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List of 107 Classroom Teaching Strategies (with examples)

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List of 107 Classroom Teaching Strategies (with examples)

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Use this list of 107 classroom teaching strategies for your lesson plan or teaching portfolio. This can help demonstrate pedagogical knowledge and the ability to apply theory to practice.

Or, try some of these strategies out when you're low on ideas and looking for a fresh way to teach in the classroom. Note that these are just some examples of teaching strategies - I'm sure there are even more out there!
Tip: Bookmark this page so you can come back to it every time you need some new teaching strategies!
Teaching Strategies Examples (List)
Description
Flipped classrooms involve asking students to complete the reading, preparation and introductory work at home. Then, during class time, the students do practice questions that they would traditionally do for homework.
Benefits

Flipped instruction enables the teacher to offload the direct instruction elements of education like Introductions to homework. This enables teachers to spend more time on student-centered differentiated support.
Challenges

Students may not complete their assigned pre-class homework, which will undermine the lesson.
Theoretical Link
Social Constructivism / Socio-Cultural Theory: The teacher can spend more time supporting students in a student-centered environment.
Example For More
See my full article on Flipped Classrooms Pros and Cons.

Related Article: 25 Teaching Styles Examples
Description
Students learn cognitive, social, and physical skills during play tasks. Tasks can be teacher-led with specific goals (e.g. volume transfer in a sandpit) or unstructured student-led play.
Benefits

Engagement: students may be more engaged during active play-based learning compared to teacher-centered instruction.

Cognition: students get the opportunity to learn through discovery and trial-and-error, helping to build neural pathways

Social: students play together, developing communication, groupwork, and negotiation skills.

Physical: play engages fine and gross motor functions, helping to improve physical abilities.

Challenges

Many traditionalist, including many parents and potentially your head teacher, may consider play to have no educational or academic benefit.

Parents may frown upon this method for older students, despite its benefits across age groups.

Many people consider that the risks of injury during play-based learning are too high.

( Read More: Pros and Cons of Play Based Learning)
Theoretical Link
Social Constructivism. Students learn through social interaction and building knowledge in their minds through trial and error.

Play is also encouraged in all 5 Contemporary Early Childhood Perspectives (Froebel, Reggio Emilia, Forest Schools, Steiner-Waldorf Schools, and Montessori).
Example

1. Use modelled instruction to show students how to play with developmentally appropriate resource-rich toys and puzzles. Consider puzzles that require mathematical skills that link to current curriculum outcomes.

2. Provide students with the puzzles and allow free unstructured play time

3. Mingle with the students, helping them with prompting and guiding questions

4. End the lesson with a whole group discussion of what they learned during the lesson.

For More
See my full article on Play Based Learning Pros and Cons.

3. Project-based learning (PBL)
Definition
Project-based learning requires students to spend an extended period of time (e.g. a week or more) on a single project to gain in-depth knowledge about the task. The projects should be personally meaningful and give students freedom to go in-depth on areas of interest.
Benefits

Students have the opportunity to become 'experts' on topics. By going deep on a topic, students may become very knowledgeable and feel empowered.

A balance is struck between ensuring students focus on curriculum-linked projects and giving students the freedom to explore the details of a topic that are of personal interest.

Challenges

Students tend to have increased freedom using this approach. So, students need to learn self-regulation skills before beginning the task.
Theoretical Link
Constructivism in the Classroom: Students work independently using their own intellect and resources to learn. By doing personal research, students 'construct' knowledge in their minds and apply that knowledge to the project to demonstrate their knowledge.
Example

1. Teacher assigns students a research question, such as "What are the key characteristics of mammals?"

2. Students work in small groups to come up with an idea for a poster, diagram, or presentation project on the topic.

3. Teacher approves or asks for amendments of students' proposed projects.

4. Students are provided a series of lessons over a 2-week period in computer labs and in resource-rich classrooms to complete their project.

5. Teacher checks-in intermittently to ensure standards are upheld and to stimulate students to improve upon their projects.

6. The project concludes with students presenting their project to their parents.

Definition
Authentic learning involves having students learn about concepts in real-life (or near real-life) environments. Similarly, authentic assessment refers to assessments in real-life (or near real-life) environments
Benefits Challenges Theoretical Link
Constructivism: Authentic learning environments are designed for students to be active learners who 'construct' knowledge through personal experience.
Example Definition
Discovery learning involves allowing students maximum freedom within a resource-rich environment to 'discover' answers to challenges. It requires students to build upon prior knowledge and use resources available in the environment to increase their own knowledge.

Discovery learning is often held in contrast to teacher-centered approaches, as students are not 'told' information; instead, they must discover knowledge for themselves..
Benefits

Students generate knowledge for themselves rather than being told what is right and wrong.

By discovering truths, students will have a firmer understanding for the reasoning behind why something is true.

Challenges

Too much student freedom may distract students from the learning outcomes.

This can be a time-consuming technique as students discover information at their own pace. It can therefore be difficult to implement in education systems that are packed with curriculum outcomes that must be met.

Theoretical Link
Construcitivism: Students generate their own knowledge through engagement with their environment rather than having truths 'told' to them by an authority figure.
Example Definition
Setting high expectation involves requiring students to put in maximum effort during their lessons. HIgh expectations does not mean expecting all students to meet a certain standard. Rather, it means expecting each student to try to beat their own personal best.
Benefits

High expectations are necessary to ensure students continue to strive for improvement. Without high expectations in the classroom, students can become lazy and lose respect for education.
Challenges Example For More
See my full article on High Expectations in the Classroom.

7. Parent and Community Engagement
Definition
Parent and community engagement involves bringing students together with their community. It can involve bringing parents and community members into the classroom, or bringing students out into the community on field trips.
Benefits Challenges

Safety concerns often require teachers and community members to fill-in forms and complete background checks before community engagement can occur.

Finding members of the community willing to work with teachers can be difficult.

Theoretical Link
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory: Students learn within family and community contexts (children's 'first teachers') in order to respect and carry-on culturally engaged learning.
Example

1. Teacher does networking to find community members willing to come into the classroom.

2. Teacher finds relevant curriculum links that community members can help them teach about.

3. Teacher and community members meet to discuss a lesson idea.

4. Community members and teachers team-teach in the classroom.

5. Students are given the opportunity for one-on-one time with community members.

6. Students present the results of their lesson to community members before community members leave.

8. Unconditional Positive Regard
Definition
Unconditional positive regard involves teachers consistently and unconditionally viewing students as capable and competent. When students make mistakes, fail, or misbehave, it is the teacher's role to continue to let students know that they believe in the student and their abilities.
Benefits

Empowering: when students are given unconditional positive regard, they know that their teacher believes in their ability to constantly do better.

Shows Empathy and builds Trust: children come to learn to respect and trust their teacher when they know their teacher is always on 'their side'.

Challenges

Teachers need to ensure that they still let students know that inappropriate behavior or lack of effort is unacceptable. The teacher should follow-up their discipline with comments about positive regard.
Theoretical Link
Humanist theory of Education: Humanist Carl Rogers invented this approach. He believed unconditional positive regard was necessary for building students' self-confidence.

Example s

1. "Even though you did not do well today, I expect that you will come to school doing better tomorrow."

2. "The quality of your work does not match your potential. Let's talk about some strategies for improvement before you go away and do it again."

For More
See my full post on the Humanist approach to Education.
Definition
Modeled teaching is an instructional strategy that involves the teacher 'showing' students how to do a task. The teacher shows the task while also breaking it down into small steps. This helps students to see how to complete the task.
Benefits Challenges

Not appropriate as a standalone strategy. Students need to eventually try things alone to show competency. Therefore, consider matching modeled teaching up with the I Do, We Do, You Do method
Theoretical Link
Bandura's Behaviorism: Bandura blends behaviorism with constructivism by showing that learning can occur through observation only.
For More
See my full post on Behaviorism in Education, which has a segment on Bandura's modelled instruction approach.

10. I Do We Do You Do Method
Definition
The I Do, We Do, You Do method is a scaffolding strategy that provides gradual release of responsibility from the teacher to the student. It involves three steps: (1) I Do: Teacher models the task; (2) We Do: Student and teacher do the task together; (3) You Do: Student attempts to complete the task alone.
Benefits

Students are provided an appropriate balance of support and freedom.

Teacher has ample time to assess students' abilities to make adjustments to their pedagogy as they move through the 3 steps (particularly in step 2)

Challenges

In large groups, students may fall behind at Steps 2 and 3.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural Theory: Students learn through social interaction with a more knowledgeable other (see: Lev Vygotsky).
Example For More
See my full guide on implementing the I Do, We Do, You Do method.

11. Guided Practice / Cognitive Apprenticeship
Definition
Students follow along with their teacher as an 'apprentice'. By working side-by-side, they learn the subtle little things (' tacit knowledge ') required to know in order to master a skill.
Benefits

Students get very close one-to-one interaction with an expert, helping them learn.

By learning-by-doing, the student learns not only the theory but also the skills required to complete tasks.

Challenges

An approach predominantly used for young children in Indigenous communities, which is not applicable on a wide scale in Western mass education systems.

Requires one-to-one support, which is not often available.

Theoretical Link
Socio-Cultural Theory: Rogoff studied Guatemalan Indigenous teaching methods to come up with this approach. It fits under the socio-cultural theory because its emphasis is on social interaction between master and apprentice.
Example
Common in trade schools for students studying to be mechanics, engineers, etc.
For More
See my full guides on the Guided Practice teaching strategy and cognitive fexibility.
Definition
Scaffolding involves providing support to students while they cannot complete a task alone. Then, when the student can complete the task alone, the teacher withdraws their support.
Benefits

Students feel supported while learning tasks that are just outside of their grasp at the present time.

A clear way of guiding students towards new skills.

Challenges

May require a lot of one-to-one support, which can be difficult to provide in a classroom environment.
Theoretical Link
Socio-Cultural Theory: Scaffolding was invented by Jerome Bruner ( not Vygotsky).
Example
13. Direct Instruction (a.k.a Explicit Teaching)
Definition
Direct instruction (also known as explicit teaching) is a teacher-centered approach that involves the teacher using simple straightforward language to explain concepts to students.
Benefits

Provides clear and direct knowledge to students

Is sometimes the only way to teach something, particularly when introducing a new idea.

Challenges

Students cannot consolidate their knowledge with direct instruction alone. Explicit teaching should be followed-up with other teaching strategies that involve more active learning so students can practice and demonstrate their knowledge.
Theoretical Link
Behaviorism: Traditionally, direct instruction was embraced by behaviorists who believed in teacher-centered teaching. Today, it is used in most teaching approaches.

14. Repetition (Rote Learning)
Definition
Repetition involves giving students time to retry tasks over and over again until it is consolidated in their minds. The information should be safely in a student's long-term memory before moving on.
Benefits

Repetition commits information to memory, and is often one of the only ways to ensure something is truly remembered long-term.
Challenges

Repetitive rote learning that lacks contextual background is hard to remember. Sometimes, giving context through doing tasks through real-life scenarios can be better for memory long-term.

Repetition can disengage students and demotivate them.

Doesn't account for social and cognitive aspects of learning.

Theoretical Link
Behaviorism: Repetition is central to a behaviorist approach. Pavlov, a famous behaviorist found that he could teach his dog through repetitively associating a bell with food. The dog came to learn through repetition that the bell meant 'food'.
For More
See my full post on Behaviorism in Education.
Definition
Spaced repetition builds on simple repetition. Spaced repetition involves gradually increasing the space between times you repeat something. Repetition of a task should be very common. Over time, the task should be re-examined less and less often.

The idea behind spaced repetition is that the concept being learned is re-engaged with just before it is forgotten so that it is consistently recalled into memory and gradually sedimented into long-term memory.
Benefits

Provides long-term support to ensure students remember information over a sustained period of time.

Perfect for revision and standardized test preparation.

Challenges

Can be disengaging and boring for students who tend to prefer active learning.

Doesn't account for social and cognitive aspects of learning.

Theoretical Link
Behaviorism: Spaced repetition was invented by behaviorist theorist Ebbinghaus in 1885.
Example

1. Provide students with a sprinkle of review tasks as a part of their weekly homework.

2. Start lessons (or set aside some time each week) with revision of tasks from months previously to jog students' memory.

Definition
Prompting involves providing students with nudges, guides and questions that will help them to move closer towards an answer. A prompt is a suggestion to a student that they pay attention to a particular aspect of a task that will help them get closer to the answer.
Benefits

Prompts are used regularly by teachers to get beyond blocks in student learning. Without prompts, students may never develop or improve.
Challenges

It is hard to know exactly how much prompting to give and at what stage. Students need time to think things through and make mistakes. Too much prompting too soon can prevent students from thinking for themselves.
Theoretical Link
Social Constructivism: Social constructivists believe teachers have a role in helping students to build knowledge in their minds. Teachers' interventions can help spur knowledge development.
Examples Definition
Differentiation is a teaching strategy that requires teachers to change their teaching styles and educational materials to meet the diverse needs of students within a classroom. It generally involves grouping students into several sub-groups in the classroom based on ability, skillset or learning preferences.
Benefits

Enables the teacher to more effectively address the diverse needs of students in a large classroom.

Ensures learning is more personalized in the hope that no child will be left behind in a lesson.

Challenges

Differentiation is often used as an excuse to dumb down a task - differentiated instruction should be paired with high expectations to ensure all students are working to their maximum potential.
Theoretical Link
Socio-cultural Theory: This approach acknowledges that all students have different social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, each student requires a personalized learning approach. It realizes that one size fits all will not work because all students are different.
Examples

1. Separate students into three ability groups: Advanced, Middle, and Lower. The advanced students can be provided with project-based learning tasks to complete while the teacher works with the middle and lower groups to provide additional support.

2. Provide students with a range of tasks that addresses the same learning outcome. Students can choose between different tasks depending on their learning preferences.

Definition
Manipulatives are physical educational toys (or: 'tools') which are used to support learning. Providing students with physical manipulatives during learning enables them to visualize their learning in a 3D space.
Benefits

Students can learn more actively when they have manipulatives than when learning through teacher-centered direct instruction methods.

Helps students who need to visualize information to learn.

Creation of physical models helps students to form mental models ('cognitive schemata').

Challenges

It can be expensive to gather enough materials for all students in a classroom.

Providing students with toys can distract them from the task. Strong classroom management skills are required.

Theoretical Link
Constructivism: Constructivists including Freidrich Froebel and Maria Montessori have advocated for the use of educational toys to help students to explore and discover in student-led active learning contexts.
Examples
19. Prior Knowledge Assessment
Definition
Prior knowledge assessment entails assessing students' knowledge at the beginning of a unit of work in order to teach students at an appropriate level. If prior knowledge does not take place, teachers may teach content at a level that is either above or below a class's optimal learning level.
Benefits Challenges

Ensure you assess prior knowledge well in advance so you can plan lessons based on prior knowledge. I've assessed prior knowledge at the start of a class before and realized the lesson I planned was completely useless!

20. Student-Teacher Conference
Definition
A student-teacher conference is a one-on-one discussion between a student and a teacher to take stock of a student's needs. The conference usually involves a discussion of both strengths as well as areas for improvement. The conference should conclude with a list of goals for the teacher and student to mutually strive toward.
Benefits

An opportunity for both the teacher and student to express concerns and anxieties

Helps students to feel 'seen', valued and cared for by the teacher

Challenges

Hard to achieve in every lesson. Teachers could consider systematically conferring with one or two students per lesson until all students are met with.

There is a power imbalance in the student-teacher relationship which may prevent students from speaking candidly.

Theoretical Link
Socio-Cultural Theory: Interactions between teachers and students are important to learning within the socio-cultural approach.
Example

Print a list of your students with a column for 'achievements', 'goals' and 'struggles'. Over the course of a week, meet up with your students and discuss with them what they've achieved in the current unit of work, what their goals are, and what the barriers are to achieving those goals.

21. Fill-In the Gaps (Cloze Passages)
Definition
A simple teaching strategy that involves asking students to fill-in an incomplete piece of text. This can happen verbally (starting a paragraph and asking students to complete it) and in writing (a traditional cloze passage).
Benefits

Helps students to jog their own memories by prompting them slightly.

Enables teachers to quickly assess students' knowledge (just-in-time assessment).

Challenges

Cannot be a consistently used strategy as students also need to learn through more challenging approaches such as discovery learning and project-based learning.
Examples

1. Paper cloze passages involving a story in which the key phrases are removed.

2. Prompting questions like: "Can you finish this sentence? The first king of England was ..."

22. Peer Assisted Learning (PAL)
Definition
Has the teacher step aside and allows students to take charge of the learning environment.
Benefits

Students can often explain concepts to one another in a clear way because they're on the same level and closer in their learning journey than the teacher, who probably learned the content years ago!
Challenges

Peer assisted learning is not the same as the students doing the teaching. Students should continue to view each others as partners in learning.
Theoretical Link
Socio-Cultural Theory: students learning through collaborative discussion fits firmly into the sociocultural theory of education.
Example

1. Invite students from a grade level above to come into the classroom and act as moderators of discussions on topics of interest.

2. Pair stronger students with weaker students. Have the stronger students demonstrate their knowledge by supporting the weaker students. I find this works really well because children can often explain things in a clear language that other children can understand.

23. Poster Presentations
Definition
A poster presentation is a great way to demonstrate knowledge at the end of a lesson or unit of work. Provide the students with posters, pens, and printing materials if required.
Benefits Challenges

Can be a lazy way to achieve presentation of knowledge. Ensure the focus remains on the content and not the coloring-in or drawing pretty pictures.

Not useful for all lessons: when students can create a working model, diagram, etc. this would be preferred.

Example

1. Have students work in groups to write up their knowledge in a visually engaging way.

2. Then, have each group verbally present their poster to the class.

24. Two-Minute Presentation
Definition
Two Minute verbal presentations, like posters, are an effective way of having students demonstrate their knowledge at the end of a lesson or unit of work. Each student gets two minutes to present their knowledge on a topic to the rest of the class.
Benefits

An effective, fast way of doing summative assessment.
Challenges

It is an inefficient use of other students' time having them listen to 20 other two-minute presentations when they could be engaging in higher-order learning during that time. Students find it very boring and frustrating to sit through the assessment of other students.
Example
25. De Bono's 6 Thinking Hats
Definition
De Bono's 6 thinking hats strategy asks students to look at an issue from multiple perspectives. It can be used for groups or individuals. Depending on the hat a student is provided, they have to think from a different perspective.
The Six Hats

1. White hat: Provide the facts.

2. Yellow hat: Explore the positives.

3. Black hat: Explore the negatives (devil's advocate).

4. Red hat: Express your feelings and intuitions. Include concerns, dislikes and likes.

5. Green hat: Be creative. Come up with new ideas and alternatives.

6. Blue hat: The manager who ensures all the hats are sticking to their lane.

Benefits Challenges

I often find it's hard to get groups of 6, so sometimes one student has to use two hats.
Example Definition
A pop quiz is a short test that takes place with no prior warning. The quiz can be formative or summative. Link the quiz to rewards to keep students motivated to do well and be prepared at any moment.
Benefits Challenges

May worry some students who are unprepared.
Definition
Taking a democratic vote is a progressive education strategy that attempts to empower students in the classroom. Have students vote on what or how they will learn within the classroom. This can be done at a small scale in a lesson plan by asking students to vote on how a lesson will progress, for example.
Benefits Challenges

Teachers may lose their power and control over the class if they overuse this approach.

Just because the majority supports something, it doesn't mean it's best. A small group of students may fall behind and have their voices drowned out by the majority.

Theoretical Link
Progressive Education: Progressive educators such as Alfie Kohn advocate for empowering students through increased democracy in the classroom.
For More
See my full post on Citizenship Education.
Definition
Using non-verbal gestures are powerful ways to help students learn, as well as to manage the classroom. Educators can explicitly teach signs or use gestures common in society.
Benefits Challenges

Cultural sensitivity required. Different cultures ascribe different meanings to non-verbal gestures.
Examples
29. Environmental Manipulation
Definition
Environments have a strong impact on learning. Temperature, lighting, seating plans, colors and posters on the walls can all affect learning.
Benefits

A non-intrusive way of supporting learning.

Helps students feel more comfortable in the classroom.

Challenges

Your classroom has limitations which may prevent the ideal environmental settings.

Different students may work better in different environments (e.g. heat settings)

Theoretical Link
Humanism: Teachers pay attention to the conditions required for creating an optimal learning environment.

Classical Conditioning (Behaviorism): Students are 'conditioned' by cause-and-effect mechanisms that are subtle and that they aren't even aware of.

For more, see my full post on behaviorism in education.
Example
30. Associative Learning
Definition
Associative learning takes place when several ideas are introduced to a student that are mutually reinforcing. In the classroom, this means presenting students with several stimulus materials that help a student to recall a fact.
Benefits

Is very effective during revision for an exam.
Challenges

Has questionable long-term benefits as at this stage the concept is not yet solidly consolidated in long-term memory. The recall of information is dependant on other associated information.
Theoretical Link
Behaviorism (Pavlov's Dog): Most famously, Pavlov managed to get a dog to associate the ringing of a bell with food. The dog would salivate whenever the bell rang, whether or not there was food around.

Cognitive Constructivism: while associative learning is most commonly associated with Pavlov, constructivists also have an explanation. The more associations someone has with a topic, the more neural pathways are created connecting ideas. This helps improve memory recall.
See Also: Non-Associative Learning Examples

1. The teacher presents students with rhyming pairs to help a student associate one word with another. This can be effective in teaching vocabulary.

2. When attempting to recall a fact, you can try to reflect on where you were and what else you were talking about when that fact was first introduced to you.

31. Cooperative Learning (Group Work)
Definition
Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy that involves having students work together rather than in competition. Usually, this takes place in small groups where the success of the group is dependant on the students working together to achieve a common goal (also known as positive interdependence). See more: Cooperative learning examples.
Benefits

Minimizes destructive competitiveness in the classroom which may undermine a collaborative and collegial atmosphere.

Requires students to talk to one another which can help them learn from each other's perspectives.

Challenges

Students need to be explicitly taught group work skills before participating.

Some students may become lazy and let others do the work for the whole group.

