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Proclamation of Neutrality (1793):
• Declared the U.S. would not take sides in the British-French war.
International Reactions:
• France: Felt betrayed (U.S. had allied with France in the Revolutionary War).
• Britain: Initially skeptical but later negotiated the Jay Treaty (1794), resolving trade disputes.
Impact: Avoided war but strained Franco-American relations.

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• Partisan Divides: Clashes between Federalists (Hamilton) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) over centralization vs. states' rights.
• Slavery: Washington owned enslaved people but freed them in his will (1801). Critics argue he failed to abolish slavery during his lifetime.
• Native American Policies: Enforced treaties but also authorized military campaigns against Indigenous nations (e.g., Battle of Fallen Timbers, 1794).

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"Father of His Country": Symbol of unity and democratic leadership.
Precedents Set:
• Two-term limit (later codified in the 22nd Amendment).
• Civilian control of the military (resigned as general after the Revolutionary War).
Historical Judgment:
• Successes: Stabilized the new nation, avoided foreign entanglements.
• Criticisms: Slavery, displacement of Native Americans, and elitist economic policies.

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Full name: George Washington
Presidency: 1st President of the United States
Years in office: 1789-1797 (two terms)
Political party: Unaffiliated (though aligned with Federalist policies)
Background:
• Education: No formal college degree; self-taught in surveying, military strategy, and politics through books and mentorship.
Career:
• Military: Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783).
• Politics: Presided over the Constitutional Convention (1787); previously served in Virginia's House of Burgesses.
• Personal: Wealthy Virginia planter (Mount Vernon estate) with over 300 enslaved people.

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 Establishing the Cabinet & Executive Branch:
• Appointed Thomas Jefferson (Secretary of State) and Alexander Hamilton (Secretary of the Treasury).
• Impact: Created lasting structures for the executive branch (e.g., Department of State, Treasury).
Economic Policies (Hamilton's Plan):
1. National Bank (1791):
• Centralized fiscal policy but faced opposition (e.g., Jefferson argued it favored elites).
• Effect: Stabilized credit and currency, enabling economic growth.
2. Assumption of State Debts:
• Federal government took on states' Revolutionary War debts.
• Effect: Strengthened national unity but increased federal power (controversial among states' rights advocates).
Whiskey Tax (1791):
• First federal tax on domestic products (whiskey).
• Backlash: Led to the Whiskey Rebellion (1794); Washington's military response affirmed federal supremacy.

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United States:
• Formation of the federal government: Washington's administration established key institutions (e.g., Cabinet, judicial system).
• Whiskey Rebellion (1794): Farmers in Pennsylvania protested a federal tax on whiskey; Washington's response demonstrated federal authority.
• Capital relocation: The Residence Act (1790) moved the capital from New York to a new district (later named Washington, D.C.).

World:
• French Revolution (1789-1799): Washington declared neutrality in the conflict between Britain and France (1793).
• Napoleonic Wars (beginning 1792): Europe's instability tested U.S. foreign policy.

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Embargo Act (1807): Jefferson tried to avoid war with Britain and France by banning all American exports.

International Reaction: Britain and France ignored it; American trade suffered badly. The act was very unpopular and hurt the U.S. economy.

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The Embargo Act damaged his popularity and the economy.

Jefferson owned enslaved people, which contradicts his famous statement that “all men are created equal.”

Some criticized him for expanding presidential power through the Louisiana Purchase.

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Jefferson is remembered as the author of the Declaration of Independence and a defender of liberty and democracy.

Historians see him as a visionary leader but also a deeply contradictory figure due to his views and actions on slavery.

His face appears on Mount Rushmore and the U.S. nickel.

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Thomas Jefferson – 3rd U.S. President (1801–1809)
Party: Democratic-Republican
Jefferson studied law at the College of William & Mary. He wrote the Declaration of Independence and was Vice President before becoming President.

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Louisiana Purchase (1803): Doubled the size of the United States, giving control over vast lands west of the Mississippi River. This was very popular and seen as a major success.

