO), The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), The World Bank, The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), The European Union (EU), International NGOs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Health systems can only function with health workers; improving health service coverage and realizing the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is dependent on their availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is an antiseptic?

An antiseptic is a chemical agent that slows or stops the growth of microorganisms on external surfaces of the body and helps to prevent .

Antiseptics should be distinguished from antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms inside the body; and from disinfectants, which destroy microorganisms found on inanimate (non-living) objects. Antiseptics can be referred to as skin disinfectants.

What are antiseptics used for?

When the skin or mucous membranes are damaged or breached, an antiseptic can be used to cleanse the area and reduce the chance of infection by normally occurring microorganisms. Antiseptics kill, inhibit, or reduce the number of microorganisms by mechanical removal or chemical activity.

Antiseptics are commonly used for:

Hand washing - chlorhexidine gluconate and povidone-iodine solutions are often used in hand rubs in hospitals and other health care settings. Alcohol in concentrations > 60% will destroy pathogens such as the SARS-CoV-19 virus.

Preoperative skin disinfection - antiseptics can be used to clean intact skin prior to an operation (to reduce the risk of surgical site infections ) or a procedure such as intravenous (IV) cannulation.

Mucous membrane disinfection - antiseptic irrigations may be instilled into the bladder, urethra, or vagina to cleanse the cavity prior to a medical procedure such as catheterisation.

Preventing and treating infected skin - antiseptics can be used to clean contaminated cuts, wounds, abrasions, burns, and bites, including in some skin conditions such as acne and (eczema). See also: Wound cleansers.

Treating oral infections - mouth and throat infections can be treated with antiseptic throat lozenges, gargles, and mouthwashes.

Many agents can be used as both an antiseptic and a disinfectant, depending on the concentration. For example, hydrogen peroxide 6% solution is used for cleansing wounds, while stronger solutions (>30%) are used in industry as bleach and oxidising agents.

Types of antiseptics

Antiseptics can be classified according to their chemical structure. The following table lists commonly used antiseptic groups and some examples.

Table 1. Antiseptic groups and examples

Quaternary ammonium compounds

Skin disinfectant

Irrigation

Eye drop preservative

Benzalkonium chloride

Cetrimide

Methylbenzethonium chloride

Cetalkonium chloride

Cetylpyridinium chloride

Dofanium chloride

Demiphen bromide

Chlorhexidine and other diguanides

Pre-operative skin disinfectant

Wound treatment

Bladder irritation

Dental antiseptic at lower concentrations

Chlorhexidine gluconate

Chlorhexidine acetate

Chlorine and hypochlorites

Iodine compounds

Skin disinfectant (including pre-operative)

Wound treatment

Peroxide and permanganates

Halogenated phenol derivatives

Skin disinfectant

Medicated soap and solution

Chlorocresol

Chloroxylenol

Chlorophene

Hexachlorophane / hexachloropene (no longer available)

Triclosan (no longer available in over-the-counter antiseptics in the US as of 2016)

Quinolone derivatives

Wound treatment

In throat lozenges

Skin disinfectant

Hydroxyquinoline sulphate

Potassium hydroxyquinoline sulphate

Chlorquinaldol

Dequalinium chloride

Diiodohydroxyquinoline

Other

Various uses eg, skin disinfectant, wound or bite treatment

Burow's solution (aqueous solution of aluminium acetate)

What are the precautions when using antiseptics?

Table 2. Antiseptic contraindications and precautions

Ethyl alcohol

Cover cuts or broken skin with waterproof plasters before using alcohol-based hand rub to prevent stinging

Do not ingest

Keep away from potential sources of ignition such as electrical outlets or electrocautery due to flammability

Chlorhexidine gluconate

Hypersensitivity (both immediate type 1 reactions and allergic contact dermatitis)

Infants <2 months (risk of dermal irritation or chemical burns)

Avoid contact with eyes and ears

Do not swallow

Wait 30 minutes after brushing teeth before using mouthwash

Povidone - iodine

Pregnancy (esp. vaginal products)

Lactation

Infants <6 months

Deep puncture wounds

Serious burns

Iodine/povidone sensitivity

Thyroid disease

Avoid regular use in patients taking lithium

Do not ingest topical formulations or apply to eyes (ophthalmic preparations are also available)

Hydrogen peroxide

Hypersensitivity

Children <2 years

Use in the eyes or over large areas of the body

Use during surgery or in closed body cavities

Prolonged use (longer than a week)

Deep puncture wounds

Animal bites

Burns

Avoid use in the eyes

Avoid use on healthy skin

Can bleach fabric

Avoid concomitant use with iodine or potassium permanganate

Benzoyl peroxide

Use in neonates

Breastfeeding: avoid application to breasts

Avoid contact of acne treatments with eyes, mouth, and mucous membranes

Avoid excessive exposure to sunlight

Can bleach fabrics or hair

Pregnancy

What are the benefits and disadvantages of antiseptics?

Antiseptics reduce the number of microorganisms living on the skin, in wounds, and in mucous membranes. They can be particularly useful when an individual needs to cleanse the skin quickly. Many antiseptics are available to buy over-the-counter at pharmacies, making them convenient and easily accessible.