Theoretical Link
Sociocultural Theory: Learning is stimulated when students converse with one another. They get to see others' viewpoints which may help each student build upon or challenge their existing views.
Definition
The teacher presents the students with the agenda at the start of the day. The use of visual aids may be helpful here, allowing students to see a timeline of the day's events on the board at the front of the classroom.
Benefits

Very effective for students with autism who often feel calmed knowing there is some structure to their day.

Helps relax students into a day or even a lesson by giving them certainty about what's to come.

Challenges

Any benefits that may arise lack scientific backing.
Example

Download a card set of images that represent different lesson types and activities. Use this card set to lay out a visual timeline for the students every morning.
Definition
Instead of one teacher delivering a lesson to a group of students, several teachers get their classes together to teach one lesson to a larger group.
Benefits

Teachers can be more flexible. One teacher may take the role of presenter while the other acts as a support with students falling behind.

Teachers can share the workload, particularly for preparation.

Challenges Examples

Consider having one teacher take the lead on all mathematics lessons and the other take the lead on all literature lessons. This enables each teacher to become more expert on their topic.

34. Directing Attention
Definition
Directing attention involves diverting students away from negative non-learning behaviors and towards positive behaviors by presenting them with engaging learning materials or ideas.
Benefits Challenges

Tends to be more effective with younger children than older children.
Example

Use visual aids, worksheets and manipulatives to help direct and maintain students' attention on something physical. With adults, I use flipchart paper (also known as butcher's paper) as the prop to direct attention.
Definition
Visual aids are any objects used in the classroom to attract students' eyes and therefore immerse them more into a lesson. Visual aids can have both cognitive benefits (see: cognitive tools) and engagement benefits.
Benefits

Engagement: students are more likely to pay attention if they have something to look at.

Cognition: some students may benefit from visualizing a concept to help them order ideas in their minds.

Visual learning: some learners prefer learning visually than aurally (see: learning styles).

Challenges

A visual aid needs an educational purpose. Consider why you are using the visual aid before deciding to use it.
Example Definition
Allowing students to sit where they choose, rather than having assigned seating, has had a resurgence in popularity in the past decade. A flexible seating classroom often has a range of differently organized workstations, allowing students to select a spot to sit that's most comfortable for them and which best suits the style of learning that will be occuring in that lesson.
Benefits

Can reduce sedentary periods of time by allowing students to move around more during a lesson.

Enables students to sit at a table that best suits their learning (computer table, group table, individual table, on a bean bag, etc.)

Challenges

There is often not enough space at workstations, meaning students end up not actually sitting where they choose.

Often students like to have a spot they can call their own. It helps give students a sense of place and belonging.

Example

This approach is very common in the Agile Learning Spaces and Flexible Classrooms movement.
For More
See my full post on the Common Classroom Seating Arrangements.

36. Formative Assessment (a.k.a Assessment for Learning)
Definition
Formative assessment involves assessing students' learning throughout the learning process, not just at the end. Formative assessments can take place at one point in a unit of work or regularly throughout a lesson.
Benefits Challenges

Can be time consuming to constantly assess students' abilities.

Formative assessments often lack the authority of summative assessment pieces.

Examples

1. Formative assessments can be simple stops to get feedback and ongoing questioning of students.

2. They can also take the form of pop quizzes or student-teacher conferences.

37. Summative Assessment
Definition
Summative assessments take place at the end of a unit of work and are often the formal final / overall grading of a student's knowledge.
Benefits

Summative assessments are necessary for providing a final grade for a student and are often required by school boards.

Summative assessments give students something to strive toward which may keep them motivated and encourage them to study.

Challenges Example Definition
Gamification involves implementing elements of gameplay in your lessons. This can be as simple as creating a competition out of a mathematics quiz.

Recently, computer software such as excel and programming languages have been used in the classroom as elements of 'digital' gamification.

Don't confuse gamification with game-based learning, which is discussed next.
Benefits

Gamification can make boring lessons fun, thereby increasing the engagement and motivation of students.
Challenges

Teachers must not lose focus on the learning outcomes that must be met. 'Fun' is not the goal, it is the means for achieving the goal, which is always learning.
Examples

1. Get your students into two groups and have them compete in a trivia contest based on your lesson content.

2. Give students table groups and reward tables with points depending oh how well they do.

For More
See my full article on the pros and cons of digital play.
Definition
Not to be confused with gamification, game-based learning involves the use of actual games (board games, computer games, sports games, etc.) into a lesson.

While gamification involves using elements of gameplay into lessons (points, competitions), game-based learning involves using actual games in a lesson.
Benefits

Students often love video games at home, so they get excited that they can play them in school as well.

Games can also support cognition by prompting students to complete and practice tasks to win games. See also: cognitive tools.

Challenges

Parents may feel playing games in the classroom is not acceptable. Make sure parents know your reasoning behind using games.

Ensure the focus remains on the learning outcomes, not just on 'having fun'.

Example For More
See my full article on game-based learning as well as my explanations about how to use minecraft and sandbox games in the classroom.
Definition
A coach does not stand in front of players and simply tell them what the 'facts' are. A coach stands behind a player. He watches the player and gives feedback on their performance. His job is to encourage, suggest adjustments and be the support network for the player.

Coaching is one of the great metaphors for teaching. A teacher who uses coaching as a strategy tried to emulate the role of the coach: observing and offering support and suggestions for adjustments.
Benefits Challenges

Sometimes the teacher needs to introduce new ideas, meaning coaching may not be as useful as another approach such as modeling or direct instruction.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural Theory: In sociocultural theory, teachers tend to encourage active learning and provide social support.

41. Inquiry-Based Learning
Definition
Inquiry-based learning involves the teacher presenting a problem for the students to solve by making their own inquiries. It is similar to discovery learning, but is different in that inquiry based learning generally involves the teacher setting out a puzzling problem to solve at the start of the lesson.
Benefits

Students 'find' the answers rather than being given them by teachers.

Answers emerge out of exploration, problem solving and discovery, meaning students learn why something is true, not simply what is true.

Challenges

Significant support is required to help guide students through their inquiry. Students need to be taught how to inquire and given the right inquiry tools (such as books, appropriate websites, etc.)
Theoretical Link
Constructivism: Students learn through constructing ideas in their heads rather than being told the facts.

42. Reciprocal Teaching
Definition
Reciprocal teaching involves having students facilitate their own small group lessons. It is usually used in reading lessons.

The teacher first models how to guide group discussions before sending students off to facilitate their own lesson. In groups of four, students usually take the roles of: questioner, clarifier, summarizer and predictor. Students read stimulus materials then self-facilitate a group discussion about the text.
Benefits Challenges

Requires a lot of pre-teaching so students have the required skills for these sorts of lessons to work.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: working in groups, communicating and sharing ideas help stimulate thinking and encourages students to challenge their own ideas in order to improve them.
Example (Modelled off the I Do, We Do, You Do approach) Definition
Blended learning involves a mix of online instruction and face-to-face learning. This strategy can be employed by giving students part of their instruction as homework online and part of it in class. It differs from flipped learning because a flipped classroom involves at-home instruction and in-class practice. Blended learning can have both practice and instruction occuring at home and/or in class
Benefits

Gives the teacher flexibility to teach partially during homework time and partially in class.
Challenges

Students need access to technology at home unless the at-home parts are only reading and printouts.

Usually only suitable for university students who are short on time. Blended learning allows them to do some of the learning in their own time.

Examples For More
See my List of 10 Pros and Cons of teaching Online.
Definition
A growth mindset focuses on teaching students that they have the power to improve and succeed if they put their effort into it. The opposite would be students refusing to try because they don't think they have the power in their own hands to succeed.

Teaching growth mindsets is all about modelling positive behaviors. Include growth mindset in your lesson plans by finding points in the lesson to discuss specific strategies to move toward success, strategies for studying, and positive thinking.
Benefits Challenges

Many students have many barriers to success. If you ignore those barriers and simply say 'you can work harder', this will make students feel disempowered. Teachers need to show students the pathways to success.

Ensure the content is actually achievable for your students.

Examples

1. Break down tasks into manageable chunks so that students know the steps toward success. Then, use encouragement to motivate students to put in their effort.

2. Celebrate success to show students that they are competent and capable.

45. Culturally Responsive Teaching
Definition
Culturally responsive teaching is an instructional strategy that involves ensuring students' cultures are integrated into lessons. This includes celebrating students' cultural backgrounds when relevant and using learning styles that are dominant within your students' cultures.
Benefits Challenges

Teachers need to be sensitive to cultures different to their own.

Teachers should consult parents and community members about best strategies for the cultural needs of the students in the class.

Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: sociocultural theory believes
Examples Definition
Mastery learning and teaching is a strategy for ensuring all students meet a certain standard of understanding or ability before moving on.

Teachers set a benchmark of knowledge 9r ability for students to meet. Then, all assessment in this method is formative, where students are given feedback and as much time as possible to improve before progressing.
Benefits

Students are not left behind and gaps in their knowledge are not overlooked.

Students may feel less stressed or rushed with this approach.

There is no talk of inability or failure in this method as teachers and students keep working away at the task until success is achieved.

Challenges

There is not enough time in traditional school systems for this approach.

The difference in abilities between students means some students will get a long way ahead while others remain a long way behind.

Theoretical Link
Humanism: there are elements of unconditional positive regard in this approach (see Carl Rogers).
Examples

1. An example.may be that all students must get 80% on a test to progress to the next unit of work.

2. This approach is common for getting a "handwriting license" in primary / elementary school.

47. Stimulus Materials and Props
Definition
Stimulus materials are tools that a teacher provides during lessons to spur students into engaging with the lesson or thinking more deeply about the content provided. They include videos, educational toys (manipulatives), worksheets, visual prompts, objects from outside the classroom, and so on.

Without stimulus materials, the classroom feels empty and detached from real life. Bring stimulus materials into the classroom to help students make stronger connections to things going on outside.
Benefits Challenges Theoretical Link
Constructivism: constructivists encourage the use of props so that students can 'learn by doing' and be 'hands on' in their learning.
Examples

1. Place several props into a bag. Have the students put their hands in the bag and see whether they can guess what the props are.

2. Place an unusual prop related to your lesson in the middle of the classroom. Get the students to guess what it is before beginning the lesson.

Definition
Service learning involves having students meet learning outcomes while contributing to and 'giving back to' their community. This often involves volunteer work, internships and placements within the community where assistance is needed.
Benefits Challenges

It can be hard to place all your students in a service learning placement if there are many students to allocate.

It may be impractical given safety and security requirements.

Theoretical Link
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory: EST highlights that people are situated within community from whom they get their values and beliefs. By being more connected to the community, students learn who they are and how they're connected to a society and culture that surrounds them.
Example Definition
Invented by Lave and Wegner, situated learning involves learning by being embedded within a professional environment and slowly picking up the ways of doing and speaking within that context.

It has similarities to other instructional strategies outlined in this article such as service learning and cognitive apprenticeships. However, its defining feature is the slow absorption of knowledge through prolonged exposure to an authentic professional setting.
Benefits

Students learn the most important practical information required for a job.

Students learn the ways of speaking and behaving that are required within a professional situation.

Challenges

Not practical as a teaching strategy in classrooms. It works best as an apprenticeship model for new graduates from university.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: the situated learning approach emphasizes the importance of learning from 'more knowledgeable others'.

50. Sixty-Second Strategy
Definition
The sixty second strategy involves having students review one another's work in three steps which take 60 seconds each. The steps are: respond, reflect and review. This usually takes place after a student presentation where the students give a cumulative 3 minutes of feedback and reflection on the presentation.

The goal is not just to give feedback to the presenter, but for the listeners to also think about how they would have done the presentation and what their own thoughts on the topic are.
Benefits

Students learn how to give feedback to others in positive and constructive ways.

It is a great way for students to actively engage with other students' presentations.

Challenges

Students need to know how to be positive in feedback and not be hurtful.
Example
51. Thumbs Down, Thumbs Up
Definition
Thumbs down, thumbs up is a simple strategy for getting immediate feedback from students. During a lesson, pause after each step to get instant thumbs down, thumbs up feedback on whether students understand the previous step.

If there are thumbs down, the teacher should ask those students if they have direct questions or whether they might want that section to be covered again in different language or more slowly.
Benefits

Enables the teacher to gauge students' reactions in real time.

Gives the students an opportunity to give the teacher feedback immediately so that they don't fall behind or become frustrated.

Challenges

If the majority of students give thumbs up but only one or two give thumbs down, this is not endorsement to move on. Rather, the teacher should make sure no students fall behind.

52. Summarizing and Paraphrasing
Definition
For this teaching strategy, either the teacher or student summarizes something someone previously said in their own words in order to ensure they understanding each other without any misconceptions.
Benefits

In having a student repeat the teacher's statement in their own words, the teacher can see whether students actually understand something.

In repeating a student's statement in different language, the teacher can see whether they truly understand what the student means.

Challenges

The biggest risk here is in the teacher 'putting words in the student's mouth'. This may give the student a free pass.
Examples

1. The teacher explains a concept, then asks the student to repeat it without using the same words. A pause of a few minutes between the teacher's explanation and the student's response can be helpful in preventing the student from directly copying the teacher's language. As time passes, the meaning should stay but the exact words should be forgotten.

2. Alternatively, the student makes a statement, and the teacher translates it in their own words and finishes with "Is that what you meant?"

Definition
Demonstration involves showing the students a practical example of something that is being learned in class.

The difference between demonstration and modeling is that a demonstration usually:

does not involve explicit explanation of all the steps, and

is usually not followed by students having a go themselves.

Demonstration (rather than modelling) may be necessary when the concept being demonstrated is dangerous or requires expertise.
Benefits

Having something complex or theoretical demonstrated can be exciting to link theory to practice.
Challenges

Demonstrations may require expensive field trips or inviting experts and expert equipment into the classroom.
Example

A demonstration could be as complex as going to watch a space rocket launch or as simple as a ranger demonstrating how to use bear spray.
Definition
Role modelling involves demonstrating the requisite behaviors or ideal way of acting within a learning environment. Role modelling has the intention of positively influencing students into copying the teacher's positive learning behaviors.
Benefits

Students are socialized into behaving and learning in socially appropriate ways.

A teacher who sets personal high expectations for their own learning will have those high expectations flow on toward the students.

Challenges

A teacher needs to be aware that all of their behaviors rub off on students. This means they need to 'put on their happy face' despite what's going on in their private lives.
Theoretical Link
Bandura (Social learning theory): Albert Bandura believed that observation was important in influencing how people will behave and learn. See his famous Bobo doll experiment where children were more aggressive toward a doll when they observed an adult being aggressive toward it.
Examples

1. Male teachers may role model positive masculinity, such as politeness and respect to all people regardless of gender.

2. A teacher can be a role model my demonstrating engagement and volunteering within the community, insisting on respectfully welcoming guests when they enter the classroom, or having high regard and respect for reading, learning, and apologizing.

Definition
Predicting involves asking students to make predictions or 'guestimates' before a study is undertaken. The teacher may make a prediction for the students to respond to, or ask students to make predictions themselves.
Benefits

It stimulates students to think about the logical flow-on effects of the things they are learning about (such as in science: gravity, momentum, etc.)

Students are asked to think forward rather than simply react in the learning environment.

Examples

1. At the start of a lesson (before introducing too much information), ask students what they think will happen during the lesson.

2. Show the students a diagram or comic strip demonstrating sequence of events with the last few events missing. Have students fill-in the gaps.

56. Intentional Mistakes
Definition
The teacher inserts intentional mistakes into their teaching materials (such as misspellings in their presentations) or their speech in order to:
Benefits Challenges

You may risk having students believe you had made the mistakes intentionally.

Students may believe the mistakes are truths and end up believing things that are untrue.

Examples Definition
Immediate feedback is any feedback that takes place during a lesson rather than after a lesson or exam has been completed.

There are two primary types of immediate feedback: feedback from students to teachers, and feedback from teachers to students.

The feedback's purpose should be to make impromptu changes during the lesson before it is too late.
Benefits

Teachers can adjust their teaching methods in the moment to ensure the lesson is a success.

Students can adjust the ways they are going about completing a task to ensure it is successful.

Challenges

In large groups, one-to-one feedback can be difficult.

Teachers need to be able to think on their feet to make immediate adjustments.

Theoretical Link
David Schon's 'Reflection in Practice': According to Schon, successful practitioners reflect in practice rather than just on practice. Reflection in practice requires practitioners to reflect on what they're doing while they're doing it.
Examples
58. Whole Group Class Discussion (a.k.a Circle Time)
Definition
A whole group class discussion gets all students in the class talking to one another in one group. When I use this strategy, I try to get students sitting in a conversation circle. The benefits of students sitting in a circle include:

There is a neutral power structure with no one at the head of the discussion.

All students can see one another.

Benefits

Whole class discussions encourage all students to develop the confidence to share their own views publicly.

If the whole class gets into it, there can be a lot of great back-and-forth.

Challenges Examples Definition
Concentric circles is a method that builds on the whole group circle time discussion. Students sit in two concentric circles with the inner circle facing the outer circle. The students in the inner circle should be paired one-to-one with a student in the outer circle (like speed dating).

The teacher poses a question and the pairs are given 60 seconds to discuss the problem. Then, the students from the inner circle rotate one person to the right so they are facing a new partner for the next question.
Benefits Challenges

There needs to be an even number of students in the class so each student has a partner to work with.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: students learn by interacting with others to help them test, challenge and extend their own ideas.
Definition
One student takes the role of a character from a book, history, etc. They dit in front of the class and get interviewed by their classmates. The student must stay in character and answer the questions from the perspective of that character.
Benefits Challenges

Students need time to research their character and brainstorm their character's perspectives on various topics before being put in the hot seat.

Shy students or students who are not confident with the material may be intimidated by this instructional strategy.

Examples

This strategy can be linked up with strategies like De Bono's thinking hats where students would answer questions from a particular perspective.
Definition
Graphic organizers are visual aids in the classroom designed to help students visualize and conceptualize ideas and their relationships with other ideas. Examples of graphic organizers include flowcharts, mind maps and venn diagrams. Use them to help students think more deeply about topics.
Benefits Challenges

Don't stick to just one framework as the frameworks narrow the scope of thinking in exchange for depth. Mix up your graphic organizers.
Theoretical Link
Cognitive Constructivism: cognitive constructivists such as David Jonassen believe graphic organizers help students to share their cognitive load with the organizer, helping them to organize and sort ideas in their heads more effective.y
Examples

1. Flow charts

2. Mind maps

3. Venn diagrams

4. Concept maps

5. Network or family tree

6. Spider diagram

7. Compare-contrast matrix

8. Continuum

9. Series of events chain

10. Cycle map

11. Character charts

Definition
This is one of the simplest, most frequently used, but also most effective classroom teaching strategies. Students think about a topic on their own. Then, they pair up with a partner and discuss, compare and contrast their thoughts together. Thirdly, the pair share what they discussed with the whole class.
Benefits Challenges

Students need the confidence to speak up in front of the whole class. I have found some students like to have the comfort of flip chart (butcher's) paper as a prop when presenting their discussions to the class.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: learning through conversation allows students to see diverse perspectives and therefore improve on their own perspectives.
Examples Definition
Assigning group roles for students who are doing small group work is another simple instructional strategy to try. There are many group role types to be found online. I tend to use the roles of: timekeeper, moderator, notekeeper, and collector. All students should be equal discussion contributors, and this is managed by the moderator.
Benefits

Helps to structure the activity, give students certainty in what they are doing, and reduce the uncertainty from group work.

Encourages communication to get students hearing other students' ideas and perspectives

Challenges

Students must be explicitly taught the group roles and need time to practice them.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural Theory: By communicating with peers, students widen their perspectives and (with more knowledgeable peers) have their knowledge scaffolded.
Example

1. Ensure you model the group roles before beginning the activity. Consider using a fishbowl method by having a sample group sit in the middle of a circle modeling the roles to the rest of the class.

2. For the class's first attempt at group roles, structure it very clearly by getting the students to follow a clear step-by-step guide. Slowly release responsibility to students when they are ready.

Definition
The barometer method gets a measure of students' opinions by asking them to stand on a line from 0 to 10 (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = unsure or conflicted, 10= strongly agree).
Benefits

Students tend to find this a non-intimidating way of sharing their opinions.

Can be a good way of getting students talking. Once they stand on the line, you can ask them to explain why they stood where they did.

Challenges

It may be beneficial to prevent students from taking a neutral "I don't know" stance without sufficient defence of this position.
Theoretical Link
Critical theory: The barometer could be paired with critical theory if students critique assumptions in society with a focus on the perspectives of marginalized groups.
Examples Definition
Cognitive tools are educational technologies designed to promote thinking beyond what a student can do without the technology. This might include using wearable technologies to help students map out their own movements to then test their knowledge of geography, use of excel sheets to create financial estimations, etc.
Benefits

Educational technologies can help us do things we couldn't do without them.

Can engage students who love computers and technology in learning tasks.

Challenges

Teachers must ensure technology use is focused on helping students learn more or at a higher level of critical thinking than if they didn't have technology.
Theoretical Link
Cognitive Constructivism: this approach, invented by david Jonassen, emphasizes that computer technologies should be used to extend and promote higher-order cognition.
Examples
See my full article: Examples of Congitive Tools in Education.

66. Anticipation / Guestimation
Definition
Anticipation and guestimation is an instructional strategy designed to get students thinking about the consequences or flow-on effects of actions. Teachers ask students to make predictions based on limited knowledge about a topic
Benefits

Students often have to use mathematics and logical reasoning to succeed in this task.

Students are required to be resourceful and seek clues that will show them the possible consequences of action.

Challenges

It is important to strike a balance between giving enough information to make informed guesses and not too much information that the students can deduce the full answer.

67. Silent Conversation
Definition
A silent conversation is a way of getting students to communicate without having them speak up in front of the class. Students write their responses to a prompt on sheets of paper but cannot speak while doing so. They should then also write responses to one another's points so that they are 'conversing' through writing.
Benefits

Students who are shy to speak up my be more willing to participate, especially if their written response can stay anonymous.

It can often be easier to respond in writing than speaking because students have time to reflect and think about the wording of their response before writing it.