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806): Jefferson commissioned this expedition to explore the new western territories and map a route to the Pacific. It expanded knowledge of geography and natural resources.

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The early 1800s were a time of expansion and political division in the young United States.

The Industrial Revolution was beginning in Europe.

France and Britain were at war (Napoleonic Wars), which strongly affected U.S. trade and diplomacy.

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Lincoln worked to stop Britain and France from supporting the Confederacy, keeping them neutral during the war.

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He faced a bloody civil war, public criticism, and protests like the New York Draft Riots. Some opposed his wartime powers.

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Lincoln is remembered as one of America’s greatest presidents for ending slavery and saving the Union. He was assassinated in 1865.

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16th President (1861–1865)

Party: Republican

Born: 1809, Kentucky

Background: Self-taught lawyer and politician; rose from humble beginnings to national fame for opposing slavery.

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Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Freed enslaved people in Confederate states → made the war about ending slavery.

Homestead Act (1862): Gave free land to settlers → encouraged westward expansion.

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The American Civil War (1861–1865) broke out between the North (Union) and the South (Confederacy) over slavery and states’ rights.

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- Followed the motto: “Speak softly and carry a big stick”
- Expanded U.S. influence abroad --> helped negotiate the Panama Canal, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
- Used the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, asserting the U.S. right to intervene in Latin America to maintain stability
- Won the Nobel Peace Prize (1906) for mediating the end of the Russo-Japanese War
- Reactions were mixed: admired for strong leadership but criticized for U.S. imperialism

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- Critics accused him of overusing presidential power (“executive activism”)
- Faced opposition from big business for his trust-busting and labor reforms
- The 1902 Coal Strike tested his leadership, he intervened directly, which was unusual for the time

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- Remembered as one of the most energetic and influential presidents
- Considered the first modern president (used media and executive power to shape national policy)
- Historians view him as a successful and transformative leader who strengthened the presidency and promoted fairness, conservation, and reform
- His face is carved on Mount Rushmore alongside Washington, Jefferson, and Lincoln

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- Full Name: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.
- Presidency: 26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
- Political Party: Republican (later founded the Progressive “Bull Moose” Party in 1912)
- Background: Born in New York City; educated at Harvard University
- Served as New York’s governor and U.S. Vice President under William McKinley
- Became president after McKinley’s assassination in 1901

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- Trust-Busting: Broke up powerful monopolies (like Standard Oil) to promote fair competition under the Sherman Antitrust Act
- Square Deal: His domestic program aimed to protect consumers, control corporations, and conserve natural resources
- Conservation: Established national parks, forests, and wildlife refuges; protected over 230 million acres of public land
--> Impact: Improved public health, preserved nature, and increased federal government’s role in regulating industry

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- Roosevelt’s presidency occurred during the Progressive Era, a time of rapid industrialization, social reform, and labor struggles in the U.S.
- Big business and monopolies dominated the economy, while working conditions were poor
- The U.S. was emerging as a global power after the Spanish-American War (1898)

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•	WWI involvement: U.S. entered due to German submarine attacks
•	Peace vision:
->Fourteen Points – promoted diplomacy, self-determination, free trade
->Treaty of Versailles (1919) – Wilson helped shape it but U.S. Senate rejected it
->League of Nations – Wilson’s idea, but U.S. never joined
•	Global reaction: Respected as a peace advocate, awarded Nobel Peace Prize (1919), but also seen as too idealistic

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•	Racism: Re-segregated federal offices, supported discriminatory policies
•	Civil liberties: Espionage & Sedition Acts restricted free speech during WWI
•	Health issues: Suffered a major stroke in 1919; wife Edith Wilson handled many duties unofficially
•	League of Nations conflict: Refused compromise with Senate → treaty failed

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•	Achievements: Progressive reforms, modernized U.S. economy, global peace efforts
•	Lasting impact:
->Federal Reserve and FTC still exist
->League of Nations inspired the United Nations
•	Historical view: Mixed legacy — praised for vision and reforms, criticized for racism and suppression of dissent

