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"The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord and is the body's central mechanism for control of voluntary behavior (e.g. thinking, acting). The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary activities, such as those involved in digestion, respiration, and blood circulation" (Schunk, 2020). Each of these systems are intertwined.

The text goes on to explain that the physical makeup of the brain. The spinal cord is an extension of the brain  and carries signals to and from the brain. "The CNS is composed of billions of cells in the brain and spinal cord. There are two major types of cells: neurons and glial cells" (Schunk, 2020).

The major brain structures include the cerebral cortex: used for learning and memory, the brain stem and reticular formation "that regulates control of basic bodily functions, the "cerebellum at the back of the brain regulates body balance, muscular control, movement and body posture" (Schunk, 2020). It also includes the thalamus and hypothalamus sending signals from most sense organs to the cortex, the amygdala: control of the emotion and aggression, hippocampus: short term memory,  and the corpus callosum dividing the brain. The occipital lobes for processing visual information, parietal lobes "responsible for the sense of touch", the temporal lobes "responsible for processing auditory information", the frontal lobes which are responsible for processing "information relating to memory, planning, decision making, goal setting and creativity" as well as regulating muscular movements.

Each part of the brain has a different function as noted above. The "left hemisphere governs the right visual field and side of the body and the right hemisphere regulates the left visual field and side of the body" (Schunk, 2020). Language is mostly controlled by the left hemisphere as well as analytical thinking, positive emotions, and facial recognition. The right hemisphere provides spatial, auditory, negative emotions and artistic processes as well as music, directionality, and interpreting contexts. The text goes on to explain that "the hemispheres work in concert; information is available to both of them at all time. Speech offers a good example. If you are having a conversation with a friend, is is your left hemisphere that allows you to produce speech but your right hemisphere that provides the context and helps you comprehend meaning" (Schunk, 2020).
Due to many investigations of the brain, we understand the brain now more than ever. Advances in technology have benefited brain research. "There are ordered roughly from least to most sophisticated: x-ray, CAT scan, EEG, PET Scan, MRI and fMRI, and NIR-OT" (Schunk, 2020).

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"Brain processing during learning is complex" (Schunk, 2020). Students' information processing system are still developing. Brain research has helped to identify differences in processes such as ADHD. A key concept of the cognitive function is executive functioning - "which includes a group of activities, helps to manage the individual's goal attainment" (Schunk, 2020).
Memory Networks

Hebb's Theory - neurophysiological theory of learning between two cortical structures: cell assemblies and phase sequences

Neural Connections - how learning occurs and memories are made

Language Learning

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Influential Factors

Genetics

Environmental Stimulation

Nutrition

Steroids

Teratogens

Phases of Development
The brain grows in size and structure through prenatal development, birth, infants, young children and then as the child develops. "By the age of 5 years, the child's brain has acquired a language and developed sensory motor skills and other competencies" (Schunk, 2020). While the brain is still developing, it is no longer developing as rapid as it was in the beginning.

Sensitive Periods, Language Development, and Influence of Technology

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Motivation

Rewards

Motivational States - "Complex neural connections that include emotions, cognitions, and behaviors" (Schunk, 2020). Motivational states are ever changing and adapting.

Emotions
"Emotions are considered to be integral parts of learning and memory" (Schunk, 2020). They play a role in enhancing learning but also in stress. Emotions can help direct attention.

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Brain Research vs. Learning Theories

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Khan Academy - Parts of the Brain
About the Brain - kids

Human Brain: Major Structures and their Functions

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Neurophysiology of Learning

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Motivations and Emotions

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Brain Training

Brain Myths

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left brain vs right brain

learning through the senses

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hands on learning

learning through the senses

memorization

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Zones of Regulation

PBIS - positive rewards

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early education and interventions

diagnosed learning difficulties

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First Things First

Stress and Your Brain Development

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How stress affects your brain - Madhumita Murgia

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age appropriate teaching

fine motor skills

scaffolded learning

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Early Brain Development and Health

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Brain Structure and Honor

How is the Brain Organized?