Challenges

Only one student at a time can write their response. Consider what other students will be doing during this time.

Students must be competent writers.

Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: we learn and extend our knowledge through social interaction. By seeing others' points, we can improve or amend our own.
Examples

1. One way to do this is to have a flip chart paper sheet (butcher's paper) on a wall with a discussion prompt written above. Have students walk up to the paper intermittently thought a lesson to write responses to the prompt. After the first few students write their responses, the rest of the students must respond not to the prompt but to the answers written by previous students - how can they add to or challenge what someone else has already said?

2. The second common way of having a silent conversation is to pass a piece of paper around the class and have students write their responses to conversation chains on the piece of paper.

Definition
A devil's advocate is someone who argues for an opposing point of view in order to stir up an argument and poke holes in other points of view. The devil's advocate does not necessarily need to believe the points they are arguing. Either the teacher or students can be the devil's advocate I'm this teaching strategy.
Benefits Challenges

Students and parents may interpret you devil's advocate position as an attempt to teach unsavory views in the classroom.
Theoretical Link
Critical theory: A devil's advocate can help students with skills desirable within critical theory, like seeing views of people who are not commonly heard in society and the capacity to critique dominant narratives in society.
Examples

1. The teacher can note in their lesson plan moments when they believe there are opportunities to play devil's advocate role promote debate.

2. The teacher can give students debating points where one person acts as devil's advocate and another as the person defending the dominant perspective.

Definition
Strategic pauses are one of the most important tools in a teacher's toolbox of teaching strategies. A strategic pause is a gap between statements to let a point sink in or linger, or to give students a moment to think about an answer before the teacher moves on.
Benefits Challenges

Can leave students confused

Requires follow-up and knowledge testing

Theoretical Link
Cognitive load theory: Too much information at one time can cause a student to lose track. Time is required for the mind to interpret, sort, stack, save and withdraw information in their mind ('create cognitive schemata').
Examples Definition
Chunking involves presenting information in manageable 'chunks' to allow students to sufficiently process information before moving on to the next section of a lesson or task.

Teachers should present only a manageable amount of information to students before giving them a chance to consolidate the information and practice their new knowledge.

Without giving sufficient time to consolidate information before giving new information to a student, the student will struggle to keep up with the information and old information may fall away before it is secured into their memory.
Benefits

Less students will be left behind, confused and disillusioned in the classroom if they are given consolidation time.
Challenges

There is often not enough time in a crowded school curriculum to chunk information well enough.

It is hard to tell how much is 'too much' information, and how long is long enough before knowledge is consolidated into memory.

Theoretical Link
Cognitive Overload Theory: If students are given too much information, their mind becomes 'overloaded' and they are unable to process more information. We only have a limited amount of working memory space in our minds. See: John Sweller's cognitive overload theory.
Examples
71. Snowball Discussions
Definition
Snowball discussions are another twist on the think-pair-share method. For snowball discussions, students start in pairs and share their thoughts and ideas together. Then, the pairs join up with another pair to create a group of four. These four people share thoughts together, compare notes, debate ideas, and come up with an agreed list of points on a topic.

Then, groups join up again to make groups of eight. The groups of eight compare points and perspectives, then join up to create groups of 16, etc. until it ends up being a whole class discussion.
Benefits

An effective strategy for promoting discussion between students. It can be useful for getting students to compare how different groups of students approach points from different perspectives.
Challenges

The class group needs to be large (20+) for enough rounds of this strategy to happen.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: social interaction helps students see perspectives that are not their own and challenge their own views. This helps them pick holes in their own points and improve their misconceptions.

72. Homework: Knowledge Consolidation
Definition
Yes, homework is a teaching strategy! A traditional approach to homework sees it as an opportunity for students to consolidate information that was taught in class. Studying for upcoming exams is often also an important part of homework.

Other homework strategies like flipped classroom are possible - see the flipped classroom discussion earlier in this article.
Benefits

Help students to consolidate information learned in class.

Ensures students have an opportunity to keep information fresh in their minds and be reminded of information learned in previous months.

Challenges

Excessive homework can impede students' rights to enjoyment, sports and extracurricular activities out of school.

Students often do not have support at home if they get stuck.

Theoretical Link
Behaviorism: repetition over time helps memory retention.
Definition
Active listening involves using strategies to pay close attention to what someone is saying. Teachers can explicitly model active listening by giving students strategies like pointing their bodies at the speaker, keeping their eyes on the speaker, nodding when they agree, and putting hands up to ask questions or clarification.
Benefits Challenges

Some students (such as students with autism) need stress balls, fidget toys, etc to help them concentrate.
Examples
Examples that show active listening include:

74. Connect, Extend, Challenge
Definition
The "connect, extend, challenge" teaching strategy is a three-step strategy designed to get student thinking about how their knowledge is progressing.

In step 1, students 'connect' what they're learning to their prior knowledge. In step 2, students think about how the new knowledge 'extends' what they already knew. In step 3, students reflect on what 'challenges' they still face: what is still confusing to them?
Benefits

This is a framework that gets students to explicitly think about how they are progressing in their learning.

The clear steps give students guidelines to help them achieve success.

Challenges

Requires prompting and scaffolding
Theoretical Link
Social Constructivism: This strategy has implicit links to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. Students look at how their backgrounds impact their thinking, what level they are at, and what is still sitting in their 'zone of proximal development' (.e.g what they need to learn next).
Examples

Split a piece of paper into three columns to help students in this task: one column for 'connect', one for 'extend', and one for 'challenge'.
Definition
While a seemingly simple activity, this instructional strategy gets students to refine the topic they're exploring down to one simple sentence that catches the essence of the issue.

For this strategy, have students come up with a headline for the lesson as if they're a journalist reporting on the issue at hand. Get them to think about how it can be catchy, explain the problem at hand, and provide an engaging 'hook' to draw readers in.
Benefits

Helps students identify the key point of a lesson, forcing them to think about what is really important in the lesson.
Challenges

Some issues are complex and refining it down to one sentence may risk simplification.
Extension
To extend this activity, have students write a journalistic piece to go under the headline.

76. Lesson Objective Transparency
Definition
Being transparent about a lesson objective is a teaching strategy designed to help students understand the purpose of the lesson. By knowing the objective from the outset, the students are less likely to get confused about the purpose and direction of their lesson.
Benefits Challenges

Lesson objectives are often worded for adults not children, so the wording may just confuse the students at times.
Examples

Write your lesson objectives on the first slide of lecture slides if relevant.

77. Open-Ended Questioning
Definition
Open-ended questioning involves asking questions that require an elaboration in the response. In other words, it cannot be a question that can be answered with "yes" or "no".
Benefits

Students are required to provide explanations and justifications for the points they make.

Teachers get a more detailed appreciation of students' levels of knowledge.

Examples Definition
The fishbowl strategy gets a small group of students to sit in a circle in the center if the classroom with the rest of the class sitting in a circle around the group.

The students in the middle of the circle complete a discussion or task as a demonstration for the students observing.
Benefits Challenges

Many students will find doing a task I'm front of their peers intimidating.
Theoretical Link
Bandura's observational learning: Bandura argues that students can learn from observing the modeling of others.
Examples

1. Get older students from higher grades to sit in the middle of the fishbowl.

2. Or, use the fishbowl as the "we do" step in the I do, we do, you do method.

Definition
Use the four corners of the classroom as different stations for answering questions proposed by a teacher.

The stations may have answers like: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. Another example may be periods of time for a history exam: the 50s, 60s, 70s, 80s. Or, the corners may have specific answers in the corners related to the questions being asked.
Benefits

This activity may be appealing for kinesthetic learners who want to move about to stay engaged.

Provides a visual comparison between different views of students in the class.

Challenges

When students head to the corners, the teacher needs to ask students to explain their decisions to ensure depth is achieved in the lesson.
Theoretical Link
Multiple Intelligences: The lesson can help students who are kinesthetic learners.
Definition
This strategy involves getting students to trade ideas with one another.

Students write down their answer or thoughts to a TEACHER'S question. Then, they pair up. The students give their answer to their partner and take their partner's answer. They discuss the differences between and merits of each answer.

Students then split up and find a new partner to repeat the activity.
Benefits

Writing down an answer ensures all students participate and that all students provide an explicit response.

Seeing other people's answers helps students get a broader perspective on a topic.

Challenges

Pre-plan for what to do when you don't have an even number of students in the class.
Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: students learn from their peers through discussion. Discussion can help broaden horizons and allows students to see multiple perspectives on an issue.
Examples Definition
Brainstorming involves asking students to come up with their initial thoughts on an issue. The thoughts do not have to be refined or correct. Instead, the students should use the brainstorming time to get their mind flowing and discussion started. Usually, this activity takes place using flip chart / butcher's paper.
Benefits

A good way to start discussion among students, especially if they don't know each other well or are shy.
Challenges

The students may need to assign some roles to group members. Consider rotating the role of 'writer' between students (usually one person writes an idea for the whole group on the brainstorming paper).
Examples

1. A good way of doing this activity is to place students in small groups and provide them a large sheet of paper to write down all their initial thoughts.

2. Students can then report all their thoughts back to the class.

Definition
The expert jigsaw method teaching method involves having students split into groups of 'experts' and then 'topics'.

First, each 'expert' group focuses on a sub-area of a topic to develop their 'expertise' as a group.

Once the initial group work discussion has concluded, the 'expert groups' split.

The teacher then forms new 'topic groups' with one student from each of the original expert groups in the new groups.

The idea is that each group in the second part of the lesson will have an 'expert' on a particular area of a topic. Every expert will be able to contribute their perspective to the group

For example, if the topic is dinosaurs, the initial 'expert groups' may get together to discuss separate issues: Group 1 will discuss extinction, Group 2 will discuss bones, Group 3 will discuss diets, and Group 4 will discuss geographical locations.

When the 'topic groups' converge, they should contain one expert on extinction, one expert on bones, one expert on diets and one expert on geographical locations. The topic group will therefore have a broad range of expert knowledge to discuss and share.
Benefits

Gives each student a sense that they have something meaningful to contribute because they will be an expert on something when converging in the 'topic' groups.

Encourages collaboration and positive interdependence in group work.

Challenges

Requires forethought and organization by the teacher.
Theoretical Link
Social Constructivism: social interaction helps students construct ideas in their minds. Each student gets to hear the expert perspective of another student who is a 'more knowledgeable other', while also acting as the more knowledgeable other when it is their turn to share their expertise.
Definition
A KWL chart is a type of graphic organizer that can be used throughout the course of a lesson to help students keep track of their learning.

The chart can be on a simple piece of paper split into three columns: (K) What I already know; (W) What I want to know in this lesson; (K) What I learned.

At the start of the lesson the students can fill out the first two columns. The first column will help the teacher assess prior knowledge. The second column will help the teacher and students guide the lesson by outlining what they want out of it.

At the end of the lesson, the third column can be filled-in: (L) What I learned in the lesson. This helps students reflect on the lesson to show them that they did actually learn something!
Benefits

Students can keep track of their own learning.

There is physical evidence of what was learned that teachers can use in students' final report card comments and teaching portfolios.

It is a good structured tool to help guide a lesson.

Challenges

It would be good if there was a fourth column for 'what I still want to know' so student can leave the lesson with more questions that can be addressed in future classes.

Students sometimes place topics in the (W) What I want to know column that are relevant but not covered in a pre-made lesson plan. This can require the student to get a bit creative in re-arranging their lesson on the fly.

Definition
A SWOT analysis is a teaching tool used to help students identify their own Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and .

It is often used at the beginning of a term or unit of work to help students self-identify how best to proceed in their studies.

A SWOT analysis starts with a piece of paper split into four quadrants. The top-left has 'Strengths', top-right has 'Weaknesses', bottom-left has 'Opportunities' and the bottom-right has 'Threats'.

There are plenty of templates online you could download also.

Students then fill out the SWOT sheet, identifying their strengths and weaknesses (e.g. 'I am organized' or 'I am time poor') and opportunities and threats (e.g. 'I have the opportunity to work with my peers to improve' or 'I have an upcoming swim meet that will take up more of my time').
Benefits

Students are taught to self-assess and plan ahead to avoid upcoming challenges in their lives.

Students can balance affirming statements about their own skills with honest recognition of their weaknesses.

Challenges Definition
Read aloud is a strategy that involves the teacher reading a text out loud to students. The strategy relies on the teacher using strategic pauses, pitch and tone changes, pace and volume changes, and questioning and comments. These reading aloud strategies help students to become more engaged in a lesson and get more out of the reading experience.
Benefits

Can be more engaging than getting students to read to themselves.

By using strategic pauses and asking questions of students, the text can both be read and analyzed at the same time. This may improve comprehension.

Challenges

I've found many pre-service teachers get nervous doing this task. Remember that people of all ages love being read to.

86. SIT: Surprising, Interesting, Troubling
Definition
A SIT analysis asks students to list aspects of a lesson that were surprising, interesting and troubling. It is useful following the viewing of a short film or reading a book about a topic that seems bizarre or a fact that is counterintuitive.

Like a KWL chart, you could do this task by splitting paper into three columns: one for 'surprising', one for 'interesting' and one for 'troubling'.
Benefits

Gets students to take a critical stance and make judgements (particularly for 'troubling')

Is a good way to take stock of students' interests in order to create follow-up lessons based on topics the students have already demonstrated concern for.

Challenges

The 'troubling' part is often hard for students to complete - consider explicitly modeling a sample response before asking students to complete it alone.
Theoretical Link
Critical theory: students can use a SIT analysis to critique the justice or inequality issues presented in a text.

87. Higher Order Thinking
Definition
When writing a lesson plan, it's often a very good idea to note any time you're encouraging higher order thinking - especially if there's a column in your lesson plan for 'teaching strategies'. This help people reading the lesson plan to see that you've been intentional about promoting higher order thinking.

Following Bloom's taxonomy, higher order thinking usually includes tasks that involve verbs like: Judge, Appraise, Evaluate, Compare, Criticize, Assess, Estimate, Deduce, Hypothesize and Generalize.
Benefits

Helps a teacher to be more explicit in their language and to ensure a lesson is challenging for students.

Ensures students are practicing their critical thinking skills rather than just repeating a teacher's 'facts'.

Challenges

For higher order thinking tasks, it's important that you don't give students the answers. Instead, give them hints, pointers and resources that will help them to come up with the answers on their own.
Theoretical Link
Constructivism: Bloom was a constructivist who believed learning happens when students build knowledge in their mind rather than just copying facts from an authority figure in the classroom.
Definition
Getting students to debate an idea is a great way of getting them to build coherent and logical arguments in defence of a position. It requires them to gather, analyze and sort facts before they present them to an audience.
Benefits

Students learn to identify positive arguments on a topic even if they disagree with it, helping them to see things from multiple perspectives.
Challenges

Students may require resources to do background research to come up with strong points for or against a position.
Examples

1. Split the class into two groups and assign each group a position for or against a statement.

2. Give each group 15 minutes to come up with some arguments for their side of the argument. Each student in the group should have one argument to make for the team. The student writes their argument down on a piece of paper.

3. Line the two groups of students up facing one another.

4. Go down the lines getting each student to make their point for or against the position. Zig-zag from one group to the next as you go down the line

5. Once the students have completed, do an anonymous poll of the class to find out which position is most convincing. For the poll, students do not have to vote for their team's position.

89. Note Taking (Cornell Method)
Definition
Note taking involves getting students to actively listen out for key points in a speech or video and synthesize it into key points for remembering later.

A popular framework for not taking is the Cornell method. This involves splitting a page into two columns.

The column on the left is a 'Cue' column. In the cue column write key words, phrases or Quotes as if they were headings or headline points to remember.

The column on the right is the note taking column. This column is larger and allows space to add detail and diagrams explaining the 'cues' that were written on the left in more detail.
Benefits

Turns passive learning during a didactic explicit instruction lesson into a more active learning environment.

Helps students organize and synthesize their thoughts.

Helps with studying for exams later on.

Challenges

Teachers may talk too fast for students to take detailed notes. Remember to use strategic pauses and remind students at strategic times that they need to be taking notes.
Examples

Feel free to download cornell method worksheets off the internet. Just look for them on your favorite search engine!
Definition
Recording a lesson involves using either video, audio or Screencast technology to save the lesson for revision later on.
Benefits

This method is very useful for students with learning disabilities who may require more time to process information. They can rewatch later on and make use of pause, rewind and slow functions during the revision.

Great for when students miss a day so they can catch up.

Challenges

Whenever you work with technology, be prepared for issues to arise that may delay the lesson.
Examples

1. Use Screencasts when teaching a lesson online.

2. Screencasts can also save your work when writing on an Interactive Whitenoard. Revision at a later date will show the steps you took in doing the 'working out'.

Definition
Word walls are sections on the walls of a classroom where teachers and students can record new vocabulary, quotes or key terms they encounter during a unit of work.
Benefits

Word walls can be visible evidence of progression through a unit.

Students can refer to the word walls when trying to explain their points and ideas to the class.

Challenges

During exams, remember to cover the word walls so students can't cheat by looking over at the answers.
Examples

Word walls can be great props for refreshing students' memories at the start of a lesson. Start the lesson by reviewing the vocabulary learned in the previous lesson.
Definition
Goal setting involves explicitly instructing students on how to set short (within a lesson), medium (within a unit of work) and long term (through the year) personal targets for success.

The goals can be for a whole group or individual.
Benefits Challenges

Ensure goals are achievable lo that students do not become disillusioned.
Examples

1. Have students prepare their daily goals at the end of the previous day or start of the current day.

2. Reflect on medium-term goals weekly.

Definition
A worked example is a completed piece of work that students can look to as models for their own work.

A worked example could be a sample of a completed diagram our 3D model, a completed essay or anything else that is a finished product of something the students are about to attempt.
Benefits

Students feel more secure knowing what they are working toward.

Students can get ideas from the worked sample that they can adapt for their Ken work.

Challenges

Sometimes students copy the sample too closely rather than using their own thinking. Consider using a sample that requires similar skills and processes but a different end product.

Make sure you spend time discussing the steps it takes from going from nothing to the completed product.

Examples

1. Provide students with past examples of creative writing pieces and discuss the strategies used by the authors.

2. Show samples that are good and poor. Get students to discuss how the poorer samples could be improved.

94. Multiple Intelligences
Definition
Students have different learning styles (or more accurately, different learning preferences).

One theory proposes that there are eight 'intelligences'. A student may have one that is dominant and others that are weaker.

The eight intelligences are:

Visual-Spatial: Prefers learning through images and visual arts. Uses diagrams to model relationships between concepts.

Linguistic-Verbal: Prefers learning through storytelling, reading and writing.

Interpersonal: Good at working in social situations, gets energy from social interaction, and can empathize with others easily. Enjoys group work.

Intrapersonal: An introverted person who prefers learning alone. They do a lot of thinking and reading but mostly like to think through things in their own time (see: intrapersonal skills).

Logical-Mathematical: Sees patterns easily. Enjoys mathematical puzzles.

Musical: Enjoys learning through music, songs and rhymes.

Bodily-Kinesthetic: Learns through movement. Prefers lessons that require moving about.

Naturalistic: Has an affinity with nature. Learns well in calm natural environments.

A teacher can integrate different activities into a lesson plan that appeal to different people's learning preferences. In this way, they create a more inclusive classroom for multiple different types of learners.
Benefits

Inclusion: Teachers can use this theory to engage students who do not learn well in traditional lessons.

Attempts to be student-centered and teach in ways that are appealing to students.

Challenges

In 2004, a detailed study in Scotland found no evidence or scientific toxic basis for the theory that different people have learning styles. Furthermore, it argued that the 8 styles in the multiple intelligences model were a arbitrarily contrived. Thus, learning styles may simply be learning preferences.

It is unclear whether a teacher should create lessons catered to a student's learning preference or help students strengthen their skills in areas students identify as their weaknesses.

If students are not given a chance to practice all "styles" (not just their preferences) they may miss important skills, such as mathematical skills or literacy skills.

Theoretical Link
Howard Gardner: The theory of multiple intelligences was invented by Howard Gardner in the United States.

95. Non-Interventionism
Definition
Non-interventionism involves a teacher taking the role of 'unobtrusive observer' while students learn. The students are left to come to their own conclusions, face up to their own challenges, and 'struggle' through the lesson.

The teacher's intervention may come through changing what they plan for the next lesson based on what they see, or lightly intervening after the students have struggled for some time.

Other reasons for intervention may be for safety or fairness reasons.
Benefits Challenges

Many parents and mentors watching your lesson may come away with a sense that you were lazy or did not do enough to help the students. This approach needs to be clearly explained and justified in lesson plans (I'd recommend referring to Montessori in your justification) and situations when you would go from observer to intervener should be spelled out in advance.

If students are struggling too much, learning may not occur - there is a limit to this approach!

Theoretical Link
Montessori Classrooms: The role of the teacher as "unobtrusive observer" was pioneered by Maria Montessori.

Montessori argued that children learn best when placed in resource rich environments and left to explore. Our interventions may impede creativity, self-belief, autonomy and self-discovery.

96. Constructive Alignment
Definition
Constructive alignment involves explicitly linking the lesson assessment tasks to the compulsory learning outcomes in the curriculum.

This is an impressive thing to see in a lesson plan.

Use language (including verbs and nouns) from the learning outcome in the assessment task. Furthermore, make sure to provide a criteria for what constitutes pass or fail.
Benefits Challenges

If the language of the curriculum objectives are complex or obtuse, it may just confuse students to use that language in their assessment task.
Theoretical Link
Biggs: Constructive alignment was invented by John Biggs who designed this method to ensure all lessons are relevant and move students a step closer to completing all learning outcomes.

97. Zone of Proximal Development
Definition
The ' zone of proximal development ' is a phrase used to explain the ideal difficulty level for a lesson.

A lesson that is too easy won't help a student progress.

A lesson that is too hard will disengage a student who just won't be able to do the task.

But a lesson that is difficult but achievable with effort will push a student forward. These lessons that are just hard enough but not too hard are lessons in the "zone of proximal development".
Benefits Challenges

Differentiation like this can lead to bug Differences in ability levels across the whole class.