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•	Full Name: Thomas Woodrow Wilson
•	28th U.S. President (1913–1921)
•	Born: 1856 in Virginia – Died: 1924 in Washington, D.C.
•	Party: Democratic
•	Education: Princeton, law studies at UVA, Ph.D. in Political Science (Johns Hopkins)
•	Career before presidency: Professor & President of Princeton; Governor of New Jersey

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•	Goals: Economic reform, fair competition, anti-monopoly laws
•	Key legislation:
->Federal Reserve Act (1913) – created U.S. central bank
->Clayton Antitrust Act & FTC (1914) – regulated business, protected consumers and workers
->Revenue Act (1913) – introduced income tax, lowered tariffs
•	Impact:
Positive: Modernized economy, stronger government oversight
Negative: Wartime censorship, no progress on racial equality

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•	World War I (1914–1918): U.S. joined in 1917 on the Allied side
•	Peace efforts: Fourteen Points, Paris Peace Conference, Treaty of Versailles
•	Domestic background: Progressive Era, rapid industrialization, labor unrest
•	Major crises: Spanish Flu pandemic, postwar social and economic unrest

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	Good Neighbor Policy: he improved relations with Latin America.
	Lend-Lease Act (1941): he sent aid to Allied countries before the U.S. entered WW2.
	International reaction to LLA: Allies admired his help and support (American Aid)

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	Faced criticism for expanding government power.
	Court-packing plan (1937) upset many who thought he tried to control the Supreme Court.

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	He is remembered as one of America’s most important presidents.
	He helped the nation recover from The Great Depression and win WWII.
	He created lasting programs like Social Security.
	Many historians see him as successful but controversial for his use of government power.

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	Full name: Franklin Delano Roosevelt
	He was the 32nd U.S. President (1933–1945)
	Political party: Democratic
	Background: he is from New York, he studied at Harvard and Columbia Law School, he also served as Governor of New York and Assistant Secretary of the Navy.

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	The New Deal: he introduced government programs to create jobs, reform banking, and help people during the Depression.
	Social Security Act: he gave pensions to the elderly and unemployment benefits.
	The Effects: he helped restore hope and jobs, but als increased government size and spending.

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	Took office during the time of The Great Depression (mass unemployment and poverty and economic instability )
	In the 1930s there was a rise of fascism in Europe (Hitler, Mussolini) and militarism in Japan. This led to tensions and eventually to WW2.

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Use of the Atomic Bomb (1945): Truman authorized dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to end WWII, resulting in Japan’s surrender.
Marshall Plan (1948): Provided billions in aid to rebuild Europe and contain communism.
Korean War (1950–1953): Truman sent U.S. troops to defend South Korea from North Korean invasion, marking the first major conflict of the Cold War.

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Korean War: Truman’s decision to intervene became unpopular as the war dragged on without victory. His firing of General Douglas MacArthur sparked huge debate.
McCarthyism: The rise of anti-communist hysteria led to political tension during his presidency.
Corruption Scandals: Minor scandals within his administration hurt his public approval.

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Truman is remembered as a strong and honest leader who made hard choices during very important times in history. At first, many historians thought he was not a good president, but over time their opinion changed. Today, he is often seen as one of the top 10 U.S. presidents because of his good leadership and clear vision during the early Cold War.

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Full Name: Harry S. Truman
Number of Presidency: 33rd President
Years in Office: 1945-1953
Political Party: Democraticy Party

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Fair Deal (1949): Truman proposed social reforms like national health insurance, minimum wage increases, and expanded public housing. Some measures passed (e.g., minimum wage), but others faced opposition in Congress.
Desegregation of the Armed Forces (1948): Truman signed Executive Order 9981, ending racial segregation in the military — a major step toward civil rights.

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Truman became president near the end of World War II. The world was transitioning from wartime to peacetime, and tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union were growing.
He was leading to the Cold War. America faced postwar economic adjustments and the beginning of the Civil Rights movement.