Antiseptics can cause severe skin irritation or chemical burns. Skin reactions may include erosions, ulcers, vesicles, and scarring. Allergic reaction such as immediate type 1 reactions, anaphylaxis, and allergic contact dermatitis may occur.

There is also the risk of product contamination from repeated use of topical antiseptics. This can lead to further problems such as localised or systemic infections when the contaminated product is reapplied to open skin, a wound, or a burn.

Alcohol-containing products are flammable and need to be kept away from fire at all times.

Antiseptic safety and efficacy

The effectiveness and complete safety of antiseptics have proven difficult to establish.

In September 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a final rule establishing that over-the-counter consumer antiseptic wash products containing any of the nineteen ingredients listed could not be marketed. This included triclosan and triclocarban. The rationale cited being:

Lack of evidence that antibacterial wash is more effective than plain soap and water at preventing illness.

Prolonged household use of antibacterial products such as antibacterial soaps may contribute to antibiotic resistance.

In December 2017, the FDA further ruled that 24 ingredients found in antiseptic products (including triclosan) were generally not recognised as safe and effective (often due to inadequate data). These required regulatory approval for marketing from December 2018 as new drugs. A decision was deferred on a further six ingredients ( benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, chloroxylenol, ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, and povidone- iodine).

It is important to note that antiseptics may impair wound healing if they kill skin cells that are involved in the healing process, such as fibroblasts. Routine use of antiseptics for cleansing clean wounds is no longer recommended. Pus and necrotic tissue can also inactivate some antiseptics, reducing their efficacy.

Antiseptics should also be differentiated from antibiotics. Antiseptics only reduce microorganisms on the surface of the tissue whereas antibiotics may be needed if infection exists within the tissues.

What are the side effects and risks of antiseptics?

Individuals using antiseptics need to do so correctly. Strong antiseptics should be appropriately diluted before being applied to the skin, as concentrated products may cause chemical burns or severe irritant contact dermatitis. Prolonged contact with dilute antiseptics can also cause erosive contact dermatitis, as described with chlorhexidine-impregnated dressings.

Antiseptic products should not be used for more than one week on acute wounds. Chronic wounds with no improvement after 10 to 14 days should be also referred for medical review.

Additional reasons to stop using an antiseptic and to seek medical attention include:

The affected area has not healed or improved

There is a large wound, deep cut, burn, or abrasion embedded with particles that won't wash away

Injury due to a human or animal bite.

People with allergies of any kind should check with a doctor or pharmacist before using an over-the-counter antiseptic product. Some antiseptics can irritate the skin and cause allergic contact dermatitis.

Side effects of common antiseptics are listed in the table below. Emollients and moisturisers are recommended after use if the hands are dry or develop contact dermatitis due to antiseptic use.

Table 3. Antiseptic side effects

Ethyl alcohol

Povidone-iodine

Skin irritation

Redness

Swelling

Irritant or allergic contact dermatitis

Can stain skin, hair, and clothing

Can potentially interfere with thyroid function test results

Chronic use in pregnancy may be associated with neonatal hypothyroidism

Rare case reports of iododerma associated with prolonged use of iodine-containing antiseptics to large areas of broken skin (see: Halogenoderma)

Hypersensitivity (rare)

Chlorhexidine gluconate

Mucosal irritation or reversible discolouration of teeth and tongue can occur with mouthwash

Skin sensitivity

Irritant and allergic contact dermatitis can be associated with chronic use

Conjunctivitis

Exposure to the middle ear can cause sensorineural deafness

Anaphylaxis (rare), particularly from mucosal exposure

Burow's solution (aluminium acetate)

Local irritation

Skin dryness

Hypersensitivity (rare)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Antiseptics are chemical agents that slow or stop the growth of micro-organisms on external body surfaces, helping prevent infections. They are distinguishable from antibiotics and disinfectants.

# data[].attributes.body
This site talks all about how people in somalia are struggling to afford things like food and water, much less are they able to afford healthcare. The impact of millions of people not being able to afford healthcare is death.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Socioeconomic and security barriers to accessing medical care

Many people in the Bay region of Somalia live in poverty, which makes it difficult to afford health care services and transportation to reach secondary health care services. The cost of transportation-up to $300 in some cases-can be prohibitive, forcing many to delay or forgo essential medical care, leading to high rates of illness and death from preventable diseases.

People in the Bay have been facing significant health and humanitarian challenges due to prolonged conflict, chronic instability, and climatic shocks leading to severe droughts and flash floods. The crumbling health care system further exacerbates the situation, leaving women and children the most vulnerable. The challenges they face in accessing health care are multifaceted, involving security, economics, culture, and infrastructural barriers.

Cultural norms and traditional practices play a substantial role in health care access. In many families, men make the health care decisions, leaving women without autonomy to make decisions about their own health and medical procedures. This delay in decision-making can lead to late arrivals at medical facilities. Additionally, a general mistrust of modern medical practices coupled with low rates of health awareness hinder the adoption of preventive and curative health care measures.