You're often under pressure to teach content that is too hard for students to meet standardized curriculum requirements

Theoretical Link
Sociocultural theory: Lev Vygotsky, one of the most famous educational psychologists, invented this approach to help teachers provide lessons that are at the right level for progressing a student's learning.
Examples

1. Weave the ZDP into a lesson plan by stating that you will assess a student's current ability then teach them the thing that is the logical next.step.

2. Another way to do this is create three student worksheets for three different ability levels. State in your lesson plan that you will assess each student's ability and give them the appropriate worksheet. Each worksheet should build on the previous to help students move through their ZPD one step at a time.

98. Positive Reinforcement
Definition
Positive reinforcement is the use of praise, stickers, candy or other rewards to show students that they have done a good job.

Teachers can stack positive reinforcements so students can take steps to get small, medium and large rewards to encourage students to keep on trying and working hard consistently.
Benefits

Students get clear signals to know when they have done well.

Students get encouragement to keep going and keep trying in order to get the reward.

Challenges

Too much positive reinforcement can come across as insincere and lose students' respect. Furthermore, students may become desensitized to praise if it occurs too much. Praise 'scarcity' makes occasional praise more valuable.

Explicit reinforcements are extrinsic motivation. The best sort of motivation is intrinsic motivation (wanting to do something for the pleasure of doing it). For more, see my full guide on intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation.

Theoretical Link
Behaviorism: Positive reinforcement is believed to be beneficial for changing behavior over time. See: John Watson's operant conditioning examples.
Examples
99. Negative Reinforcement
Definition
Negative reinforcement involves the removal of a privilege, points or tokens when a student gets an answer wrong.

This is often confused with punishments. For me, negative reinforcements should not punish but be used in limited learning scenarios as part of the learning 'game'.

An example might be losing points in a gamified lesson so the student is less likely to win against their opponents. Students know it is part of the game and not a punishment designed to distress the student.
Benefits

Provides very clear messages to students about what is correct and incorrect, helping them to learn quickly.
Challenges

Parents often do not like any negative reinforces, so be very careful to set clear guidelines and use this strategy in limited circumstances.

Be careful not to embarrass students in front of their classmates.

Theoretical Link
Behaviorism: Watson brought negative reinforcements into education, arguing that repeated use of them can change students' behaviors.
Examples

1. Losing points in a class contest.

2. Failing a level in an educational computer game.

100. Drop Everything and Read
Definition
Drop everything and read (DEAR) involves getting students to stop what they are doing and read for 10 minutes.

It is a strategy that helps build students' literacy skills (especially when students can choose their own book). However, it is also useful for helping students get more depth of knowledge on a topic being taught when you give them all an article or book to read to help them have more knowledge for subsequent parts of the lesson.
Benefits

An effective way of getting students to spend intense time learning about a topic.

Helps integrate literacy into your daily activities.

Challenges

There will always be a small group of students who squirm and struggle when asked to read. Consider alternatives like the Read Aloud strategy or using videos instead if DEAR doesn't work for your class.

Make sure to follow up DEAR time with discussion and comprehension tasks.

Example Definition
A gallery walk involves a teacher placing stimulus questions on flip chart paper (butcher's paper) around the walls of the classroom.

The charts the teacher has put up are stations that students will stop at during the activity.

The teacher places students into groups. If there are 5 stations around the room, the teacher will create 5 groups.

Students get a set amount of time at each station to read the prompt questions. The students can write on the chart paper with their group response and also respond to other groups who have already written their points.

Once all students have rotated through the stations, the students end up back at the station where they began. The teacher the. gives each group 3 minutes to present to the class a summary of the comments written on the paper at their station.
Benefits

Students get to learn from others and see other groups' responses.

The students are up and moving about which may help the concentration of bodily-kinesthetic learners.

Challenges

Some students may not participate fully. Consider getting students to rotate who writes on the paper at each station to mitigate this challenge a little.
Definition
Note whenever you would encourage metacognition in a lesson within your lesson plan. This will help anyone reading it know that you've thought about giving students strategies for "thinking about thinking".

Metacogntion is about thinking about how you think. Strategies include:
Benefits Challenges

Metacognition is difficult because it requires explanation of your thinking. However, it is necessary if people want to know how to think.
Definition
Case studies are in-depth examples of an issue being examined. A case study should show how an issue or theory looks in real life. Teachers can present case studies through videos, newspaper articles, magazine articles, guests coming into the classroom, etc.
Benefits

Case studies help students to see how theories and ideas look in real life. This can also help a student understand the relevance of the topic being studied.

A case study may help students make sense of a complex idea by putting it in real concrete terms.

Challenges

Case studies might not be representative of a generalized issue - they may be outliers or flukes. Pick your case study carefully and discuss whether it is a typical or outlier sample.
Examples Definition
Educators can create 'mystery' in their classroom by carefully structuring lessons that give 'clues' to a mystery that needs to be solved by the students. Ask the students to act as detectives and place clues around the classroom (like a gallery walk). Have students move around the classroom taking notes on the mystery which will reveal an answer after thorough investigation.
Benefits

Creates a sense of excitement in the classroom, helping students to engage.

Forces students to use critical, logical and lateral thinking in order to find the answer.

Challenges

Ensure the mystery is not too far outside a student's zone of proximal development so that the mystery can be solved.
Definition
Storytelling in the classroom involves teaching through narrative-style stories rather than telling ('didactic learning'). Teachers can tell stories by reading books (see: Read Aloud strategy), turning a dry explanation into an allegorical story off the cuff, or bringing people into the classroom who have an engaging personal story to tell.
Benefits

Stories can draw students into a topic through the creation of a sense of excitement and entertainment.
Theoretical Link
Steiner-Waldorf Schools: Rudolf Steiner called the teacher the 'chief storyteller' whose role is to create a sense of enchantment around learning through stories.
Examples

1. Invite guests into the classroom who have stories to tell.

2. Use stories that have a moral of the the story, then analyze the moralistic message.

106. Newspaper Clippings
Definition
Use newspaper clippings to link topics and theories to current affairs. Teachers can bring in recent newspapers to let students search through them for relevant stories or use old newspapers to search for how a topic was discussed in the past. Alternatively, teachers can get students to search for newspaper articles online.

Teachers could also assign reading through newspapers and bringing newspapers to class as a part of their homework.
Benefits

Newspaper stories can show students how the topic being discussed plays out in real life.

They also show students how the topic is relevant to the present-day lives of people in the community,

Challenges

Newspapers are increasingly uncommon - consider adjusting this to use online news sites and printing out articles from the web.

Some topics won't have relevant news articles associated with them. Do a search in newspapers and online yourself for articles before using this teaching strategy.

107. Self-Paced Learning
Definition
Self-paced learning involves.letting students progress from activity to activity in their own time. For this approach, a teacher lays out a list of 10 - 20 lessons that students can work on at their own pace. Students work on the activities while the teacher walks around and gives support.
Benefits Challenges

Fast students will need extension tasks or personal projects to complete once they have finished and are waiting for slower students.

There is often not enough time for slower students to finish.

Conclusion

These teaching strategy examples are clearly not the only ones out there - there are probably thousands! But, in my time teaching, these have been the most effective and common teaching strategies that I have come across. Use this teaching strategies list for your own lesson plans to demonstrate pedagogical knowledge and depth of understanding of how to educate a range of different learners.

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List of 107 Classroom Teaching Strategies (With Examples) (2024)

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Use this list of 107 instructional strategies to fill-in that lesson plan or teaching portfolio with some high quality teaching strategies.Or, try some of these strategies out when you're low on ideas and looking for a fresh way to teach in the classroom!

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Formative assessment is a type of assessment that takes place in the middle of a unit of work. It is usually compared to summative assessment which takes place at the end of the learning experience.
The key characteristic of formative assessment is that learning will take place before and after the assessment. The assessment is designed to help students:

Stay on track

Pivot if they are off track

Deepen their knowledge based on an assessment of what they currently know

Receive feedback on their progress

Similarly, it helps teachers:

Change their teaching strategies based on student needs

Assess students' current knowledge to inform future instruction

Reflect on their own teaching practice for continual improvement

Below are some of the best and simplest examples of formative assessment.

Formative Assessment Examples

1. 1-Minute Check In - Check in with every student in the class for one minute throughout the day to see how they are feeling about their tasks. Use the class roll to keep track.

2. 1-Minute Paper - Students get one minute to write a rapid-fire paper on the topic to try to show their depth of knowledge as fast as possible.

3. 3 Things - Students are asked to quickly list 3 things they want to know more about in regards to their topic, or 3 things they don't currently understand.

4. 3-2-1 Reflection (aka Exit Slip) - Have students write down 3 big ideas from what they learned, 2 insights (reflective comments), and 1 question they still have.

5. 3x Summarization - Have students summarize the topic in three ways: in 10-15 words, 30-50 words, and 75-100 words. As they step up in word count, they will need to add some more depth and detail to demonstrate deeper knowledge.

6. 5 W's and H - The 5W's and H method gets students to write down their knowledge of what, when, where, who, why, and how to demonstrate their depth of knowledge about a topic.

7. Anonymous Feedback Box - Have students place anonymous comments about what they're struggling with into a feedback box. This will allow students to share their concerns with the safety of anonymity. It helps gather crowd-sourced formative assessment but isn't good for individual formative feedback.

8. Brainstorming - Have the students come together in groups and write down the key question in the middle of a piece of paper. Then, have them brainstorm ways to answer the question around the central question.

9. Check for Transfer - Have the students transfer the current concept from class to a new context. For example, if students are learning a math problem, check if they can apply it in a supermarket context.

10. Cold Calling - Let students know that you will not ask them to put their hands up to answer questions. Instead, you will call on one student randomly and all students by the end of class. This keeps everyone engaged and allows you to do spot checks of knowledge.

11. Comments on Drafts - Have students submit drafts of their essays to provide formative comments at least two weeks before submission.

12. Compare and Contrast - Have students compare two components of what is being learned to help them demonstrate their current knowledge. For example, in a biology class, you could have the students compare reptiles to mammals based on several key criteria.

13. Concept Map - Have students complete a concept map demonstrating their understanding of how concepts connect to one another in visual form.

14. Corner Quiz - Place letters A, B, C, and D on four separate corners of the room. Students are given a multiple choice quiz on what they are learning. Students have to run to the corner that they think has the right answer, e.g. if the answer is D, they run to the corner with the D on it. The teacher can look to see which students are consistently getting the wrong answer (or following others!).

15. Doodle It (Visualization) - Have students draw a representation of what they have learned in a visual format. This is a great formative assessment task for visual learners.

16. Elevator Pitch - Students give a 2-minute 'elevator pitch' speech about how much they know about the topic. In two minutes or less, they need to show you the depth of their knowledge.

17. Extension Project - Give students an extension project to see how well they apply the information in a new and less structured context. An example might be getting them to make a diagram about the topic.

18. Five Whys - Have students to ask 'why' five times to see if they can get to the root of their knowledge and understanding on a topic. This helps you understand how deeply they know the topic. For example, if the student says "Shakespeare is the best writer in history" ask why, then they say "because his poetry tells the best stories", then ask why several more times, until they have fleshed out their knowledge to the best of their ability.

19. Flashcards - Have students answer flashcard questions mid-way through the unit of work to check for understanding.

20. Flip Chart Check In - Students get into groups and write anything and everything they know about the topic onto a flip chart. They then present their flip chart to the rest of the class.

21. Formative Presentation - Have the students give a presentation on what they have learned so far. This can be great for a mid-term check-in so you can help students stay on track and go deeper for their end-of-term assessment on the same topic.

22. Hand in, pass out - Students are assessed on a pop quiz. They do not write their own name on the paper. They then hand in their answers and the teacher passes out the answer sheets randomly to the class. The class then grades the anonymous work they are given. The students are given a chance to grade others' work. The teacher can take the answer in afterward to see the questions that were most commonly incorrect to see what to focus on.

23. Homework Task - Homework is perhaps the most extensively used example of formative assessment. When you grade your students' homework you can get a good idea of their level of understanding of content explored in class.

24. Hot Seat - A student sits in a seat in front of their peers and gets rapid-fire questions from their peers to test their quick responses. Great for math quizzes.

25. Hot Topics - Students choose one aspect of what they are learning and present in front of the class for 5 minutes about their knowledge, then take 5 minutes of questions.

26. Identify the Misconception - Give students a common misconception about their topic and ask them to explain what the misconception is and how to improve upon it.

27. Intentional Mistake - Intentionally embed an error into the students' work or instructions and see whether they can identify it part-way through the lesson.

28. KWL Chart - A KWL chart asks students to write down what they know, what they want to know, and what they learned in the lesson. Have students complete this chart at the end of a lesson as a quick formative assessment that can help you structure your follow-up lessons based on student feedback.

29. Lunch Pass - Ask every student a question. If they can get their question right, they can go to lunch.

30. Metacognition - Have the students reflect on what they did, what they learned, why they learned it, how they can apply it, and what they still are unsure about it.

31. More Knowledgeable Other - Have students sit beside a student who is one step ahead of them and learn from the more knowledgeable student. The more knowledgeable student gives them feedback and assesses their progress, giving formative corrections to help them progress. Often, students who are at a similar level to one another are better at explaining concepts than teachers.

32. Open-Ended Questioning - Ask students questions that cannot be answered with a Yes/No answer so you can gather their depth of knowledge in the answer.

33. Paraphrasing - Give students a piece of information then ask them to repeat the information back to you in their own words to see if they understand it.

34. Peer Assessment - Have students grade each other's work. This allows students to see other students' work to gather whether they're on track and how to improve.

35. Photo Assessment - Have students take photos of things they think best represent their current level of knowledge. Students might take photos of their current projects. Then, have them write descriptions underneath that explain what they currently know about the topic.

36. Pop Quiz - Give the students a quiz at the beginning, middle, or end of a lesson that involves just 5 to 10 questions that can allow you to see how much they know.

37. Postcard - The students write a postcard or letter from one historical figure to another describing something. For example, psychology students might write a letter from Bronfenbrenner to his wife explaining his Ecological Systems Theory.

38. Prediction and Hypothesis - Halfway through the lesson, have students make a prediction or hypothesis about what will happen by the end of the lesson. This will help the teacher know if the students are starting to understand what is being taught.

39. Prior Knowledge Onboarding Task - Have students write down what they already know about a topic before the first lesson. This will help you know what level you need to start your teaching at and help prevent redundancy in re-teaching things students already know.

40. RSQC2 - RSQC2 stands for Recall, Summarize, Question, Connect, Comment. Students start with recall which involves listing words or phrases that they recall from class. They then summarize the words by putting them all into a sentence that explains the topic. For Question, they list any questions they have that are unanswered. For connect, students write about connections between the lesson and the overall goals of the unit of work. For Comment, students provide a feedback comment to the teacher evaluating their teaching.

41. Run an Opinion Poll - Poll the students on their opinion of the topic and examine the responses. The teacher can gauge students' knowledge based on their answers in the poll.

42. Running Records - Have students take notes throughout the class on questions they have and things they don't understand. As you come around to check on the student, ask them to show their running records notecard.

43. Spaced Repetition Testing - Students are given pop quizzes at strategically placed intervals to help students remember information they may be forgetting. For example, you might give students a quiz after 1 day, then 3, then 8, then 15. The answers from the quiz can help you assess student retention of knowledge learned in class.

44. Sticky Notes - Have students leave a sticky note on their desk with a comment about what they would like to know more about.

45. Student Becomes Teacher - Have the student teach the concept they are learning to a small group of peers.

46. Students Create a Test - Have each student create a 20-question test that they would use to test someone on the topic. Students write the answers to the test on a separate paper. Then, have the students swap mock-up tests with each other and fill out the answers.

47. Submit a Research Proposal - Have students submit a mock (or real!) research proposal stating what they would want to research further into the topic they have been discussing ( use my research proposal examples). Get them to discuss what they would research, why they are curious about that aspect, and how they would go about it. This can reveal a great deal of new information about the student's current level of knowledge.

48. Submit an Essay Plan - For students writing an essay, get them to submit their essay plan for approval. Using this method, you can catch if a student is off track and correct the course so they submit a high-quality essay.

49. TAG Feedback - Have students assess one another by getting them to tell a peer what they did well, ask them a question about their knowledge, then give feedback to their peer.

50. Text Rendering - Students take one quote that they think is the most important or illuminating from an article and explain why they think it's the best quote.

51. Think-Pair-Share - Students spend one minute individually writing down key points from what they learned. They then pair up with a partner and compare notes. Finally, the pair share what they learned with the class. The class can ask questions and the teacher can assess the pair's knowledge from their presentation and responses.

52. Timeline (Historical) - Students create a historical timeline demonstrating their knowledge of the sequence of events from a historical process or series of events.

53. Timeline (Lesson Reflection) - A lesson reflection timeline gets students to reflect on their lesson by writing down

54. Ungraded Essay - Have students submit an essay or essay draft that is not graded. Students submit the essay only for feedback, which will inform their final submission.

55. Venn Diagram - Students use a Venn Diagram to compare and contrast two elements of what they are learning. The outer sides of the Venn diagram show unique features of each element. The overlap shows the similarities.

Instant Formative Assessment for Teachers

56. Fingers Up - Have students show their level of knowledge by showing a certain number of fingers. One finger means uncertainty and discomfort while five fingers means strong confidence with the content.

57. Hand Thermometer - Students put their hand up only a distance they think they are comfortable with the knowledge. A low hand up shows mild comfort, a medium shows moderate understanding, and a stretched hand shows high confidence in the content.

58. Quick Nod - Ask students to nod if they understand. This can be great as a very fast way to check for comprehension in the middle of a task.

59. Red / Green Cards - Provide students with red and green cards. They can hold up the green card if they are ready to move on to the next part of the lesson or the red card if they're still confused.

60. Thumbs Up, Middle, Thumbs Down - Have students quickly respond with their thumbs to show levels of understanding or enthusiasm.

61. Traffic Lights - An extension of red/green cards, the traffic lights system also have an amber color for students who are feeling tentative about their progress. For this one, you can pair students who held up green lights with those who held up amber lights to teach each other while the teacher works with students who held up red lights.

62. Two Roses and a Thorn - Have students present two things they are happy or knowledgeable about, and one thing they are still finding "prickly".

63. Watch Body Language - Students who misunderstand may be crossing their legs, looking away, or frowning.

Self-Evaluative Formative Assessment

64. Self-Evaluation on Marking Rubric - Provide students the criteria you will be using to grade their work (also known as a marking rubric) and get them to self-assess what grade they think they will get.

65. Self-Sort - Have students choose which level they are at in a task: beginner, intermediate, or advanced, and have them select the next piece of work based on their self-evaluated level.

66. SMART Goals Self-Evaluation - Have the students complete a personal SMART Goal template demonstrating what their goals are and whether they think they are on track for achieving it.

67. SWOT Analysis - Have students complete a SWOT analysis that demonstrates what their strengths are in relation to what they are learning, what their weaknesses are, opportunities for improvement for the rest of the unit of work, and threats that they could avoid. This will make sure they stay on track.

Technology Enhanced Formative Assessment

68. Blog About It - Have students write weekly 200-word blog posts about what they learned and comment on each student's blog comment assessing what they did well and what they need to focus on in the next week.

69. Clickers - Use clickers (instant Yes/No responses - technology required) to provide instant feedback to the teacher on their level of understanding.

70. Forum Comments - Have students submit one forum comment per week to their online discussion board for the teacher to provide a formative assessment and comment on what they did well and how to improve.

71. Padlet - Have students use the Padlet app to contribute their ideas to a virtual notice board to show their thoughts and knowledge to the group.

72. Text the Answer - Have students text an answer to you in 50 words or less once they have completed the task.

73. Twitter Comment - Have students tweet what they learned in class today and tweet a reply to a friend's comment.

74. Write 1 if you Understand, 2 if you Don't - This is a task for online lessons. Have students simply write a 1 or 2 in the chatbox. This can also get quiet groups to start contributing in a small no-risk step.

75. YouTube Communities Poll - Have students complete a YouTube poll using the YouTube communities tab.
Related Articles:
Conclusion

Formative assessment are usually informal evaluations that give students an opportunity to pivot and improve based on the teacher's feedback. A the same time, it's valuable for the teacher who needs to assess students' current knowledge and pain points in order to adjust their teaching practices and maximize students' chances of passing the summative assessment that will occur at the end of the unit of work.

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75 Formative Assessment Examples (2023) - Helpful Professor

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Formative assessment is a type of assessment that takes place in the middle of a unit of work. It is usually compared to summative assessment which takes

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The Ultimate Guide to Teaching Methods for Modern-Day Teachers

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The Ultimate Guide to Teaching Methods for Modern-Day Teachers

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Finding the right modern teaching method for your classroom can be tricky.

Every student, teacher and classroom is different - and that's one of the wonderful things about the learning process! As you continue in your teaching practice, you'll try new teaching methods and find out what works best for your students.

We've uncovered some of the best modern teaching methods that are actually driving results in the classroom. Keep reading to find out how to use them to help students reach their full potential and build happy, effective classrooms.

Why teaching methods continue to evolve

Countless edtech innovations, a better understanding of student learning and new approaches to teaching strategies means your toolkit is so much bigger than a blackboard and chalk.

Today's teachers face lots of challenges and have lots of opportunities:

1. The shift to remote learning exposed inequality in classrooms, but also offered new ways for students to engage with interactive learning experiences.

2. New edtech innovations connect classroom learning with real-world digital skills.

3. Changing ideas about education and pedagogy have added new learning objectives like social-emotional learning, differentiation and personalized learning.

Don't be afraid to try new ways for students to learn and stay engaged. Keep reading to find out which teaching style works best for your classroom!

18 Modern teaching methods to explore

1. Direct Instruction

Best for: All ages, when combined with other teaching methods

Direct instruction is when you explicitly convey concepts and skills to students, rather than letting them learn on their own.

While it might seem odd to start off a list of modern teaching methods with a technique that's been the foundation of traditional classroom instruction for hundreds of years, direct instruction allows you to layer on more recent teaching strategies.