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Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): 
- Discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba → led to 13 days of intense negotiation 
- Kennedy ordered a naval blockade and demanded missile removal 
- Soviets eventually agreed; U.S. secretly agreed to remove missiles from Turkey 
- International reaction: Praised for avoiding nuclear war but criticized for brinkmanship 

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961): 
- Failed attempt by U.S.-backed Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro 
- Embarrassing defeat early in his presidency → damaged U.S. credibility 
 
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963): 
- Signed by the U.S., USSR, and U.K. -> banned above-ground nuclear tests 
- Important step toward nuclear arms control

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- Bay of Pigs failure damaged his image and raised questions about leadership 
- Cold War tensions and fear of nuclear war created global anxiety 
- Civil Rights issues: Faced criticism for initially being too slow to act 
- Health secrecy: The extent of his illnesses and heavy use of medication were hidden from the public 
- Assassination: Killed during his third year in office → many conspiracy theories and national trauma

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- Remembered as one of the most inspiring U.S. presidents, symbolizing hope, youth, and progress 
- Famous for his inaugural quote: “Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.” 
- Seen as a charismatic leader who encouraged civic engagement and scientific advancement 
- Historians view him as both successful and unfinished -> many of his goals (civil rights, space, peace) were realized after his death 
- His assassination made him a legendary and tragic figure in U.S. history 

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- Full name: John Fitzgerald Kennedy
- Nickname: “Jack” (used by family and friends)
- 35th President of the United States
- Years in office: 1961–1963 (served about 3 years)
- Political party: Democratic Party
- Born: May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts 
- Family: Wealthy and politically influential; father Joseph Kennedy was U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain
- Health: Suffered from frequent illness (scarlet fever, Addison’s disease, chronic back pain)

Education:
- Attended private schools, including Choate (a boys’ preparatory academy)
- Briefly at Princeton (left due to illness)
- Graduated from Harvard University (1940); senior thesis on Britain’s military unpreparedness during WWII → published as Why England Slept

Early Career and WWII:
- Served as his father’s secretary while Joseph Kennedy was ambassador to the U.K.
- Joined the U.S. Navy in 1941 → commanded PT-109 patrol boat in the South Pacific 
- Nearly died in combat, rescued his crew after their boat was destroyed → awarded Navy and Marine Corps Medal for heroism 
- Injured his back during service, causing lifelong pain

Political Career Before Presidency:
- Elected to the House of Representatives (1947–1953); advocated for better working conditions, housing, and social support 
- Elected to the U.S. Senate (1953–1960); supported free trade and major infrastructure projects (like the St. Lawrence Seaway)
- Never lost an election
- Won the 1960 presidential election against Richard Nixon

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Civil Rights: 
- Initially cautious, but later openly supported civil rights for African Americans 
- Proposed the Civil Rights Act (1963) (signed into law after his death by Lyndon B. Johnson) 
- His support helped strengthen the Civil Rights Movement 

Economic and Social Policies: 
- Advocated for “New Frontier” program: aimed at improving education, healthcare, and economic growth 
- Pushed for tax cuts and infrastructure investments to stimulate the economy 
- Created the Peace Corps (1961) to send American volunteers to help developing nations 
- Promoted space exploration, setting the goal to land a man on the Moon by the end of the decade → major boost to science and technology 
 
Effect on society: 
- Helped inspire optimism and public service; progress in civil rights, science, and global cooperation 
- Some programs faced resistance in Congress, limiting short-term results 

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- Cold War tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union at their peak 
- Space Race began; competition with the USSR to reach the Moon 
- Civil Rights Movement gaining momentum within the U.S. 
- Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Major confrontation with the Soviet Union over nuclear missiles in Cuba -> the closest the world came to nuclear war 
- Berlin Crisis (1961): Construction of the Berlin Wall separating East and West Berlin 
- Vietnam War: U.S. involvement expanded through military advisors under Kennedy 
- Assassination: Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, shocking the world 

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Johnson dramatically escalated the Vietnam War, He believed in the Domino Theory

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The Vietnam War became Johnson’s biggest controversy. The war caused massive led to strong anti-war protests at home.

