# data[].attributes.body
Cognitivism looks at the mental processes behind learning, such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving. Learning is understood as the organization and processing of information--what students know and how they come to know it (Jonassen, 1991, as cited in Ertmer and Newby, 1993, p. 58).

Core Principles

Focuses on internal thought processes

Knowledge is structured and organized in the mind

Emphasizes understanding, not just memorization and changes in behavior

Contributors

Jean Piaget – stages of cognitive development.
Jerome Bruner – discovery learning, scaffolding.
David Ausubel – advance organizers.

Examples

Connect new information with existing knowledge through outlines and concept maps

Breaking complex tasks into manageable steps

Simulations for practicing decision making

Applications

Encourage active engagement with material

Use summary or mnemonic devices to enhance memory

Advanced organizers, chunking, scaffolding, concept maps, and problem-solving activities

# data[].attributes.body
Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are shaped by external stimuli. Learning is viewed as a change in observable behavior, understood to be a response to environmental conditions.

Core Principles

Emphasizes reinforcement and punishment through stimulus and response

Knowledge is demonstrated through behavior

Learning is incremental and measurable, often accomplished through skill and drill activities, testing with immediate feedback, and learning objectives

Contributors

• John B. Watson – founder
• B.F. Skinner – operant conditioning, reinforcement.
• Edward Thorndike – law of effect, behavior modification

Examples

Students earn points for correct answers in an online quiz

Teachers provide immediate feedback that encourage correct behavior

Applications

Use clear objectives and consistent feedback

Provide repeated templates and examples of correct behavior

Incorporate rewards or recognition to reinforce learning outcomes

Flashcards, skill drills, gamification, and reward systems

# data[].attributes.body
Constructivism posits that learners actively construct knowledge through experience and reflection. Learning is considered situationally determined (Jonassen, 1991, as cited in Ertmer and Newby, 1993, p. 63) through personal, contextualized experiences and activities.

Core Principles

Learning is active, situational, and student-centered

Emphasizes real-world contexts, social negotiation, collaboration, multiple perspectives, and personal interpretation of events

Learners actively construct knowledge based on prior experience, exploration, and reflection

Meaning is created through individual interpretation based on prior experience, not transmitted

Contributors

Lev Vygotsky – social constructivism, Zone of Proximal Development

John Dewey – reflective thinking, learning by doing, experiential education

Ernst von Glasersfeld – radical constructivism

Examples

Group projects where students solve problems together

Project-Based Learning

Applications

Design activities that promote inquiry, critical thinking, and collaboration

Encourage learners to connect new knowledge to prior experiences

Simulated experiences, virtual labs, and/or internships that mimic real-world contexts