When combined with other teaching strategies, direct instruction is a useful tool for boosting student comprehension! Today, it can include anything from lectures and educational videos to tutorials and workshops.
Example: Students attend a classroom lecture about ecological diversity, then watch a video from a local conservation group about efforts to preserve local habitats. This direct instruction helps you explain the requirements of a service learning project they're doing to clean up the park near their school. More on service learning in a bit!
2. Flipped classrooms

Best for: Late elementary and up, or any students who can work independently

Homework at home, lectures at school - that's how it's usually done. But in flipped classrooms, students absorb information on their own time, and use in-class time for hands-on learning and problem solving.

Also known as blended learning, flipped classrooms embrace new edtech innovations and prioritize face-to-face learning activities in order to boost student engagement.

It helps students move at their own pace and gives you more time to provide one-on-one support where needed. When combined with techniques like experiential learning or inquiry-based learning, flipped classrooms can give students valuable hands-on experience.
Example: Students read an article about a specific scientific procedure at home, then come to class and do a hands-on experiment. They write up their findings and give a presentation about their results. While they work, you observe student work to spot learning gaps you can address in future lessons.
Learn more in our blended learning models guide.

3. Kinesthetic learning

Best for: All ages

Kinesthetic learning is a specific learning style also known as tactile learning. Kinesthetic learners absorb information best when it's presented through hands-on demonstrations, active learning and manipulatives.

Kinesthetic learning is a great modern teaching method for all learners because it gives students more ways to explore concepts and get hands-on, real-life experiences in their learning environment that translate to better learning outcomes.
Example: Students learning how to do multiplication participate in a variety of station rotation activities, including:

Answering multiplication questions in Prodigy Math Game

Working with base ten blocks and other math manipulatives

Working in small groups with the teacher to address learning gaps

4. Game-based learning

Best for: All ages, depending on the game

Game-based learning (GBL) is a modern teaching method that uses the power of games to define and support learning outcomes. Game-based learning actually uses games to teach, as opposed to gamification, which uses game elements like leaderboards and points to motivate learning.

Educational games promote engagement, provide immediate rewards and feedback, and harness the power of healthy competition to keep kids excited to learn.

Today's students understand games, especially digital games, intimately. Edtech tools can help turn their love for video games into a love of learning, whether they're at school or at home.
Example:
Prodigy Math Game is a game-based learning platform designed to help students love practicing math skills.

Plus, free teacher tools mean you can align Prodigy to whatever you're teaching in the classroom in just a few easy steps. Set up a Plan for curriculum-aligned math practice on a new concept, or send students an Assigment to differentiate and assess learning progress.

Students won't know they're being assessed or doing homework - it's all part of the adventure! Sign up for your free teacher account today to get started.

Learn more about GBL in our guide to game-based learning.

5. Student-centered learning

Best for: All ages

Above all, student-centered learning involves students in decisions about their learning. It connects student interest to the classroom and builds an assessment framework to help them understand why the material is important and how it fits into everyday life.

For better or worse, the internet has opened up new ways for students to receive information and engage with the world. Student-centered learning helps:

Give them the tools they need to engage with new topics

Make connections between topics and boost problem-solving skills

Directly relate classroom lessons with what they're experiencing outside of school

Example: Interdisciplinary learning is a great way to tie student interests to your curriculum. Students can read a novel about a specific scientific discovery and submit a book report, or create a budget for marketing a made-up product in math class. Work with students to find out what they like, how they learn best and how the project will be assessed.
6. Teacher-centered learning

Best for: Elementary and up - younger students may need more hands-on interaction to stay focused

Teacher-centered learning is most similar to traditional classroom learning. Students learn mostly independently through lectures and receive clear instructions and rubrics from a central authority figure.

Much like direct instruction, teacher-centered learning is useful to provide a foundation for other work. Most modern classrooms prioritize collaboration, group work and student exploration, for good reasons. But independent learning can reach different learning styles and give students a sense of personal accomplishment and accountability!
Example: Teacher-centered learning can still be engaging and motivating for students. If you're starting a new novel study or ELA unit, why not have students journal independently about what they think will happen in the story or what questions they have about the concept? They'll practice their writing skills, and you can all come back at the end of the unit to see whose predictions were the most accurate.
7. Inquiry-based learning

Best for: Middle school and up

Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that prioritizes student curiosity and independent analysis. Students work to find the answer to an open-ended question or problem, using evidence-based reasoning and problem-solving skills to reach a defendable conclusion.

As a teacher, your role is to move students beyond mere curiosity and into critical thinking and understanding, encouraging them to ask questions and supporting them as they investigate.
Example: To help students develop analytical and critical thinking skills, have them write up a case study about a question they have. Students could:

Analyze the demographics of their school or city

Research the effectiveness of clean energy in their community

Look at the factors that contributed to a notable historical event

Learn more about the different types of inquiry-based learning and what it could look like in your classroom.

8. Personalized learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Personalized learning is an educational approach that tailors learning around individual students' needs, interests and abilities. It helps you differentiate instruction for each student and help them achieve mastery.

Motivation, relatability, self-reflection and self-advocacy skills are all things that will help students succeed in the modern workforce, no matter their career. Personalized learning reaches students of all levels, helps them build these critical skills and focus their time with small group instruction.
Example: Short, regular formative assessments give students opportunities to show their knowledge and help you spot learning needs early. If you're starting a new unit, pre-teach foundational concepts and use a quick journal entry to gauge understanding, then assess students throughout the unit with quick quizzes, presentations and assignments before a final test to ensure every student achieves mastery.
Check out seven more personalized learning strategies to use in your classroom.

9. Project-based learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Project-based learning is a student-centered teaching method to encourage learning through real-world questions or challenges.

The questions should:

Be open-ended

Encourage students to apply relevant skills or knowledge

Allow students to take their own approaches to answering and building a product

You give students the issue, method of investigation and any supplementary materials, and they go off and work - with your support as needed. It looks a little different every time, but project-based learning helps students develop critical thinking and interdisciplinary skills with real-world experience they'll use for the rest of their life.
Example: Project-based learning options are many and varied, but can include:

Planning a school event

Researching the history of a simple machine

Designing a playground for their school using geometry skills

Get our ten best project-based learning ideas for boosting student outcomes.

10. Problem-based learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Problem-based learning is like project-based learning, with one major difference: it gives students the problem at the start of a topic, before they've been taught some of the relevant concepts.

Students receive an open-ended question and find their own information and resources. Your role as a teacher is to provide materials and guidance when needed, and explain the evaluation process.

Problem-based learning helps build self-directed learners and is easy to personalize to the needs and learning styles of individual students.

Example:
For an environmentally friendly problem-based learning project, start with a topic like classroom waste or ecology. Students can research and find solutions, and you can implement them together!
11. Collaborative learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Collaborative learning is kind of like a bouquet of roses - while they might all have the same colours and shape on their own, together a bouquet is more than the sum of its parts.

In collaborative learning, students are working on a common task and doing the same actions, but they're working together to boost group performance and amplify learning. It's a coordinated effort to find answers, research or create a final product every group member contributes to equally.

Students are going to need to know how to work with peers at any age, and collaborative learning can help them start building valuable team-building skills.
Example: Use brainwriting as a collaborative learning activity that involves everyone. Introduce a discussion topic ahead of class. Have students brainstorm ahead of time and submit ideas anonymously or in-person. Everyone reads the submissions before class and uses them as a jumping-off point for class discussion. Even the shyest student may feel empowered to speak their mind!
12. Cooperative learning

Best for: Elementary and up

If collaborative learning is a bouquet of roses, cooperative learning is a bunch of wildflowers - each one unique, but contributing to something beautiful.

In cooperative learning projects, each student plays a different role in a structured group activity and makes unique contributions to the success of the group. Your role as teacher is to facilitate the groups and guide their research.

Like collaborative learning, cooperative learning teaches students that every group member's efforts are important to both individual and group success. This also encourages students to empower each other and be accountable for their work.
Example: Enhance learning with a jigsaw activity! Each student belongs to two groups: a home group and an expert group. Present students with a topic to research. Students will work with their expert group to learn about a specific sub-topic, then return to their home group and present their findings.
Learn more in our guide to cooperative learning.

13. Thinking-based learning

Best for: Elementary and up

In thinking-based learning, you explicitly teach students how to use critical and creative thinking skills in the context of everyday lessons.

For thinking-based learning to be effective, educators should build it directly into the curriculum and all subjects - whether that's understanding the why behind important math concepts or the biases in ELA study materials.

Critical and creative thinking skills help students boost media literacy and understand all the information at their fingertips on a daily basis. A changing workforce means they'll encounter new and unique challenges, and thinking-based learning can help them be successful.
Example: Challenge students to put their geometry and physics knowledge to the test and build solid structures with a variety of different materials. Afterwards, ask students to reflect on why some of their creations worked and why they didn't, and what they would do differently next time.
14. Competency-based learning

Best for: All ages

No matter what teaching method you're using, competency-based education makes sure every student masters given skills before moving on to the next topic, unit, or even grade.

It moves the focus off memorization and onto deep understanding demonstrated through hands-on application. It goes hand-in-hand with personalized learning to promote equity in the classroom and help students become better learners throughout their whole lives.
Example: Formative assessments like pre-quizzes and small projects can help you keep track of student learning and mastery. In an ELA class, have students build a portfolio of writing they contribute to regularly. You'll be able to see their progress and they'll feel a sense of accomplishment as they grow their writing and comprehension skills!
Find out more about what competency-based education is and how your school can use it.

15. Discussion-based learning

Best for: Middle school and up

In discussion-based learning, you facilitate the discussion while students talk through problems in small groups.

Discussion-based learning helps promote critical thinking and independent learning, two essential skills for existing in the modern world. Students will learn to:

It's a great way for you to model open-minded and respectful listening, and promotes engagement without relying on classroom technology. It can be tricky to get every student on board the first time, but persevere and you'll start to see the benefits!
Example: Have a discussion about a current news event or other lesson-related topic. Make materials and guide students through if they get stuck, but don't dominate the conversation. Model respectful discussion skills and let students work through new ideas on their own.
16. Play-based learning

Best for: Pre-K, Kindergarten

Play-based learning is exactly what it sounds like: student learning through child-led and open-ended play. It's a great way to help little learners become curious about the world around them and develop critical social skills!

Play-based learning isn't just gamified classwork - it should be self-chosen and relatively unstructured to help build:

Imagination

Abstract thinking skills

Language skills for group play

Awareness of the natural world

Example: For play-based learning time, break up the classroom into stations with different activities and materials, and allow students to move between stations freely. Stations can include: Designate a certain amount of time into your lesson plans and let students' imaginations run wild!
17. Service Learning

Best for: Middle school and up

For a lesson as informative as it is impactful, try service learning. It combines academic goals with community service projects. Students get hands-on experience, a chance to make positive change and real-world examples of their curriculum come to life.

While it's more student-centered than traditional community service, service learning is still a valuable way for students to contribute positively to their communities and learn about the importance of being good citizens.
Example: There are lots of ways to do service learning, but one of our favorites is holding a book drive for a low-income school or younger grades. Students will get hands-on practice at organizing events, and they'll learn about the importance of literacy.
Get more service learning ideas in The Teacher's Guide to Service Learning.

18. Social emotional learning

Best for: All ages

Social emotional learning is the process by which people, children and adults develop the knowledge, self-awareness and personal well-being to build emotional competencies in both academics and life. In particular, SEL can help your students:

Develop a growth mindset

Form positive relationships

Deal with challenging situations

School is a major source of social connection, and researchers agree students with well-developed social emotional skills see improved academic and social outcomes. Recent COVID-related school closures mean students lost out on a lot of social interaction, so placing an added focus on SEL skills is more important than ever!
Example: There are lots of ways to meaningfully incorporate SEL in your classroom, including activities like:
For more SEL activities and resources, check out these 25 social emotional learning activities.

Teaching methods for students with special needs

In the last few decades, education has begun to make more space for diverse learners - students with special needs, learning disabilities or even different learning styles.

There's still a long way to go when it comes to making our classrooms open and equitable, but many modern teaching methods are highly adaptable and address some of the issues diverse learners have in a traditional classroom.

Ultimately, there's no "best way" to teach, regardless of what kind of students you have in your class. There are, however, some general guidelines you can follow to make sure your instruction is as effective as possible:

1. Explain things using multiple methods. Before you start a service learning project, for example, be sure to pre-teach important information with multiple methods of instruction, including media, role-playing situations, hands-on demonstrations and more.

2. Expect students to do their best, and don't accept less. When you believe all your students are capable of great things, they will too. Don't ignore or make a big deal of incorrect answers, but address them and work together to find the right solution.

3. Get to know your students. At the beginning of the year or unit, send around a Google form and ask questions about their learning styles or what they're excited to work on. Parent teacher conferences are also a great time to discuss specific learning needs and what is or isn't working.

4. Use modern teaching methodology designed to engage students. Gone are the days of memorization and silent classrooms. Don't be afraid to try new things to find out what works best for you! Then ask for student feedback to learn more about which learning styles resonate best in your classroom.

5. Use individual, paired and group activities equally. When students learn together, they understand different learning needs and build respect. Intentional strategies like cooperative and collaborative learning give each student responsibility and more ways to process content, while individual learning lets students set their own pace and goals.

When you try new teaching methods and flex your approach, every student benefits! It keeps them engaged, shows them you care about their learning and gives them an appreciation for different learning strategies.

Above all, keep trying new things, getting feedback from students and communicating wtih parents.

Teaching students in the modern age of learning

Education has come a long way in the past decades, whether it's more effective teaching methods or new ways to harness students' use of technology.

When you constantly innovate and try new strategies, you give your students real-life experiences and help them develop a love of learning. So cheers to you, and keep going!

Prodigy Education is committed to being an industry leader in game-based learning.

Our adaptive math platform gives teachers free, flexible and easy-to-use tools that align student play with the classroom in just a few clicks. As students explore the Prodigy world, their success depends on correctly answering curriculum-aligned questions - and you get all the data on their learning progress.

Sign up for your free teacher account today to get started!

Finding the right modern teaching method for your classroom can be tricky.

Every student, teacher and classroom is different - and that's one of the wonderful things about the learning process! As you continue in your teaching practice, you'll try new teaching methods and find out what works best for your students.

We've uncovered some of the best modern teaching methods that are actually driving results in the classroom. Keep reading to find out how to use them to help students reach their full potential and build happy, effective classrooms.

Why teaching methods continue to evolve

Countless edtech innovations, a better understanding of student learning and new approaches to teaching strategies means your toolkit is so much bigger than a blackboard and chalk.

Today's teachers face lots of challenges and have lots of opportunities:

1. The shift to remote learning exposed inequality in classrooms, but also offered new ways for students to engage with interactive learning experiences.

2. New edtech innovations connect classroom learning with real-world digital skills.

3. Changing ideas about education and pedagogy have added new learning objectives like social-emotional learning, differentiation and personalized learning.

Don't be afraid to try new ways for students to learn and stay engaged. Keep reading to find out which teaching style works best for your classroom!

18 Modern teaching methods to explore

1. Direct Instruction

Best for: All ages, when combined with other teaching methods

Direct instruction is when you explicitly convey concepts and skills to students, rather than letting them learn on their own.

While it might seem odd to start off a list of modern teaching methods with a technique that's been the foundation of traditional classroom instruction for hundreds of years, direct instruction allows you to layer on more recent teaching strategies.

When combined with other teaching strategies, direct instruction is a useful tool for boosting student comprehension! Today, it can include anything from lectures and educational videos to tutorials and workshops.
Example: Students attend a classroom lecture about ecological diversity, then watch a video from a local conservation group about efforts to preserve local habitats. This direct instruction helps you explain the requirements of a service learning project they're doing to clean up the park near their school. More on service learning in a bit!
2. Flipped classrooms

Best for: Late elementary and up, or any students who can work independently

Homework at home, lectures at school - that's how it's usually done. But in flipped classrooms, students absorb information on their own time, and use in-class time for hands-on learning and problem solving.

Also known as blended learning, flipped classrooms embrace new edtech innovations and prioritize face-to-face learning activities in order to boost student engagement.

It helps students move at their own pace and gives you more time to provide one-on-one support where needed. When combined with techniques like experiential learning or inquiry-based learning, flipped classrooms can give students valuable hands-on experience.
Example: Students read an article about a specific scientific procedure at home, then come to class and do a hands-on experiment. They write up their findings and give a presentation about their results. While they work, you observe student work to spot learning gaps you can address in future lessons.
Learn more in our blended learning models guide.

3. Kinesthetic learning

Best for: All ages

Kinesthetic learning is a specific learning style also known as tactile learning. Kinesthetic learners absorb information best when it's presented through hands-on demonstrations, active learning and manipulatives.

Kinesthetic learning is a great modern teaching method for all learners because it gives students more ways to explore concepts and get hands-on, real-life experiences in their learning environment that translate to better learning outcomes.
Example: Students learning how to do multiplication participate in a variety of station rotation activities, including:

Answering multiplication questions in Prodigy Math Game

Working with base ten blocks and other math manipulatives

Working in small groups with the teacher to address learning gaps

4. Game-based learning

Best for: All ages, depending on the game

Game-based learning (GBL) is a modern teaching method that uses the power of games to define and support learning outcomes. Game-based learning actually uses games to teach, as opposed to gamification, which uses game elements like leaderboards and points to motivate learning.

Educational games promote engagement, provide immediate rewards and feedback, and harness the power of healthy competition to keep kids excited to learn.

Today's students understand games, especially digital games, intimately. Edtech tools can help turn their love for video games into a love of learning, whether they're at school or at home.
Example:
Prodigy Math Game is a game-based learning platform designed to help students love practicing math skills.

Plus, free teacher tools mean you can align Prodigy to whatever you're teaching in the classroom in just a few easy steps. Set up a Plan for curriculum-aligned math practice on a new concept, or send students an Assigment to differentiate and assess learning progress.

Students won't know they're being assessed or doing homework - it's all part of the adventure! Sign up for your free teacher account today to get started.

Learn more about GBL in our guide to game-based learning.

5. Student-centered learning

Best for: All ages

Above all, student-centered learning involves students in decisions about their learning. It connects student interest to the classroom and builds an assessment framework to help them understand why the material is important and how it fits into everyday life.

For better or worse, the internet has opened up new ways for students to receive information and engage with the world. Student-centered learning helps:

Give them the tools they need to engage with new topics

Make connections between topics and boost problem-solving skills

Directly relate classroom lessons with what they're experiencing outside of school

Example: Interdisciplinary learning is a great way to tie student interests to your curriculum. Students can read a novel about a specific scientific discovery and submit a book report, or create a budget for marketing a made-up product in math class. Work with students to find out what they like, how they learn best and how the project will be assessed.
6. Teacher-centered learning

Best for: Elementary and up - younger students may need more hands-on interaction to stay focused

Teacher-centered learning is most similar to traditional classroom learning. Students learn mostly independently through lectures and receive clear instructions and rubrics from a central authority figure.

Much like direct instruction, teacher-centered learning is useful to provide a foundation for other work. Most modern classrooms prioritize collaboration, group work and student exploration, for good reasons. But independent learning can reach different learning styles and give students a sense of personal accomplishment and accountability!
Example: Teacher-centered learning can still be engaging and motivating for students. If you're starting a new novel study or ELA unit, why not have students journal independently about what they think will happen in the story or what questions they have about the concept? They'll practice their writing skills, and you can all come back at the end of the unit to see whose predictions were the most accurate.
7. Inquiry-based learning

Best for: Middle school and up

Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that prioritizes student curiosity and independent analysis. Students work to find the answer to an open-ended question or problem, using evidence-based reasoning and problem-solving skills to reach a defendable conclusion.

As a teacher, your role is to move students beyond mere curiosity and into critical thinking and understanding, encouraging them to ask questions and supporting them as they investigate.
Example: To help students develop analytical and critical thinking skills, have them write up a case study about a question they have. Students could:

Analyze the demographics of their school or city

Research the effectiveness of clean energy in their community

Look at the factors that contributed to a notable historical event

Learn more about the different types of inquiry-based learning and what it could look like in your classroom.

8. Personalized learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Personalized learning is an educational approach that tailors learning around individual students' needs, interests and abilities. It helps you differentiate instruction for each student and help them achieve mastery.

Motivation, relatability, self-reflection and self-advocacy skills are all things that will help students succeed in the modern workforce, no matter their career. Personalized learning reaches students of all levels, helps them build these critical skills and focus their time with small group instruction.
Example: Short, regular formative assessments give students opportunities to show their knowledge and help you spot learning needs early. If you're starting a new unit, pre-teach foundational concepts and use a quick journal entry to gauge understanding, then assess students throughout the unit with quick quizzes, presentations and assignments before a final test to ensure every student achieves mastery.
Check out seven more personalized learning strategies to use in your classroom.

9. Project-based learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Project-based learning is a student-centered teaching method to encourage learning through real-world questions or challenges.

The questions should:

Be open-ended

Encourage students to apply relevant skills or knowledge

Allow students to take their own approaches to answering and building a product

You give students the issue, method of investigation and any supplementary materials, and they go off and work - with your support as needed. It looks a little different every time, but project-based learning helps students develop critical thinking and interdisciplinary skills with real-world experience they'll use for the rest of their life.
Example: Project-based learning options are many and varied, but can include:

Planning a school event

Researching the history of a simple machine

Designing a playground for their school using geometry skills

Get our ten best project-based learning ideas for boosting student outcomes.

10. Problem-based learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Problem-based learning is like project-based learning, with one major difference: it gives students the problem at the start of a topic, before they've been taught some of the relevant concepts.

Students receive an open-ended question and find their own information and resources. Your role as a teacher is to provide materials and guidance when needed, and explain the evaluation process.

Problem-based learning helps build self-directed learners and is easy to personalize to the needs and learning styles of individual students.

Example:
For an environmentally friendly problem-based learning project, start with a topic like classroom waste or ecology. Students can research and find solutions, and you can implement them together!
11. Collaborative learning

Best for: Elementary and up

Collaborative learning is kind of like a bouquet of roses - while they might all have the same colours and shape on their own, together a bouquet is more than the sum of its parts.

In collaborative learning, students are working on a common task and doing the same actions, but they're working together to boost group performance and amplify learning. It's a coordinated effort to find answers, research or create a final product every group member contributes to equally.