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Positive: His “Great Society” programs laid the foundation for modern social welfare and civil rights in the U.S.

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Full name: Lyndon Baines Johnson Number of presidency: 36th President (1963–1969) Political party: Democratic Party Years in office: 1963–1969 Background: Born in Texas in 1908. Studied at Southwest Texas State Teachers College.

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Civil Rights Act (1964) Voting Rights Act Medicare and Medicaid (1965)

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Johnson became president after the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963. The U.S. was facing major civil rights struggles, Cold War tensions, and an escalating conflict in Vietnam.

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preventing communist expansion in the world through strong financial and military support of the Contras against the communist Nicaraguan government, support given to rebels fighting Soviet troops in Afghanistan -->Soviets announced the withdrawal of forces from Afghanistan in 1988

Reagan and Gorbachev signed an Intermediate Nuclear Force (INF) Treaty at the Washington Summit in December, 1987. The Treaty promised to abolish intermediate-range nuclear missiles and was the first arms control agreement in history to reduce nuclear weapons

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Reagan's presidency received criticism for rising budget deficits and wealth inequality during and after his terms.
The Iran-Contra affair was a controversy that came to light in 1986 when Ronald Reagan admitted to selling weapons illegaly to the Islamic Republic of Iran in an unsuccessful effort to secure the release of six U.S. citizens that were held hostage in Lebanon. It also was revealed that money from the weapon deal had been illegally funneled into a fund for the right-wing Contras counter-revolutionary groups meaning to overthrow the socialist government of Nicaragua. The Iran-Contra affair(what it got known as)did serious damage throughout Reagan's presidency.

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- many have agreed that Reagan has been the most influential president since Roosevelt
- left an imprint on American politics, culture, and economics through effective communication of his conservative agenda and pragmatic compromising
- begun a period of increased income inequality 
- ranked as one of the best presidents

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Full Name: Ronald Wilson Reagan
Number of Presidency: 40th President
Terms in Office: 1981-1989
Political Party: Republicans
Background: Graduation from Eureka College in 1932, became a well-known film actor, Election as governor of California in 1966, won Republican Party presidential primaries in 1980 after losing to Gerald Ford in 1976

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"Reaganomics": tax cuts to encourage economic growth, higher revenues used to increase defense spending and balance the federal budget, vowed to protect certain programs(Medicare, Social Security) while cutting budgets for others, engineered passage of $39 billion in budget cuts into law, a 25 percent tax cut spread over three years for individuals,faster write-offs for capital investment for business--> inflation dropped from 1980 to 1982, unemployment exceeded 10% in October 1982 for the first time in forty years, administration adjusted economic policy after two years(selected tax increases, budget cuts to control rising deficits), resulted in reduced inflation, income from tax cuts started record economic growth, produced one of lowest unemployment rates in modern U.S. history, came with record annual deficit and national debt

Passage of immigration reform legislation: Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) was passed in 1986,  legalized most undocumented immigrants who had arrived in the country before January 1, 1982, almost three million people applied for legalization, estimatedly 2.7 million people got approved for permanent residence; also legalized seasonal agricultural undocumented migrants, had to prove they were not guilty of crimes, had been in the country since before January 1, 1982, have knowledge of U.S. history and the language

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global tension of Cold War between Soviet Union and USA, AIDS, contributions to pop culture (e.g. debut of MTV)

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Focus on peace/diplomacy/alliances and economic expansion after the end of the cold war through interventions and trade agreements 
-> Humanitarian Interventions (military force) in international conflicts (Bosnia, Kosovo) 
-> Attempt at peace mediation in middle east 
-> promotion and strengthening of NATO and other international coalitions 

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Lewinsky-Scandal and Impeachment (1998): 
-> sexual relationship of Clinton with White House intern Monica Lewinsky 
-> lead to impeachment (charge of misconduct), although acquitted in the end 

Whitewater controversy (1990s): 
-> Investigations against Clinton for fraud and corruption/abuse of power after failed investment in Whitewater Development Corporation 
-> was cleared of wrongdoing and never charged 