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The Science of Learning

The Neurophysiology of Learning

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Evolving Concepts of Motivation and Emotions

Rewards for Kids

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Brain Based Learning
De-Bunking Brain Myths

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The human brain is amazing and sometimes mysterious. While researchers are still uncovering the secrets of how the brain works, they have discovered plenty of information about what goes on inside your noggin. Unfortunately, there are still a lot of brain myths out there.

The following are just a few of the many myths about the brain.

You've probably heard this oft-cited bit of information several times, but constant repetition does not make it any more accurate. People often use this popular urban legend to imply that the mind is capable of much greater things, such as dramatically increased intelligence, psychic abilities, or even telekinesis.

Research suggests that all areas of the brain perform some type of function. If the 10-percent myth were true, brain damage would be far less likely-after all, we would only have to worry about that tiny 10% of our brains being injured.

The fact is that damage to even a small area of the brain can result in profound consequences for both cognition and functioning. Brain imaging technologies have also demonstrated that the entire brain shows levels of activity, even during sleep.

The brain is fragile and can be damaged by things such as injury, stroke, or disease. This damage can result in a range of consequences, from mild disruptions in cognitive abilities to complete impairment. Brain damage can be devastating, but is it always permanent?

While we often tend to think of brain injuries as lasting, a person's ability to recover from such damage depends upon the severity and the location of the injury. For example, a blow to the head during a football game might lead to a concussion. While this can be quite serious, most people can recover when given time to heal. A severe stroke, on the other hand, can result in dire consequences to the brain that can very well be permanent.

However, it is important to remember that the human brain has an impressive amount of plasticity. Even following a serious brain event, such as a stroke, the brain can often heal itself over time and form new connections.

Have you ever heard someone describe themselves as either left-brained or right-brained? This stems from the popular notion that people are either dominated by their right or left brain hemispheres. According to this idea, people who are "right-brained" tend to be more creative and expressive, while those who are "left-brained" tend to be more analytical and logical.

While experts do recognize that there is lateralization of brain function (that is, certain types of tasks and thinking tend to be more associated with a particular region of the brain), no one is fully right-brained or left-brained. In fact, we tend to do better at tasks when the entire brain is utilized, even for things that are typically associated with a certain area of the brain.

The human brain is quite large in proportion to body size, but another common misconception is that humans have the largest brains of any organism. How big is the human brain? How does it compare to other species?

The average adult has a brain weighing in at about three pounds and measuring up to about 15 centimeters in length. The largest animal brain belongs to that of a sperm whale, weighing in at a whopping 18 pounds! Another large-brained animal is the elephant, with an average brain size of around 11 pounds.

But what about relative brain size in proportion to body size? Humans must certainly have the largest brains in comparison to their body size, right? Once again, this notion is also a myth. Surprisingly, one animal that holds the largest body size to brain ratios is the shrew, with a brain making up about 10% of its body mass.

Traditional wisdom has long suggested that adults only have so many brain cells and that we never form new ones. Once these cells are lost, are they gone for good?

In recent years, experts have discovered evidence that the human adult brain does indeed form new cells throughout life, even during old age. The process of forming new brain cells is known as neurogenesis and researchers have found that it happens in at least one important region of the brain called the hippocampus.

Partly related to the myth that we never grow new neurons is the idea that drinking alcohol can lead to cell death in the brain. Drink too much or too often, some people might warn, and you'll lose precious brain cells that you can never get back. We've already learned that adults do indeed get new brain cells throughout life, but could drinking alcohol really kill brain cells?

While excessive or chronic alcohol abuse can certainly have dire health consequences, experts do not believe that drinking causes neurons to die. In fact, research has shown that even binge drinking doesn't kill neurons.

The estimate of 100 billion neurons has been repeated so often and so long that no one is completely sure where it originated. In 2009, however, one researcher decided to count neurons in adult brains and found that the number was just a bit off the mark.

Based on this research, it appears that the human brain contains closer to 85 billion neurons. So while the often-cited number is a few billion too high, 85 billion is still nothing to sneeze at.

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The human brain is amazing and sometimes mysterious. While researchers are still uncovering the secrets of how the brain works, they have discovered plenty of information about what goes on inside your noggin. Unfortunately, there are still a lot of brain myths out there.