Students are going to need to know how to work with peers at any age, and collaborative learning can help them start building valuable team-building skills.
Example: Use brainwriting as a collaborative learning activity that involves everyone. Introduce a discussion topic ahead of class. Have students brainstorm ahead of time and submit ideas anonymously or in-person. Everyone reads the submissions before class and uses them as a jumping-off point for class discussion. Even the shyest student may feel empowered to speak their mind!
12. Cooperative learning

Best for: Elementary and up

If collaborative learning is a bouquet of roses, cooperative learning is a bunch of wildflowers - each one unique, but contributing to something beautiful.

In cooperative learning projects, each student plays a different role in a structured group activity and makes unique contributions to the success of the group. Your role as teacher is to facilitate the groups and guide their research.

Like collaborative learning, cooperative learning teaches students that every group member's efforts are important to both individual and group success. This also encourages students to empower each other and be accountable for their work.
Example: Enhance learning with a jigsaw activity! Each student belongs to two groups: a home group and an expert group. Present students with a topic to research. Students will work with their expert group to learn about a specific sub-topic, then return to their home group and present their findings.
Learn more in our guide to cooperative learning.

13. Thinking-based learning

Best for: Elementary and up

In thinking-based learning, you explicitly teach students how to use critical and creative thinking skills in the context of everyday lessons.

For thinking-based learning to be effective, educators should build it directly into the curriculum and all subjects - whether that's understanding the why behind important math concepts or the biases in ELA study materials.

Critical and creative thinking skills help students boost media literacy and understand all the information at their fingertips on a daily basis. A changing workforce means they'll encounter new and unique challenges, and thinking-based learning can help them be successful.
Example: Challenge students to put their geometry and physics knowledge to the test and build solid structures with a variety of different materials. Afterwards, ask students to reflect on why some of their creations worked and why they didn't, and what they would do differently next time.
14. Competency-based learning

Best for: All ages

No matter what teaching method you're using, competency-based education makes sure every student masters given skills before moving on to the next topic, unit, or even grade.

It moves the focus off memorization and onto deep understanding demonstrated through hands-on application. It goes hand-in-hand with personalized learning to promote equity in the classroom and help students become better learners throughout their whole lives.
Example: Formative assessments like pre-quizzes and small projects can help you keep track of student learning and mastery. In an ELA class, have students build a portfolio of writing they contribute to regularly. You'll be able to see their progress and they'll feel a sense of accomplishment as they grow their writing and comprehension skills!
Find out more about what competency-based education is and how your school can use it.

15. Discussion-based learning

Best for: Middle school and up

In discussion-based learning, you facilitate the discussion while students talk through problems in small groups.

Discussion-based learning helps promote critical thinking and independent learning, two essential skills for existing in the modern world. Students will learn to:

It's a great way for you to model open-minded and respectful listening, and promotes engagement without relying on classroom technology. It can be tricky to get every student on board the first time, but persevere and you'll start to see the benefits!
Example: Have a discussion about a current news event or other lesson-related topic. Make materials and guide students through if they get stuck, but don't dominate the conversation. Model respectful discussion skills and let students work through new ideas on their own.
16. Play-based learning

Best for: Pre-K, Kindergarten

Play-based learning is exactly what it sounds like: student learning through child-led and open-ended play. It's a great way to help little learners become curious about the world around them and develop critical social skills!

Play-based learning isn't just gamified classwork - it should be self-chosen and relatively unstructured to help build:

Imagination

Abstract thinking skills

Language skills for group play

Awareness of the natural world

Example: For play-based learning time, break up the classroom into stations with different activities and materials, and allow students to move between stations freely. Stations can include: Designate a certain amount of time into your lesson plans and let students' imaginations run wild!
17. Service Learning

Best for: Middle school and up

For a lesson as informative as it is impactful, try service learning. It combines academic goals with community service projects. Students get hands-on experience, a chance to make positive change and real-world examples of their curriculum come to life.

While it's more student-centered than traditional community service, service learning is still a valuable way for students to contribute positively to their communities and learn about the importance of being good citizens.
Example: There are lots of ways to do service learning, but one of our favorites is holding a book drive for a low-income school or younger grades. Students will get hands-on practice at organizing events, and they'll learn about the importance of literacy.
Get more service learning ideas in The Teacher's Guide to Service Learning.

18. Social emotional learning

Best for: All ages

Social emotional learning is the process by which people, children and adults develop the knowledge, self-awareness and personal well-being to build emotional competencies in both academics and life. In particular, SEL can help your students:

Develop a growth mindset

Form positive relationships

Deal with challenging situations

School is a major source of social connection, and researchers agree students with well-developed social emotional skills see improved academic and social outcomes. Recent COVID-related school closures mean students lost out on a lot of social interaction, so placing an added focus on SEL skills is more important than ever!
Example: There are lots of ways to meaningfully incorporate SEL in your classroom, including activities like:
For more SEL activities and resources, check out these 25 social emotional learning activities.

Teaching methods for students with special needs

In the last few decades, education has begun to make more space for diverse learners - students with special needs, learning disabilities or even different learning styles.

There's still a long way to go when it comes to making our classrooms open and equitable, but many modern teaching methods are highly adaptable and address some of the issues diverse learners have in a traditional classroom.

Ultimately, there's no "best way" to teach, regardless of what kind of students you have in your class. There are, however, some general guidelines you can follow to make sure your instruction is as effective as possible:

1. Explain things using multiple methods. Before you start a service learning project, for example, be sure to pre-teach important information with multiple methods of instruction, including media, role-playing situations, hands-on demonstrations and more.

2. Expect students to do their best, and don't accept less. When you believe all your students are capable of great things, they will too. Don't ignore or make a big deal of incorrect answers, but address them and work together to find the right solution.

3. Get to know your students. At the beginning of the year or unit, send around a Google form and ask questions about their learning styles or what they're excited to work on. Parent teacher conferences are also a great time to discuss specific learning needs and what is or isn't working.

4. Use modern teaching methodology designed to engage students. Gone are the days of memorization and silent classrooms. Don't be afraid to try new things to find out what works best for you! Then ask for student feedback to learn more about which learning styles resonate best in your classroom.

5. Use individual, paired and group activities equally. When students learn together, they understand different learning needs and build respect. Intentional strategies like cooperative and collaborative learning give each student responsibility and more ways to process content, while individual learning lets students set their own pace and goals.

When you try new teaching methods and flex your approach, every student benefits! It keeps them engaged, shows them you care about their learning and gives them an appreciation for different learning strategies.

Above all, keep trying new things, getting feedback from students and communicating wtih parents.

Teaching students in the modern age of learning

Education has come a long way in the past decades, whether it's more effective teaching methods or new ways to harness students' use of technology.

When you constantly innovate and try new strategies, you give your students real-life experiences and help them develop a love of learning. So cheers to you, and keep going!

Prodigy Education is committed to being an industry leader in game-based learning.

Our adaptive math platform gives teachers free, flexible and easy-to-use tools that align student play with the classroom in just a few clicks. As students explore the Prodigy world, their success depends on correctly answering curriculum-aligned questions - and you get all the data on their learning progress.

Sign up for your free teacher account today to get started!

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Guide to Teaching Methods for Modern-Day Teachers

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Follow our guide to modern-day teaching methods for effective teaching and increased student engagement.

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Applying Bloom's Taxonomy to the Classroom

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Applying Bloom's Taxonomy to the Classroom

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As a framework to support teaching and learning, Bloom's taxonomy is the most widely used and enduring tool through which to think about students' learning. Originally created by the American educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom in 1956, Bloom's taxonomy provides a hierarchical ordering of cognitive skills and is used worldwide to help inform successful teaching practice.

The creation of Bloom's taxonomy after the Second World War reflects the increasing importance of formal education to industrialised society. In a world in which formal education began to play a greater role than ever before, Bloom's taxonomy quickly became popular as a way to formalise teaching and learning practices, help write exams and develop curricula.

The fact that Bloom's taxonomy can be applied to any (cognitive) content intended for students to learn, is what makes this framework so powerful. It can be seen, to a greater or lesser extent, in all mark schemes and assessment objectives provided by all examining bodies in almost any curriculum subject. For teachers, Bloom's taxonomy is a practical tool to use, providing a framework in which to plan challenging lessons that help to ensure students' progress is maximised - a fundamental tenet of successful teaching. Among its many uses, Bloom's taxonomy provides an excellent foundation for lessons, as it can be used as a framework in which to deliver appropriate activities, assessment, questioning, objectives and outcomes.

It is worth taking the time therefore, to become familiar with the categories of the taxonomy, their order and their meaning. I illustrate Bloom's taxonomy[1] here, including some examples of keywords associated with each level (shown in italics).

Level 1, Remembering, is the most basic, requiring the least amount of cognitive rigour. This is about students recalling key information, for example, the meaning of a word.

Level 2, Understanding, is to do with students demonstrating an understanding of the facts remembered. At this level, the student who recalls the definition of a word, for example, would also be able to show understanding of the word by using it in the context of different sentences.

Level 3, Applying, is concerned with how students can take their knowledge and understanding, applying it to different situations. This usually involves students answering questions or solving problems.

Level 4, Analysing, is about students being able to draw connections between ideas, thinking critically, to break down information into the sum of its parts.

Level 5, Evaluating, is reached when students can make accurate assessments or judgements about different concepts. Students can make inferences, find effective solutions to problems and justify conclusions, while drawing on their knowledge and understanding.

Level 6, Creating, is the ultimate aim of students' learning journey. At this final level of Bloom's taxonomy, students demonstrate what they have learnt by creating something new, either tangible or conceptual. This might include, for example, writing a report, creating a computer program, or revising a process to improve its results.

As Bloom's taxonomy is a hierarchy of progressive processes ranging from the simple to the complex, in which it is necessary to first master those lower down the pyramid before being able to master those higher up, the framework promotes what Bloom termed 'mastery learning'. In other words, by moving up the taxonomy, students become more knowledgeable, more skilled and develop an improved understanding of the content they are learning. Thus, by creating lesson plans and tasks, using the examples of verbs (in italics) provided, teachers can align with the different levels of the taxonomy.

By simply moving to the higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy, these verbs can serve as the basis for learning objectives, questions or activities. They describe what we want students to be able to do, cognitively, with the content about which the students are learning. The higher up the pyramid of course, the more complex are the cognitive processes involved and, as such, ask students to engage in more challenging cognitive work connected to their lesson's content. As part of successful teaching practice, it can be necessary to scale back challenge in accordance with the response it draws, moving down the taxonomy as necessary.

A lesson could be planned about the benefits of renewable resources, the Roman empire, building a website or one of Shakespeare's sonnets. In all these examples, Bloom's taxonomy can be applied. An important point to consider, however, is that there can be occasions, particularly when first introducing a topic, where it is necessary to spend longer on the lower levels of the taxonomy. On such occasions, we do not seek to scale multiple levels of the taxonomy in a single lesson, instead choosing to do this over the course of a few lessons, due to the nature of the content (Gershon, 2015, pp. 103).

For example, for a series of Computing lessons that teach students how to build a webpage, the first lesson could explain to them about HTML, leading to a discussion about an example of HTML script and how it translates into a webpage (Level 1 - Remembering), before asking them to explain the purpose of different parts of the HTML script (Level 2 - Understanding). Students would move on to applying their knowledge and understanding of HTML, to begin building their own basic webpage, requiring them to solve any problems in their script (Level 3 - Applying), and then investigating additional features that could be added to their webpage (Level 4 - Analysing). As the lessons continue, students could be challenged further to critique their website, assessing its strengths and how it could be improved (Level 5 - Understanding). At the pinnacle of Bloom's taxonomy, it would be expected for students to create something completely new or original, producing a website that fulfils a particular purpose (Level 6 - Creating).

Similarly, for a series of literacy lessons looking at John Yeats' poem, 'The Lake Isle of Innisfree', the following tasks could be set according to each category of Bloom's taxonomy. After reading the poem together as a class, students could be asked to recite the first stanza of this poem (Level 1 - Remembering), before being asked where Yeats would like to be, London or the Lake Isle of Innisfree (Level 2 - Understanding). Afterwards, students could move on by describing the structure of Yeats' poem, explaining his use of rhythm and rhyme (Level 3 - Applying). In the subsequent lesson, students might be asked to analyse the mood of this poem, exploring how mood is created (Level 4 - Analysing). Later on, students could be asked to pick one of the images from the poem, evaluating its effectiveness (Level 5 - Evaluating). Finally, an appropriate activity to this finish off the topic might be to get the students to write their own poem on a similar theme (Level 6 - Creating).

Another point to make clear is that the separate processes of the taxonomy can be adapted according to the age-group and ability of students, enabling them to access the different levels of taxonomy according to the overall depth of their cognition. Level 6, Creating, for example, is obviously not going to be the same for a five-year old as it would be for a sixteen-year old. Nevertheless, the hierarchy of the different levels of the taxonomy remains the same.

In this way, Bloom's taxonomy is related to Bruner's notion of the spiral curriculum. This idea posits that students should return to key concepts and ideas at different points on their learning journey, each time meeting them at a more advanced stage of development. At whatever depth of cognition students access their lesson's content then, Bloom's taxonomy can help teachers to ensure that students are challenged.
Activities & Questioning
Activities and questioning are the fundamental tools all teachers use daily. Both activities and questioning require students to use different cognitive processes to interact with lesson content. The quality of activities set and questions asked has a direct impact on the progress that students make. By aligning these with Bloom's taxonomy, cognitive demands are made on students, which can facilitate more challenge and help ensure rapid learning.

In the tables that follow, I provide exemplar question stems and sample activities for each level of Bloom's taxonomy. Having made several minor changes, I have assembled these tables using ideas from Dalton & Smith (1986), adapting their work according to the revised taxonomy. Although these lists are not exhaustive, they do provide an excellent starting point for how to use Bloom's taxonomy in the classroom.

As a final example, let's take a look at a stepped questioning activity, in which a series of questions are asked (written down or verbally) that gradually move up the levels of Bloom's taxonomy. Such an activity could be carried out during one single lesson:

1. What can you remember about the story? (Remembering)

2. Summarise the story in your own words. (Understanding)

3. Suggest how the main lessons in this story could help other young people. (Applying)

4. Why did the different characters in the story behave the way that they did? (Analysing)

5. Evaluate the strength of the main character's decision to leave. (Evaluating)

6. Rewrite the ending of this story, to show a different outcome. (Creating)

The framework is logical: each question becomes increasingly more challenging in terms of the cognitive demand placed on students. Stepped questions like these can be set as a single activity, with students working individually or in pairs. There is differentiation by outcome, as some students will get further than others, depending on their prior knowledge and understanding.

As all these examples highlight, Bloom's taxonomy provides a strong basis for tailored questioning and bespoke activities, in which we adapt and modify questions and activities in order to more closely meet the needs of the students. For instance, the teacher could start with a series of 'remembering' (knowledge) questions or activities before moving onto a set that focus on comprehension. It may well become apparent at this stage that the students are getting stuck at this level. The point is, depending on the answers elicited, the teacher can move up the taxonomy more quickly or more slowly until the appropriate level of challenge is reached. Having arrived at the appropriate level of challenge, successful teaching would pursue question stems and relevant activities such as those listed, to help push students' cognition, or to help them become unstuck in areas that were previously too challenging.

[1] The original Bloom's taxonomy was revised in 2001 Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl. Among several changes made, the revision uses verbs (Remembering, Understanding, etc.) instead of nouns, providing learners with clearer objectives for what is expected of them. 'Synthesis' was replaced with 'Creating', and the new version also swaps the final two levels, Synthesis/Evaluation, making 'Creating' the ultimate level achievable. Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl were well placed to make these revisions; Lorin Anderson was Benjamin Bloom's former student, and David Krathwohl was one of Bloom's partners who helped to devise the classic cognitive taxonomy. I refer here only to the new version.
References
Anderson, L. W & Krathwohl, D. R., eds. 2001. A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Allyn and Bacon.

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., Krathwohl, D. R. 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company.

Gershon, M. 2015. How to use Bloom's Taxonomy in the Classroom - The Complete Guide.

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Applying Bloom's Taxonomy to the Classroom - Technology for Learners

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As a framework to support teaching and learning, Bloom's taxonomy is the most widely used and enduring tool through which to think about students'

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When activating prior knowledge, it can be tempting to remind students of previously studied material. After all, this can be much quicker than asking questions to all members of the class, ensuring full participation, and then providing the correct answers and feedback. There is often a lot of content teachers need to deliver and present in a lesson, in addition to checking for understanding and accuracy before moving onto to the next section or topic. Retrieval practice can be challenging for students and the level of difficulty will depend on a variety of factors (e.g., the complexity of a topic or how long has elapsed since the content was last revisited). Despite these challenges with implementing retrieval practice, teachers need to persevere and focus on retrieval practice instead of providing the class with reminders of prior learning!

The "generation effect" refers to the long-term benefits of generating an answer from memory, compared to being presented with an answer or information. Professor Robert A. Bjork writes, "basically, any time that you, as a learner, look up an answer or have somebody tell or show you something that you could, drawing on current cues and your past knowledge, generate instead, you rob yourself of a powerful learning opportunity" (2011). In other words, you're missing out when you're reminded of something up instead of trying to retrieve it from memory!

Through quizzing and retrieval practice tasks teachers can provide students with lots of powerful learning opportunities. Reminders can replace those learning opportunities. Bjork offers this advice to teachers, "Whatever answer or procedure a teacher can get a student to generate will be far better recalled at a later time than any answer provided or illustrated to the student" (Jones, 2021).

Examples of reminders in the classroom include:

Showing a video clip to the class

Revisiting and rereading a textbook or knowledge organiser

Presenting slides with information about prior learning

Reminders can be helpful, especially during the encoding stage of the learning process where students are consolidating the latest content. However, reminders should not replace a retrieval task.

Examples of retrieval practice in the classroom include:

Multiple choice or short answer quizzing

Use of mini white boards

Answering past examination questions

If students are struggling to recall information from long term memory it can be tempting for the teacher to offer the answer or solution. This significantly reduces the effectiveness of retrieval practice. Providing a cue or prompt can be beneficial-as long as there is still the element of desirable difficulty requiring students to retrieve the correct information from long term memory. Peps McCrea (2017) explains that the less assistance teachers provide students during retrieval, the greater the strengthening effect will be. It may seem counterintuitive, but not immediately reminding a student of the answer may actually have a positive effect on long-term learning!

Dimension 4 of The Model for Great Teaching (2020) focuses on activating hard thinking; after all, learning is the result of thinking hard about something. Learners can achieve this through the "generation effect"; teachers can support it by setting retrieval tasks to elicit evidence of long-term learning. Reminding students of the answer is not cued recall and, as Bjork stated, it is a missed learning opportunity. Reminders might just not be the answer!
To find out more about retrieval practice and other theories from cognitive neuroscience and psychology, you can complete the online References: Science of Learning Programme, as part of the Great Teaching Toolkit. Click to sign-up to a free trial of all of the courses featured in the Great Teaching Toolkit.
Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. In M. A. Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, & J. R. Pomerantz (Eds.), Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (pp. 56-64). Worth Publishers.

Coe, R., Rauch, C. J., Kime, S., & Singleton, D. (2020). Great teaching toolkit: Evidence Review. Evidence Based Education. https://evidencebased.education/great teaching-toolkit/

Jones, K. (2021). Retrieval Practice 2: Implementing, embedding & reflecting. John Catt Educational.

McCrea, P. (2017) Memorable Teaching: Leveraging memory to build deep and durable learning in the classroom. John Catt.

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When activating prior knowledge, it can be tempting to remind students of previously studied material. After all, this can be much quicker than asking questions to all members of the class, ensuring full participation, and then providing the correct answers and feedback.

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This is an interesting piece to read.

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Questioning is an element of great teaching that serves multiple purposes. Good questions and prompts offer pedagogical benefits, for both teachers and students. In this blog article, we offer a brief explanation of why teachers use questioning, as well as some effective strategies to exemplify what it looks like.
Pause for a moment and think back to your teacher training days - perhaps you are a trainee teacher at the moment - you've just explained a new concept, or presented some new information. In these instances, to ask a follow-up question is almost like a natural reflex, or instinct. But at precisely this moment you realise how hard it is to find the right words, the right formulation, to move learning forward and to ascertain how successful your explanation has been thus far. With time, questioning becomes easier, but it remains a teaching artform that evades perfection.

As we have mentioned in the Great Teaching Toolkit: Evidence Review, to claim that questioning is an important aspect of teaching practice is nothing new - it features in almost every existing teaching model already out there. Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction, for example, suggest teachers should ask a large number of good questions (2010). The 'good' is crucial here. Highly effective questioning is about quality rather than quantity; formulating questions which elicit deep thinking and which provide useful insights about students' thinking to the teacher.

One thing that is certain is that any conversation about great teaching, anywhere in the world, in any kind of educational setting, is going to involve questioning sooner or later!

Great teachers use questioning for two key purposes:

1. To promote thinking; and

2. To assess thinking.

Questioning is a tool to promote deep, connected and elaborated thinking. Great teachers use questioning as part of a dialogue in which students are engaged and stretched. They prompt students to give explanations and justifications for their answers, or to improve an initial response, to describe their thinking processes, to elaborate on their answers, exploring implications, 'what-if's and connections with other ideas and knowledge (Dunlosky et al., 2013; Praetorius et al., 2018).

Although we have used the word 'questioning' here, the range of activities teachers use to promote oracy and dialogue are much wider. For example, Shimamura (2018) encourages learners to apply the 'three Cs' when encountering new information:

Categorise: Consider how new information fits into existing knowledge.

Compare: Consider similarities with existing knowledge.

Contrast: Consider differences with existing knowledge.

Amongst others, Dunlosky et al. (2013) recommend a related strategy, 'elaborative-interrogation'; in this, the learner generates an explanation for why a learned fact would be true. Research shows that why and how questions can help facilitate learning; Dunlosky et al. theorise that this is because this encourages the learner to connect new knowledge to existing knowledge.