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Mixed reputation, regarded as a skilled politician and communicator because of economic growth and center/“New Democrats” politics, but surrounded by scandals, impeachment and policies with problematic long-term outcomes 

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- William Jefferson Clinton (born Blythe III) 
- 42nd president of the USA from 20.01.1993 to 2001, for the Democratic Party 
- Graduated from Georgetown University, later from Yale Law School 
- Attorney general of Arkansas 1977-1979 
- Arkansas governor for two non-consecutive tenures (1979-81 and 1983-92) 
- Chairman of National Governors Association 1986–1987 
- Married to Hillary Clinton, who had a prominent role in the administration

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- Often called “Third way”, centrist aiming to combine liberal social policies with market economy 
- Focused on welfare reform, economic growth & crime control

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Economic growth: 
-> longest economic expansion of US history at the time, federal budget surpluses since decades (in 2000 largest to date) and more 
NAFTA (1994): 
-> North America Free Trade Agreement (with Canada & Mexico) among other trade agreements (300 overall), one of the largest free trade zones worldwide
Welfare reform (1994): 
-> shift to work-based welfare 
Oklahoma City Bombing (1995): 
-> worst domestic terrorist attack in US history at the time (168 deaths) 

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• Operation Neptune Spear (2011): U.S. mission that killed Osama bin Laden in Pakistan
→ International Reaction: Widespread global support and relief, though some criticized U.S. actions for violating Pakistani sovereignty

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Problems/Criticisms:
• Faced partisan gridlock in Congress, especially after 2010 when Republicans took control of the House
• Use of drone strikes in the Middle East and civilian casualties drew criticism at home and abroad
• NSA surveillance revelations (2013) under Edward Snowden raised privacy concerns

Scandals/Crises:
• Benghazi attack (2012): Controversy over the administration’s response to the attack on the U.S. consulate in Libya

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Barack Obama, the first African American U.S. president, led the nation through the Great Recession and introduced major initiatives like the Affordable Care Act, DOMA, and the Paris Climate Agreement. Known for his calm, diplomatic leadership, he left office with high approval ratings and is widely regarded as a transformative modern president.

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44th president of the United States, 8 years in the White House/Oval Office, Democrat

Education and Career: 

Education: Graduated from Columbia University (B.A. in Political Science, 1983); later enrolled Harvard Law School, becoming the first Black president of the Harvard Law Review

Early Career: Worked as a community organizer in Chicago; later a civil rights attorney and constitutional law professor at the University of Chicago Law School (1992–2004)

Political Career:
• Illinois State Senator (1996–2004)
• U.S. Senator from Illinois (2005–2008)

Presidency: Elected President in 2008 as the Democratic nominee, defeating Republican John McCain

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• American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009):
A massive economic stimulus package passed to combat the effects of the Great Recession. It provided funding for infrastructure, education, clean energy, and unemployment benefits
→ Effect: Helped stabilize the U.S. economy, saved or created millions of jobs, and marked a major government effort to boost recovery after the financial crisis

• Dodd-Frank Act (2010): Financial reform law to prevent another financial crisis after 2008; regulated banks and Wall Street practices
→ Effect: Increased oversight and consumer protection; criticized by some as restrictive to business

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2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA):
• largest remake of the U.S. health system since Medicare and Medicaid (1965)
• Expanded Health Coverage: cut the uninsured rate roughly in half, largely through Medicaid expansion and marketplace reforms
• Main Reforms: Required that insurers cover all (including those with prior illnesses) and allowed young adults to stay on parents' plans until age 26

2013 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA):
• Supreme Court Decision: The Court struck down DOMA's federal marriage definition as unconstitutional
• Key Reasoning: DOMA violated the Fifth Amendment's guarantee of equal treatment by denying federal recognition and benefits to legally wedded same-sex couples.
• Result: The decision held that states can define marriage and that the federal government must recognize same-sex marriages that are valid under state law.