"There has been a widespread belief that undergoing surgery results in children being exchanged with others, leading many to refuse hospital treatment," said Habiba Mohamed Abdirahman, a traditional birth attendant in Baidoa. "Moreover, common misconceptions about blood donation include fears about health risks associated with donating blood, concerns about religious or cultural taboos, and misunderstandings about the medical process."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Somalia: The deadly consequences of obstacles to health care

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Poverty and distance from health care centers are a dangerous combination for women and children in Somalia's southern district of Baidoa in the Bay region

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Healthcare Challenges in Bangladesh: A System in Crisis — Spreeha Foundation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The healthcare challenges in Bangladesh are significant but not insurmountable. Spreeha’s innovative approach is paving the way for a future where quality, affordable care is within reach for everyone. Together, we can create a healthcare system that transforms lives and fosters healthier communitie

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Silent Killer in Romania’s Healthcare System

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On October 30th 2015 the Collective nightclub in Bucharest completely went up in flames in a matter of seconds, as “the fireproof and emergency exit-equipped building” turned out only real in the project documentation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Addressing Health Challenges in Honduras - Heart to Heart International

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Honduras remains one of the most impoverished nations in Latin America with more than 48 percent of the population living below the poverty line. The country is also especially vulnerable to natural disasters, and chronic malnutrition and infant and child mortality rates are…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Some of the world's most notorious infections - including Lyme disease, rabies, and Ebola come from zoonotic diseases. These illnesses are caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, or other parasitic organisms) which can be passed from animals to humans. But, even though they can lead to serious health problems, there is a gap in our knowledge when it comes to these diseases. We don't yet fully understand how pathogens "shift" between different host species and cause epidemics - and research is starting to show that the changing environment could be a factor.

The number of animal species that a pathogen infects is an indicator of its capability to shift to other host species and infect them, too. Pathogens that infect more animal species should be more likely to jump to a new host. Rabies viruses, for example, are seemingly capable of infecting virtually any mammalian species they encounter, putting humans worldwide at risk of spillover.

Research has also found that how infected animals are related to one another is important. If a pathogen infects monkey and ape species, for example, it will probably have a better chance of infecting humans than one that primarily infects birds or fish.

Our new study highlights that there is a growing body of evidence showing that host shifting is inexorably linked to the environment, too. Studies have found that the environments around us - including different habitats as well as climate conditions - provide new opportunities for humans to pick up different pathogens from wildlife.

Wildlife and disease spread

The world's growing human population and the way we utilise and modify our planet means that we are living closer to wildlife than ever before. Hardly any wildlife lives alone in a pristine environment. In addition, invasive species are also rising unprecedently, with animals such as rats spreading their parasites across former biogeographical borders. Now, previously isolated wildlife and their pathogens have become embedded in a global and ever-changing network, spreading diseases further than seen previously.

This new line of thinking - that pathogens could infect more hosts if they had access to them - is important for how we address emerging diseases in times of global change. The spread of multi-host pathogens has already become a worldwide phenomenon, with wild animals often playing a big role in zoonotic events. Even seemingly benign holiday wildlife encounters can cause problems. For example, since 2012, tourists from Europe and elsewhere have been contracting Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) from camels in Saudi Arabia.

Konstans Wells/Swansea University, Author provided

But the threat is not just about wildlife pathogens infecting humans. Many pathogens have been introduced by us and our pets to new areas. Of the nearly 400 parasitic worm species recorded in people, almost 50% have been found in a diverse range of animals, including dogs, cattle, and wildlife such as primates, rodents and deer. Research has found that this shifting of parasites has likely been intensified by globalisation as humans and their companion animals move around the world.

Joining forces

So what's the next step in understanding how these diseases shift? And what can we do to stop their spread? Environmental measures are certainly needed but we also need to work out how pathogens may move between species, and how to minimise the risks when that happens.

Predicting the next emerging infectious events has much in common with daily weather forecasts. First, we must build our knowledge of the diseases using basic research, and then use sophisticated algorithms to generate predictions. Computational tools to tackle this kind of challenge are available, but they are generally used in other ways.

Many disciplines - including physics and social sciences - deal with "contagious processes" to understand the spread of objects. And researchers commonly use algorithms to study sensor networks, process images, and track information spread in social media. Similar models have a long history in health research, but they could now be used to account for changing environmental conditions in order to predict when and where pathogens will be exposed to new host species.

This is not just about new infectious diseases. Implementing a system like this could help track the reemergence of diseases that are under control in humans and domestic animals, but still present in wildlife. It could also increase awareness of the large diversity of poorly studied pathogens which have unpredictable zoonotic capacity.

There is still much to be learned about how diseases are shared among humans and animals, but by preempting global disease spread we can start to understand their origins and hopefully predict their movements.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How humans interact with the changing environment is affecting the spread of infectious disease

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Some of the world's most notorious infections - including Lyme disease, rabies, and Ebola come from zoonotic diseases. These illnesses are caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, or other parasitic organisms) which can be passed from animals to humans. But, even though they can lead to serious health problems, there is a gap in our knowledge when it comes to these diseases.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How stripping diversity, equity and inclusion from health care may make Americans sicker

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Health disparities cost society billions of dollars, and their effects ripple across communities.