Questioning is also an assessment tool. It is used to elicit and check student thinking, knowledge and understanding. Asking questions, or providing prompts, that provide clear insight into whether students have grasped the required knowledge and understanding is hard; student responses are often ambiguous or require further clarification. Conclusions can be drawn only tentatively; a question is but one inadequate glance into student learning. And if that didn't already sound challenging enough, teachers have to gather these inadequate glances from many students at once! As such, great teachers also have strategies for checking the responses of all students. This is not easy to do well, but asking meaningful and appropriate questions that target essential learning, collecting and interpreting responses from every student, and responding to the results are all classroom skills that can be refined and improved over time, with conscious effort.

What does this look like in our courses?

Our Questioning course covers the key aims of questioning, how to use questioning to assess students' thinking, some basic principles of assessment design - including the 'four pillars' - specific questioning strategies such as hinge questions and exit tickets, and also the use of questioning to promote deep thinking. There is also opportunity for teachers to reflect and relate the course content to their own classroom context and practice, and to engage with other GTT teachers around the world to discuss questioning principles and techniques via our GTT community page.
You can learn more about questioning in a way that learners can understand in the Great Teaching Toolkit course, "Questioning". And, of course, you can see these strategies for yourself in all of EBE's courses. Click here to sign-up to a free trial of all of the courses featured in the Great Teaching Toolkit.
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266

Rosenshine, B. (2010). Principles of instruction. Educational Practices Series, 21, 109-125. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2669-7_7

Shimamura, A. (2018). MARGE. A whole-brain learning approach for students and teachers. https://shimamurapubs.files.wordpress.com/2018/09/marge_shimamura.pdf

Praetorius, A. K., Klieme, E., Herbert, B., & Pinger, P. (2018). Generic dimensions of teaching quality: the German framework of Three Basic Dimensions. ZDM - Mathematics Education, 50(3), 407- 426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-018-0918-4

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Questioning is an element of great teaching that serves multiple purposes. Good questions and prompts offer pedagogical benefits, for both teachers and students. In this blog article, we offer a brief explanation of why teachers use questioning, as well as some effective strategies to exemplify what it looks like.

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The 3-2-1 learning strategy for critical thinking

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The 3-2-1 learning strategy for critical thinking

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Using The 3-2-1 Learning Strategy For Critical Thinking

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The 3-2-1 strategy is a simple way to frame a topic or task, making it useful for anything from discussion prompts to inquiry learning.

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Short-Term Memory and Working Memory (Intro Psych Tutorial #72)

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Sensory Memory (Intro Psych Tutorial #71)

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Information Processing Theory - Classroom Applications

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Introduction to Memory (Intro Psych Tutorial #70)

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How we learn from the behaviour of others

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Social cognitive theory is a learning theory developed by the renowned Stanford psychology professor Albert Bandura. The theory provides a framework for understanding how people actively shape and are shaped by their environment. In particular, the theory details the processes of observational learning and modeling, and the influence of self-efficacy on the production of behavior.

Key Takeaways: Social Cognitive Theory

Origins: The Bobo Doll Experiments

In the 1960s, Bandura, along with his colleagues, initiated a series of well-known studies on observational learning called the Bobo Doll experiments. In the first of these experiments, pre-school children were exposed to an aggressive or nonaggressive adult model to see if they would imitate the model's behavior. The gender of the model was also varied, with some children observing same-sex models and some observing opposite-sex models.

In the aggressive condition, the model was verbally and physically aggressive towards an inflated Bobo doll in the presence of the child. After exposure to the model, the child was taken to another room to play with a selection of highly attractive toys. To frustrate participants, the child's play was stopped after about two minutes. At that point, the child was taken to a third room filled with different toys, including a Bobo doll, where they were allowed to play for the next 20 minutes.

The researchers found that the children in the aggressive condition were much more likely to display verbal and physical aggression, including aggression towards the Bobo doll and other forms of aggression. In addition, boys were more likely to be aggressive than girls, especially if they had been exposed to an aggressive male model.

A subsequent experiment utilized a similar protocol, but in this case, the aggressive models weren't just seen in real-life. There was also a second group that observed a film of the aggressive model as well as a third group that observed a film of an aggressive cartoon character. Again, the gender of the model was varied, and the children were subjected to mild frustration before they were brought to the experimental room to play. As in the previous experiment, the children in the three aggressive conditions exhibited more aggressive behavior than those in the control group and boys in the aggressive condition exhibiting more aggression than girls.

These studies served as the basis for ideas about observational learning and modeling both in real-life and through the media. In particular, it spurred a debate over the ways media models can negatively influence children that continues today.

In 1977, Bandura introduced Social Learning Theory, which further refined his ideas on observational learning and modeling. Then in 1986, Bandura renamed his theory Social Cognitive Theory in order to put greater emphasis on the cognitive components of observational learning and the way behavior, cognition, and the environment interact to shape people.

Observational Learning

A major component of social cognitive theory is observational learning. Bandura's ideas about learning stood in contrast to those of behaviorists like B.F. Skinner. According to Skinner, learning could only be achieved by taking individual action. However, Bandura claimed that observational learning, through which people observe and imitate models they encounter in their environment, enables people to acquire information much more quickly.

Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four processes:

1. Attentional processes account for the information that is selected for observation in the environment. People might select to observe real-life models or models they encounter via media.

2. Retention processes involve remembering the observed information so it can be successfully recalled and reconstructed later.

3. Production processes reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was learned can be applied in appropriate situations. In many cases, this doesn't mean the observer will replicate the observed action exactly, but that they will modify the behavior to produce a variation that fits the context.

4. Motivational processes determine whether or not an observed behavior is performed based on whether that behavior was observed to result in desired or adverse outcomes for the model. If an observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be more motivated to reproduce it later. However, if a behavior was punished in some way, the observer would be less motivated to reproduce it. Thus, social cognitive theory cautions that people don't perform every behavior they learn through modeling.

Self-Efficacy

In addition to the information models can convey during observational learning, models can also increase or decrease the observer's belief in their self-efficacy to enact observed behaviors and bring about desired outcomes from those behaviors. When people see others like them succeed, they also believe they can be capable of succeeding. Thus, models are a source of motivation and inspiration.

Perceptions of self-efficacy influence people's choices and beliefs in themselves, including the goals they choose to pursue and the effort they put into them, how long they're willing to persevere in the face of obstacles and setbacks, and the outcomes they expect. Thus, self-efficacy influences one's motivations to perform various actions and one's belief in their ability to do so.

Such beliefs can impact personal growth and change. For example, research has shown that enhancing self-efficacy beliefs is more likely to result in the improvement of health habits than the use of fear-based communication. Belief in one's self-efficacy can be the difference between whether or not an individual even considers making positive changes in their life.

Modeling Media

The prosocial potential of media models has been demonstrated through serial dramas that were produced for developing communities on issues such as literacy, family planning, and the status of women. These dramas have been successful in bringing about positive social change, while demonstrating the relevance and applicability of social cognitive theory to media.

For example, a television show in India was produced to raise women's status and promote smaller families by embedding these ideas in the show. The show championed gender equality by including characters that positively modeled women's equality. In addition, there were other characters that modeled subservient women's roles and some that transitioned between subservience and equality. The show was popular, and despite its melodramatic narrative, viewers understood the messages it modeled. These viewers learned that women should have equal rights, should have the freedom to choose how they live their lives, and be able to limit the size of their families. In this example and others, the tenets of social cognitive theory have been utilized to make a positive impact through fictional media models.

Bandura, Albert. "Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by enabling media." Entertainment-education and social change: History, research, and practice, edited by Arvind Singhal, Michael J. Cody, Everett M. Rogers, and Miguel Sabido, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004, pp. 75-96.

Bandura, Albert. "Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication. Media Psychology, vol. 3, no. 3, 2001, pp. 265-299, https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0303_03

Bandura, Albert. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice Hall, 1986.

Bandura, Albert, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila A. Ross. "Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Aggressive Models." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, vol. 63, no. 3, 1961, pp. 575-582, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0045925

Bandura, Albert, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila A. Ross. "Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Models." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, vol. 66, no. 1, 1961, pp. 3-11, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0048687

Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005.

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Social Cognitive Theory: How We Learn From the Behavior of Others

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Social cognitive theory, developed by Albert Bandura, is a learning theory that focuses on observational learning, modeling, and self-efficacy.

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What is a lesson Plan?

A lesson plan is the instructor's road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. Having a carefully constructed lesson plan for each 3-hour lesson allows you to enter the classroom with more confidence and maximizes your chance of having a meaningful learning experience with your students.

A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates three key components:

Learning Objectives

Learning activities

Assessment to check for student understanding

A lesson plan provides you with a general outline of your teaching goals, learning objectives, and means to accomplish them, and is by no means exhaustive. A productive lesson is not one in which everything goes exactly as planned, but one in which both students and instructor learn from each other. You may refer to an example of a 3 hour lesson plan here.

Before Class: Steps for preparing a lesson plan

Listed below are 6 steps for preparing your lesson plan before your class.

1. Identify the learning objectives

Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the lesson. A learning objective describes what the learner will know or be able to do after the learning experience rather than what the learner will be exposed to during the instruction (i.e. topics). Typically, it is written in a language that is easily understood by students and clearly related to the program learning outcomes. The table below contains the characteristics of clear learning objectives:

Characteristic

Description

Clearly stated tasks

Free from jargon and complex vocabulary; describe specific and achievable tasks (such as 'describe', 'analyse' or 'evaluate') NOT vague tasks (like 'appreciate', 'understand' or 'explore').

Important learning goals

Describe the essential (rather than trivial) learning in the course which a student must achieve.

Achievable

Can be achieved within the given period and sufficient resources are available.

Demonstrable and measurable

Can be demonstrated in a tangible way; are assessable; achievement and quality of achievement can be observed.

Fair and equitable

All students, including those with disabilities or constraints, have a fair chance of achieving them.

Linked to course and program objectives

Consider the broader goals - i.e. course, program and institutional goals.

The Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ( link) is a useful resource for crafting learning objectives that are demonstrable and measurable.

2. Plan the specific learning activities

When planning learning activities you should consider the types of activities students will need to engage in, in order to develop the skills and knowledge required to demonstrate effective learning in the course. Learning activities should be directly related to the learning objectives of the course, and provide experiences that will enable students to engage in, practice, and gain feedback on specific progress towards those objectives.

As you plan your learning activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding. Some questions to think about as you design the learning activities you will use are:

What will I do to explain the topic?

What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?

How can I engage students in the topic?

What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students understand the topic?

What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?

Many activities can be used to engage learners. The activity types (i.e. what the student is doing) and their examples provided below are by no means an exhaustive list, but will help you in thinking through how best to design and deliver high impact learning experiences for your students in a typical lesson.

Lecture

Convey concepts verbally, often with visual aids (e.g. presentation slides).

Quiz

Exercise to assess the level of student understanding and questions can take many forms, e.g. multiple-choice, short-structured, essay etc.

Student presentation

Oral report where students share their research on a topic and take on a position and/or role.

Simulation

Replica or representation of a real-world phenomenon that enables relationships, contexts, and concepts to be studied.

Discussion

Formal/informal conversation on a given topic/question where the instructor facilitates student sharing of responses to the questions and building upon those responses.

Feedback

Information provided by the instructor and/or peer(s) regarding aspects of one's performance or understanding.

Guest Speaker

Feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiences specific to a given topic are shared by an invited presenter.

Concept Mapping

Graphical representation of related information in which common or shared concepts are linked together.

Real-world projects

Planned set of interrelated tasks to be executed over a fixed period and within certain cost and other limitations, either individually or collaboratively

It is important that each learning activity in the lesson must be (1) aligned to the lesson's learning objectives, (2) meaningfully engage students in active, constructive, authentic, and collaborative ways, and (3) useful where the student is able to take what they have learnt from engaging with the activity and use it in another context, or for another purpose.

3. Plan to assess student understanding

Assessments (e.g., tests, papers, problem sets, performances) provide opportunities for students to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills articulated in the learning objectives, and for instructors to offer targeted feedback that can guide further learning.

Planning for assessment allows you to find out whether your students are learning. It involves making decisions about:

The number and type of assessment tasks that will best enable students to demonstrate learning objectives for the lesson.

Examples of different assessments

Formative and/or summative

The criteria and standards that will be used to make assessment judgements.

Student roles in the assessment process

Self-assessment

Peer assessment

The weighting of individual assessment tasks and the method by which individual task judgements will be combined into a final grade for the course.
Information about how various tasks are to be weighted and combined into an overall grade must be provided to students.

The provision of feedback
Giving feedback to students on how to improve their learning, as well as giving feedback to instructors how to refine their teaching.

To learn more about designing assessment, click here.

4. Plan to sequence the lesson in an engaging and meaningful manner

Robert Gagne proposed a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which is useful for planning the sequence of your lesson. Using Gagne's 9 events in conjunction with Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ( link) aids in designing engaging and meaningful instruction.

Gange's Nine Events of Instruction by CourseArc is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

1. Provide guidance: Advise students of strategies to aid them in learning content and of resources available. With learning guidance, the rate of learning increases because students are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or poorly understood concepts.
To find out more about scaffolding student learning, click here.

2. Practice: Allow students to apply knowledge and skills learned.

Allow students to apply knowledge in group or individual activities.

Ask deep-learning questions, make reference to what students already know or have students collaborate with their peers.

Ask students to recite, revisit, or reiterate information they have learned.

Facilitate student elaborations - ask students to elaborate or explain details and provide more complexity to their responses.

3. Assess performance: To evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional events, test to see if the expected learning outcomes have been achieved. Performance should be based on previously stated objectives.
Utilise a variety of assessment methods including exams/quizzes, written assignments, projects, and so on.

4. Enhance retention and transfer: Allow students to apply information to personal contexts. This increases retention by personalising information.

Provide opportunities for students to relate course work to their personal experiences.

Provide additional practice.

5. Create a realistic timeline

A list of ten learning objectives is not realistic, so narrow down your list to the two or three key concepts, ideas, or skills you want students to learn in the lesson. Your list of prioritized learning objectives will help you make decisions on the spot and adjust your lesson plan as needed. Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:

Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra time for each.

When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much time you expect it will take.

Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and to sum up key points.

Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left.

Be flexible - be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students' needs and focus on what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your original plan.

6. Plan for a lesson closure

Lesson closure provides an opportunity to solidify student learning. Lesson closure is useful for both instructors and students.

You can use closure to:

Check for student understanding and inform subsequent instruction (adjust your teaching accordingly)

Emphasise key information

Tie up loose ends

Correct students' misunderstandings

Preview upcoming topics

Your students will find your closure helpful for:

Summarizing, reviewing, and demonstrating their understanding of major points

Consolidating and internalising key information

Linking lesson ideas to a conceptual framework and/or previously-learned knowledge

Transferring ideas to new situations

There are several ways in which you can put a closure to the lesson:

State the main points yourself ("Today we talked about...")

Ask a student to help you summarize them

Ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what they think were the main points of the lesson

Bibliography

1. Ambrose, S., Bridges, M., Lovett, M., DiPietro, M., & Norman, M. (2010). How learning works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.

2. EDUCAUSE (2005). Potential Learning Activities. Retrieved April 7 2017, from EDUCAUSE website: https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/NLI0547B.pdf.

3. Fink, D. L. (2005). Integrated course design. Manhattan, KS: The IDEA Center. Retrieved from http://ideaedu.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Idea_Paper_42.pdf .

4. Gagne, R. M., Wager, W.W., Golas, K. C. & Keller, J. M (2005). Principles of Instructional Design (5th edition). California: Wadsworth.

5. Gredler, M. E. (2004). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 571-82). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

6. Richardson, J.C., & Swan. K. (2003). Examining social presence in online courses in relation to students' perceived learning and satisfaction. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 7(1), 68-88.

7. Schuell, T.J. (1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research, 56, 411-436.

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A lesson plan is the instructor's road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning.

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Information processing model: Sensory, working, and long term memory | MCAT | Khan Academy

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The role of constructivism

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Key principles for the implementation

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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In this final section of the constructivism workshop, you will have the opportunity to test out ideas about constructivist learning in your classroom. In particular, this section provides a framework in which you can develop your own constructivist lesson plan.

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How does technology complement constructivism

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How do I apply constructivism in my classroom?
What are some simple ways to get started?
What are some challenges I may face?
How do I assess student progress?
How does constructivism align with state and national standards?
How does technology complement constructivism?
How do I work with my school, the parents, and the community?

How does technology complement constructivism?

"Constructivism proposes that learning environments should support multiple perspectives or interpretations of reality, knowledge construction, and context-rich, experience-based activities."

The rapid development of increasingly powerful computer and communication systems has great implications for the constructivist approach to education. It offers a tremendous amount of information, tools for creativity and development, and various environments and forums for communication. Within a student-centered curriculum based on student performance or research, new technology tools provide many opportunities for students and teachers to build knowledge in an engaged setting.

. The Internet and its graphic window, the World Wide Web, have made vast amounts of information available in a timely fashion.

Students can initiate searches more and more independently using information technology.

Teachers can encourage searching and classification more readily in a technology-rich environment. (Filtering software protects younger students from inappropriate areas on the World Wide Web.)

Primary source material is increasingly available in forms that allow it to be incorporated into student-created archives and knowledge constructions. Educational institutions have posted much material useful in the sciences, mathematics, literature, and social sciences. As one example, the Library of Congress American Memories project contains primary source material from pioneers' diaries, the first recording studios, early photographers, and explorers' accounts.

High-quality, current material on major events is immediately available. A landing on Mars, a comet hitting Jupiter, a space walk, photographs and statistics of major storms. Students can research, classify, and store multimedia information from these events and more.

. Increasingly powerful software applications have put tools for interpretation and knowledge creation in the hands of learners of all ages and abilities. Word processing and desktop publishing, databases and spreadsheets, digital photography and art applications, multimedia and Web-authoring programs have greatly enhanced students' potential for expression. These computer-based tools have tapped into students' multiple intelligences, and enabled those with aptitude in visual learning, for example, to demonstrate knowledge creation more effectively. Teachers are restructuring their classrooms so that students can participate as producers. For example, teachers might organize the students to create a museum kiosk to demonstrate student knowledge.

Graphic organizer

concept mapping

Inspiration

Programming language

logical structures--students use mathematical thinking with visual objects

Prologue, Logo, Microworld, Turtle Math

Simulation-building software

systems representation

Stella

Graphics application

visual illustration

CorelDraw

Authoring tool

multimedia presentations, portfolios

HyperStudio, Director, PowerPoint

. Computer technology has enhanced the opportunities for students to communicate with others.

Students and teachers can extend their dialogue beyond the physical and time constraints of the classroom using e-mail, listservs, and live chats. Electronic-data archives, Web sites, and e-mail all allow for increasingly expedient and effective collaboration between students. Visit our CONCEPT TO CLASSROOM Workshop, "WebQuests" on using the Internet in the classroom.

| | | |
Concept to Classroom | About the Series | Resources | Sitemap | Credits

Thirteen | Thirteen Ed Online | thirteencelebration.org

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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How do I apply constructivism in my classroom? What are some simple ways to get started? What are some challenges I may face? How do I assess student progress? How does constructivism align with state and national standards? How does technology complement constructivism? How do I work with my school, the parents, and the community?

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Assessing the progress of learners

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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Challenges one might face with the implementation thereof in your classroom

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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Simple ways to get started

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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And, model how to construct relationships and metaphors. An English teacher, for example, might wish to show an author's rough drafts in addition to the finished novel. This will provide students insight into the writer's creative processes. First-person accounts of people from many fields may help students see the value that time and reflection have in knowledge building.

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How do I apply it in my classroom

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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For example, the general music class in an American middle school is a popular one -- the students find musical composition relevant because of their interest in popular music. The fact that there is an electronic keyboard connected to a computer on which to compose only heightens their interest.

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Lesson plans

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Concept to Classroom: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning - Demonstration

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The following are four lesson plans that illustrate constructivist teaching and learning opportunities. Since there are many different themes in constructivist philosophy, ways of applying the theory, and even clashing "camps" of constructivists, these lessons offer you just a few examples of the many styles used successfully.

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based on students' questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic representations.

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Critical perspectives on Constructivism SU5

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Critical perspectives on Constructivism SU5

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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What is constructivism? How does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning? What does constructivism have to do with my classroom? Expert in…

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Pages 103 in book - eBook available at NWU Library

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The New Teacher’s Companion: Practical Wisdom for Succeeding in the Classroom - ASCD

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Research confirms that the teacher makes the greatest difference in the learning success of students, so it’s important that new teachers get off to a strong start. With help from veteran teacher and mentor Gini Cunningham, inexperienced teachers can better understand and successfully tackle the man

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Difference between Constructivism and traditional ideas about teaching and learning SU5

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Difference between Constructivism and traditional ideas about teaching and learning SU5

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see significant differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's important, however, to bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in traditional classrooms, too.

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Creating lessons for Grades RRR, RR, R, 1 -5 SU2

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Creating lessons for Grades RRR, RR, R, 1 -5 SU2

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The New Teacher's Guide to Creating Lesson Plans | Scholastic

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Even if you had plenty of practice writing lessons during your teacher training, it's hard to be prepared for the avalanche of lesson planning you'll have to do once your first year of teaching begins. To rev up the learning curve, here are eight questions to "think aloud" as you prepare lessons.

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What is it?

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Page 1: Standards

There are two types of standards: content and performance (achievement). Content standards create a clear outline of the essential knowledge, skills, and understanding that students need to master in a given content area. Content standards refer to what gets taught in specific content areas (e.g., reading, language arts, mathematics, science, history). They define the breadth and depth of knowledge, skills, and processes that are to be taught within a given domain. Because states and school districts are striving to increase student performance, educational professionals and other stakeholders in the community include challenging and rigorous content in the development of standards.

All states have developed content standards in at least the areas of reading/ language arts, math, and science. Most states have developed content standards in other areas as well, including art, health, technology, and career education. However, only the academic areas are assessed using large-scale tests.

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and the National Academies have published two influential standards documents that serve as the basis for establishing national standards. These educational standards emphasize both specific knowledge and skills, while also addressing how the knowledge should be used through problem solving and real-life applications. The standards stress the application of knowledge and not just rote learning or the memorization of facts. This results in more "active roles for students, less teacher-directed instruction, less rote skills development, and more emphasis on students' understanding of topics and how to link math and science than simply learning content."