2015 Paris Climate Conference remarks:
• Global Call to Action: Obama urged nearly 200 nations to take decisive, collective action against climate change, calling it a defining challenge of the century
• He highlighted U.S. progress in reducing emissions and investing in clean energy, pledging continued leadership toward a low-carbon future
• Obama emphasized global cooperation, transparency, and support for vulnerable nations to build a sustainable world for future generations

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rejoined the Paris Climate Agreement and the World Health Organization (WHO), reaffirmed U.S. commitment to NATO, ending war in Afghanistan (2021)

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Economy & Inflation (though job growth was strong, high inflation raised the cost of living and hurt Biden’s popularity), 
Afghanistan withdrawal (many criticized the rushed evacuation and the collapse of the Afghan government), 
Student loan forgiveness (Biden tried to cancel student debt, but the Supreme Court blocked the plan in 2023), 
Hunter Biden investigations (Biden’s son, Hunter, was investigated by Congress. No evidence was found against the president, but it damaged his reputation)

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Is remembered as a one-term president with a mixed legacy, historians and experts see him as neither a clear success nor a total failure. He achieved major wins in COVID-19 management, healthcare expansion, economic growth, and support for Ukraine, but struggled with high inflation, a chaotic Afghanistan withdrawal, immigration issues, and a damaging re-election campaign. His average approval rating of 42% reflects a deeply divided public opinion.

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Full name: Joseph Robinette Biden, Jr., number of presidency: 46, years in office: Januar 2021 – Januar 2025, political party: Democratic Party, and 
background: Graduated at the University of Delaware, law degree from Syracuse University, Elected to the U.S. Senate at age 29 in 1972, 36 years in the Senate, Vice President under Barack Obama from 2009–2017, elected as president in 2020 after two failed attempts (1987 and 2007)

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American Rescue Plan (Aimed to help individuals and businesses recover from COVID-19’s economic impact), Infrastructure Improvements (Signed laws to improve roads, bridges, internet access, clean energy, childcare, and veteran healthcare), gun safety law, respect for marriage act protecting same-sex and interracial marriages

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COVID-19 pandemic, racial tensions (police shootings of Black citizens)

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- Promoted "America First", focusing on national interests over global agreements 
- withdrew from the Paris Climate accord, Iran Nuclear Deal, and Trans-Pacific Partnership
- initiated trade tariffis on China to reduce trade deficits 
- brokered the Abraham Accords, normalizing realtions between Israel and several arab nations 
- relations with allies in Europe were strained due to criticism of NATO and trade policies 

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- Two Impeachment: 1. (2019) for allegedly pressuring Ukraine to investigate political rival Joe Biden, 2. (2021) for incitement of insurrection after the January 6 capitol riot
- Covid-19 response: criticized for downplaying the virus and inconsisting health messaging 
- Rhetoric and Polarization: accused of promoting misinformation and deepening national division 

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- seen as one of the most polarizing figures in American politics 
- supporters praise his outsider approach, strong economic before covid and conservative judicial appointments 
- critics say he undermined democratic insitutions and trust in elections
- continues to influence the Republican Partys and U.S. politics today 

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- Full Name: Donald John Trump
- Presidency: 45th (2017-2021) and 47th President (since 2025)
- Political Party: Republican 
- Backround: Businessman, real estate developer, television personality (The Apprentice host)
- Education: Bachelors degree in economics from the Wharton School of the Univerity of Pennsylvania 

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- Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (2017): lowered corporate tax rates und reduced  individual taxes --> supporters said it boosted jobs, critics said it favored the wealthy 
- Deregulation: rolled back enviromental protections and business regulation to encourage growth 
- Criminal Justice Reform: signed the First Step Act to reduce prison sentences for some non-violent offenders 
--> Impact: economic expansion and low unenployment until the pandemic hit in 2020

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- elected during a time of major political polarization and rising populism 
- his presidency saw strong early economic growth followed by the covid pandemic and resulting in recession 
- Global issues included trade wars with China and tension with North Korea and Iran
- focus on "America First" policies 