Diane Torres-Velásquez, PhD
Associate Professor,
Special Education Department
University of New Mexico
View Transcript
Performance Standards

Performance or achievement standards refer to the level of mastery of the content that the student is expected to attain. These performance standards translate content into explicit information and proficiency levels that students are expected to demonstrate. In other words, a school system adopts standards for content areas that identify the performance outcomes that students are expected to attain. Teachers must be aware of the specific standards in order to develop congruent instructional programs. Educational goals should be written according to grade level and provide a measure that students are expected to reach each academic school year.

Next, state (and district-level) assessments are used to measure student achievement of the content standards. Today's assessments also measure the application of knowledge and skills and guide how teachers should teach the content. School personnel must be able to identify when student performance meets the standards and when it does not. School personnel can analyze the performance results of individual classrooms in order to identify teachers who need to adapt their instructional methods of teaching.

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There are two types of standards: content and performance (achievement). Content standards create a clear outline of the essential knowledge, skills, and understanding that students need to master in a given content area. Content standards refer to what gets taught in specific content areas (e.g., reading, language arts, mathematics, science, history).

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Social Learning theory

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What are the 4 stages of social learning theory?

The social learning theory proposes that individuals learn through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. According to the theory, there are four stages of social learning:

1. Attention: In this stage, individuals must first pay attention to the behavior they are observing. This requires focus and concentration on the model's behavior.

2. Retention: In this stage, individuals must remember the behavior they observed. This involves cognitive processing and memory storage.

3. Reproduction: In this stage, individuals attempt to reproduce the behavior they observe. This may involve practicing and refining the behavior until it can be performed accurately.

4. Motivation: In this stage, individuals must have a reason or motivation to perform the behavior. This may involve reinforcement, punishment, social approval, disapproval, or other incentives.

What is the main idea of social learning theory?

Social Learning Theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn through observing, imitating, and modeling others' behavior. This theory posits that we can acquire new behaviors and knowledge by watching others, a process known as vicarious learning.

Bandura emphasized the importance of cognitive processes in learning, which set his theory apart from traditional behaviorism.

He proposed that individuals have beliefs and expectations that influence their actions and can think about the links between their behavior and its consequences.

Why is social learning theory important?

Social learning theory helps us understand how our environment and the people around us shape our behavior. It helps explain how individuals develop new skills and behaviors by paying attention to the behavior of others and then trying to reproduce that behavior themselves.

It is an important theory for psychologists, educators, and anyone interested in human behavior and development.

Who is Albert Bandura?

Albert Bandura was a prominent Canadian-American psychologist known for his work in social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy.

His groundbreaking research on observational learning, through experiments such as the Bobo Doll experiment, shifted the focus of psychological theory from behaviorism to cognitive processes.

Bandura's work significantly influenced the understanding of how individuals learn within social contexts.

Albert Bandura is best known for his contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the areas of social learning theory, self-efficacy, and aggression. He is considered one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century.

Bandura's work has significantly impacted our understanding of human behavior and has informed fields such as education, psychology, and social work.

References

Ahn, J. N., Hu, D., & Vega, M. (2020). "Do as I do, not as I say": Using social learning theory to unpack the impact of role models on students' outcomes in education. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 14(2), e12517.

Bagès, C., Verniers, C., & Martinot, D. (2016). Virtues of a hardworking role model to improve girls' mathematics performance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(1), 55-64

Bandura, A. Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through the imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582

Bandura, A. (1965). Behavioral modification through modeling procedures. In L. Krasner & L. P. Ullman (Eds.), Research in behavior modification. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bandura, A. (1971). Social learning theory. New York: General Learning Press.

Bandura, A. (1972). Modeling theory: Some traditions, trends, and disputes. In R. D. Parke (Ed.), Recent trends in social learning theory (pp. 35-61). New York: Academic Press.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Bennett, S., Farrington, D. P., & Huesmann, L. R. (2005). Explaining gender differences in crime and violence: The importance of social cognitive skills. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(3), 263-288.

Cheryan, S., Siy, J. O., Vichayapai, M., Drury, B. J., & Kim, S. (2011). Do female and male role models who embody STEM stereotypes hinder women's anticipated success in STEM? Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 656-664.

Dasgupta, N. (2011). Ingroup experts and peers as social vaccines who inoculate the self-concept: The stereotype inoculation model. Psychological Inquiry, 22(4), 231-246.

Deaton, S. (2015). Social learning theory in the age of social media: Implications for educational practitioners. Journal of Educational Technology, 12(1), 1-6.

Fryling, M. J., Johnston, C., & Hayes, L. J. (2011). Understanding observational learning: An interbehavioral approach. The Analysis of verbal behavior, 27, 191-203.

Grusec, J. E. (1994). Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies of Robert R. Sears and Albert Bandura.

Huesmann, L. R., & Kirwil, L. (2007). . Cambridge University Press.

Lin-Siegler, X., Ahn, J. N., Chen, J., Fang, F. F. A., & Luna-Lucero, M. (2016). Even Einstein struggled: Effects of learning about great scientists' struggles on high school students' motivation to learn science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 314-328.

Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 91-103.

Marx, D. M., & Ko, S. J. (2012). Superstars "like" me: The effect of role model similarity on performance under threat. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(7), 807-812.

Nabavi, R. T. (2012). Bandura's social learning theory & social cognitive learning theory. Theory of Developmental Psychology, 1(1), 1-24.

Overskeid, G. (2018). Do we need the environment to explain operant behavior?. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 302037.

Rosenthal, L., Levy, S. R., London, B., Lobel, M., & Bazile, C. (2013). In pursuit of the MD: The impact of role models, identity compatibility, and belonging among undergraduate women. Sex Roles, 68(7-8), 464-473.

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories an educational perspective (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.

Stout, J. G., Dasgupta, N., Hunsinger, M., & McManus, M. A. (2011). STEMing the tide: Using ingroup experts to inoculate women's self-concept in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 255-270

Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(1), 3-25.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Saul Mcleod, PhD
Educator, Researcher

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory In Psychology

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Social Learning Theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn through observing, imitating, and modeling others' behavior. This theory posits that we can acquire new behaviors and knowledge by watching others, a process known as vicarious learning.

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Why, how and examples

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Bloom's Taxonomy: Why, How, & Top Examples

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Self-assessment activities help students to be a realistic judge of their own performance and to improve their work.

Why Use Self-Assessment?

Promotes the skills of reflective practice and self-monitoring.

Promotes academic integrity through student self-reporting of learning progress.

Develops self-directed learning.

Increases student motivation.

Helps students develop a range of personal, transferrable skills.

Considerations for Using Self-Assessment

The difference between self-assessment and self-grading will need clarification.

The process of effective self-assessment will require instruction and sufficient time for students to learn.

Students are used to a system where they have little or no input in how they are assessed and are often unaware of assessment criteria.

Students will want to know how much self-assessed assignments will count toward their final grade in the course.

Incorporating self-assessment can motivate students to engage with the material more deeply.

Self-assessment assignments can take more time.

Research shows that students can be more stringent in their self-assessment than the instructor.

Getting Started with Self-Assessment

Identify which assignments and criteria are to be assessed.

Articulate expectations and clear criteria for the task. This can be accomplished with a rubric. You may also ask students to complete a checklist before turning in an assignment.

Motivate students by framing the assignment as an opportunity to reflect objectively on their work, determine how this work aligns with the assignment criteria, and determine ways for improvement.

Provide an opportunity for students to agree upon and take ownership of the assessment criteria.

Draw attention to the inner dialogue that people engage in as they produce a piece of work. You can model this by talking out loud as you solve a problem, or by explaining the types of decisions you had to think about and make as you moved along through a project.

Consider using an "exam wrapper" or "assignment wrapper." These short worksheets ask students to reflect on their performance on the exam or assignment, how they studied or prepared, and what they might do differently in the future. Examples of exam and homework wrappers can be found through Carnegie Mellon University's Eberly Center.

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Self-assessment activities help students to be a realistic judge of their own performance and to improve their work. Promotes the skills of reflective practice and self-monitoring. Promotes academic integrity through student self-reporting of learning progress. Develops self-directed learning. Increases student motivation. Helps students develop a range of personal, transferrable skills.

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What is it and types of rubrics

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TeachersFirst - Rubrics to the Rescue: What Are Rubrics

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Students have been known to refer to rubrics as “those things with the little boxes”, while teachers know rubrics as a set of scoring guidelines that evaluate students’ work and provide a clear teaching directive. Rubrics are a powerful, authentic tool used to assess students’ work. This scoring tool lists specific criteria for a project or piece of work. The criterion helps students to have a concrete understanding and visualization of “what counts”. Each standard or criteria also includes a gradation scale of quality. The rating scale could be numerical, qualitative, or a combination of both. Rubrics seek to evaluate assignments based on the sum of a full range of criteria rather than a single numerical score.

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A rubric is a scoring tool that explicitly describes the instructor's performance expectations for an assignment or piece of work. A rubric identifies:

criteria: the aspects of performance (e.g., argument, evidence, clarity) that will be assessed

descriptors: the characteristics associated with each dimension (e.g., argument is demonstrable and original, evidence is diverse and compelling)

performance levels: a rating scale that identifies students' level of mastery within each criterion

Rubrics can be used to provide feedback to students on diverse types of assignments, from papers, projects, and oral presentations to artistic performances and group projects.

Benefitting from Rubrics

A carefully designed rubric can offer a number of benefits to instructors. Rubrics help instructors to:

reduce the time spent grading by allowing instructors to refer to a substantive description without writing long comments

help instructors more clearly identify strengths and weaknesses across an entire class and adjust their instruction appropriately

help to ensure consistency across time and across graders

reduce the uncertainty which can accompany grading

discourage complaints about grades

An effective rubric can also offer several important benefits to students. Rubrics help students to:

understand instructors' expectations and standards

use instructor feedback to improve their performance

monitor and assess their progress as they work towards clearly indicated goals

recognize their strengths and weaknesses and direct their efforts accordingly

Examples of Rubrics

Here we are providing a sample set of rubrics designed by faculty at Carnegie Mellon and other institutions. Although your particular field of study or type of assessment may not be represented, viewing a rubric that is designed for a similar assessment may give you ideas for the kinds of criteria, descriptions, and performance levels you use on your own rubric.

Paper

Projects

Example 1: Capstone Project in Design This rubric describes the components and standards of performance from the research phase to the final presentation for a senior capstone project in design (Carnegie Mellon).

Example 2: Engineering Design Project This rubric describes performance standards for three aspects of a team project: research and design, communication, and team work.

Oral Presentations

Example 1: Oral Exam This rubric describes a set of components and standards for assessing performance on an oral exam in an upper-division course in history (Carnegie Mellon).

Example 2: Oral Communication This rubric is adapted from Huba and Freed, 2000.

Example 3: Group Presentations This rubric describes a set of components and standards for assessing group presentations in history (Carnegie Mellon).

Class Participation/Contributions

Example 1: Discussion Class This rubric assesses the quality of student contributions to class discussions. This is appropriate for an undergraduate-level course (Carnegie Mellon).

Example 2: Advanced Seminar This rubric is designed for assessing discussion performance in an advanced undergraduate or graduate seminar.

See also " Examples and Tools" section of this site for more rubrics.

CONTACT US to talk with an Eberly colleague in person!

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Creating and Using Rubrics - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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A rubric is a scoring tool that explicitly describes the instructor's performance expectations for an assignment or piece of work.

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A rubric is a type of scoring guide that assesses and articulates specific components and expectations for an assignment. Rubrics can be used for a variety of assignments: research papers, group projects, portfolios, and presentations.

Why use rubrics?

Rubrics help instructors:

Assess assignments consistently from student-to-student.

Save time in grading, both short-term and long-term.

Give timely, effective feedback and promote student learning in a sustainable way.

Clarify expectations and components of an assignment for both students and course teaching assistants (TAs).

Refine teaching methods by evaluating rubric results.

Rubrics help students:

Understand expectations and components of an assignment.

Become more aware of their learning process and progress.

Improve work through timely and detailed feedback.

Considerations for using rubrics

When developing rubrics consider the following:

Although it takes time to build a rubric, time will be saved in the long run as grading and providing feedback on student work will become more streamlined.

A rubric can be a fillable pdf that can easily be emailed to students.

Rubrics are most often used to grade written assignments, but they have many other uses:

They can be used for oral presentations.

They are a great tool to evaluate teamwork and individual contribution to group tasks.

Rubrics facilitate peer-review by setting evaluation standards. Have students use the rubric to provide peer assessment on various drafts.

Students can use them for self-assessment to improve personal performance and learning. Encourage students to use the rubrics to assess their own work.

Motivate students to improve their work by using rubric feedback to resubmit their work incorporating the feedback.

Getting Started with Rubrics

Start small by creating one rubric for one assignment in a semester.

Ask colleagues if they have developed rubrics for similar assignments or adapt rubrics that are available online. For example, the AACU has rubrics for topics such as written and oral communication, critical thinking, and creative thinking. RubiStar helps you to develop your rubric based on templates.

Examine an assignment for your course. Outline the elements or critical attributes to be evaluated (these attributes must be objectively measurable).

Create an evaluative range for performance quality under each element; for instance, "excellent," "good," "unsatisfactory."

Add descriptors that qualify each level of performance:

Avoid using subjective or vague criteria such as "interesting" or "creative." Instead, outline objective indicators that would fall under these categories.

The criteria must clearly differentiate one performance level from another.

Assign a numerical scale to each level.

Give a draft of the rubric to your colleagues and/or TAs for feedback.

Train students to use your rubric and solicit feedback. This will help you judge whether the rubric is clear to them and will identify any weaknesses.

Rework the rubric based on the feedback.

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Using rubrics | Center for Teaching Innovation

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A rubric is a type of scoring guide that assesses and articulates specific components and expectations for an assignment. Rubrics can be used for a variety of assignments: research papers, group projects, portfolios, and presentations.

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Peer assessment or peer review provides a structured learning process for students to critique and provide feedback to each other on their work. It helps students develop lifelong skills in assessing and providing feedback to others, and also equips them with skills to self-assess and improve their own work.

If you are interested in facilitating a team member evaluation process for group projects, see the page on Teaching students to evaluate each other.

Why use peer assessment?

Peer assessment can:

Empower students to take responsibility for and manage their own learning.

Enable students to learn to assess and give others constructive feedback to develop lifelong assessment skills.

Enhance students' learning through knowledge diffusion and exchange of ideas.

Motivate students to engage with course material more deeply.

Considerations for using peer assessment

Let students know the rationale for doing peer review. Explain the expectations and benefits of engaging in a peer review process.

Consider having students evaluate anonymous assignments for more objective feedback.

Be prepared to give feedback on students' feedback to each other. Display some examples of feedback of varying quality and discuss which kind of feedback is useful and why.

Give clear directions and time limits for in-class peer review sessions and set defined deadlines for out-of-class peer review assignments.

Listen to group feedback discussions and provide guidance and input when necessary.

Student familiarity and ownership of criteria tend to enhance peer assessment validity, so involve students in a discussion of the criteria used. Consider involving students in developing an assessment rubric.

Getting started with peer assessment

Identify assignments or activities for which students might benefit from peer feedback.

Consider breaking a larger assignment into smaller pieces and incorporating peer assessment opportunities at each stage. For example, assignment outline, first draft, second draft, etc.

Design guidelines or  rubrics  with clearly defined tasks for the reviewer.

Introduce rubrics through learning exercises to ensure students have the ability to apply the rubric effectively.

Determine whether peer review activities will be conducted as in-class or out-of-class assignments. For out-of-class assignments, peer assessments can be facilitated through Canvas using tools such as FeedbackFruits peer review and group member evaluation, Canvas peer review assignment, or Turnitin. See the Comparison of peer evaluation tools to learn more and/or set up a consultation by contacting CTI."

Help students learn to carry out peer assessment by modeling appropriate, constructive criticism and descriptive feedback through your own comments on student work and well-constructed rubrics.

Incorporate small feedback groups where written comments on assignments can be explained and discussed with the receiver.

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Peer assessment | Center for Teaching Innovation

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Peer assessment or peer review provides a structured learning process for students to critique and provide feedback to each other on their work. It helps students develop lifelong skills in assessing and providing feedback to others, and also equips them with skills to self-assess and improve their…

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Create custom rubrics for your classroom projects.

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Rubistar

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RubiStar is a tool to help the teacher who wants to use rubrics, but does not have the time to develop them from scratch.

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21 formative assessment tools

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Trying to find the right in-class formative assessment tools doesn't need to be hard. We've put things in order to help you find what you're looking for. First, we'll define the characteristics of effective formative assessment. Then we'll give examples of the quickest (and most fun) tools for you to use.

Formative assessment tools can be a part of every teacher's toolbox. They needn't be complicated or time-consuming. There are, however, a few things that are crucial to their effectiveness. Great formative assessment should have the following facets:

It should be goal-oriented. It is derived from what we do every day. It is directed at guiding students towards performing well. It should be specific, observable, and measurable.

It must focus on higher-order thinking skills. We're not talking about just the nuts and bolts. We want to know if they are applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating.

It should hold students accountable for individual performance. Group assessment is useful in itself. Also, pinpointing the exact needs of the individual will give you direction to steer your instruction. This sets the students up for success.

It should be seamless. Don't change your routine to fit the test. Some formative assessments have a steep learning curve Others are easy to grasp even with the most limited experience. You might need to build your formative assessment into your lesson. Some of it can be improvised, and some will need to be planned.

Quick and Useful Formative Assessment Tools

It's time to get some great formative assessment tools into your toolbox. Hopefully, this list will give you some ideas and start-off points.

Signs

These are easy and also incorporate a sense of self-assessment. It is non-threatening allowing students to be truthful about their responses. The teacher does not pass judgment but can gauge a percentage of how much he or she needs to reteach.

Yes/No cards-The teacher will ask a question. Students respond by holding up the appropriate card, whether they know the answer or not. In this way, they self-assess their assuredness on a topic. Teacher reteaches what is needed, or gives differentiated help to those in need.

Thumbs up/Down-This works the same as Yes or No cards. Students just use thumbs like at the end of a Roman Coliseum show.

Color Cards-Students rate their knowledge:

Red (I'm completely lost)

Yellow (Slow down, I'm struggling a bit)

Green (I've got it, it's all good)

1-2-3 Fingers-This works the same as color cards. Students hold fingers up to respond:

1 finger (Lost)

2 fingers (Not quite lost, but searching)

3 fingers (Understood completely)

Writing

These activities assess understanding and the student's ability to write and formulate ideas. Writing capability and fine motor dexterity will vary among your students. Take this into consideration, especially if you're timing it.

Invent the Quiz-What better way to gauge comprehension than by getting students to write their assessments themselves? By answering their own questions, they'll be ready for the final.

Opinion Chart-This can be in the form of a T-chart (e.g. Left = Opinions; Right = Support). Try this template from ReadWriteThink.

Mind Map-Mind Maps should be taught, so plan this ahead of time. It's a great self-assessment tool to use as students get older. Here are some examples.

KWL (Know, Want, Learn) Charts-KWL charts let students organize and analyze information from a lesson. They are also great critical thinking tools that get students interested in new topics. They ask these three questions:

What do you know already?

What do you want to know?

What did you learn?

Eduplace has a great template for KWL charts here that you can use.

321 Charts-3 things you learned; 2 interesting things; 1 question you still have. You can add variations to each of these as well. Some suggestions are below:

things that surprised you

things that have inspired you

the people you will discuss what you've learned with

action(s) you're going to take starting now

Arts

Creative types will love these. Going out on a limb and showing off their aesthetic skills are what some children crave.

Illustration/Sketch-Use pictures to establish connections and explain them.

Advertisement/Pamphlet/Multimedia Poster/Infographic-You can have students use any number of tools for this. You can also go old school and use traditional materials.

Comic Book-Use tools like Pixton or Comic Master to illustrate a concept. Or again, go old school and draw freehand.

Think-Ink-Pair-Share-Time is given to think about a topic. Students then write down their thoughts, pair up with another student and share what they've written.

Talking

Who can forget the good old conversation style of knowledge sharing? Face-to-face interaction remains the best engagement and collaboration avenue for students.

Four Corners-Corners of the room are labeled "Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree." Statements are read aloud and students go to their respective corner. This is then followed by open discussion.

Top 10 List (with humor)-These kinds of lists focus on the big important ideas.

Movement

These are great ice breakers. Get-up-and-stretch physical activities get the blood pumping and the brain working. Movement boosts enthusiasm, too.

Carousel Brainstorm-Large sheets of paper are stationed around the room with topics at each top. Groups go around to each chart, brainstorming their ideas on the topic. When the "carousel" stops, students discuss their findings.

Turn and Talk-This simple discussion tactic is used to great effect in lectures and keynotes. The teacher asks a thought-provoking question about the topic. Students "turn" to the person beside them and discuss the answers with each other.

Talk Show Panel-Students are assigned a position about a topic (whether they agree or disagree). They must internalize the position and then discuss it in a panel, debate-style.

Podcasting-Tools like Easy Podcast, djPod, Podbean, or Audacity make it easy. Students can speak as the expert on a topic with a podcast. It's a great exercise for media knowledge and creativity, as well as oral skills.

Dramatic Interpretation-Enact scenes from a book or any concept for that matter. Imagination is the ticket here.

Misconception Check-The teacher states a common misconception about a topic. Students agree or disagree, and discuss.

Some Parting Words on Formative Assessment Tools

The beauty of formative assessment is that it's done while the students are still learning. Fast and fun formative assessment tools are perfect for checking in along those learning journeys. One last piece of advice is to choose one formative assessment and make it your own. Don't try too many at one time. Use one until the kids know how to do it, and you know how to process the results.

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21 Formative Assessment Tools That Make Learning Fast and Fun

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Trying to find the right in-class formative assessment tools doesn't need to be hard. We've put things in order to help you find what you're looking for. First, we'll define the characteristics of effective formative assessment. Then we'll give examples of the quickest (and most fun) tools for you to use.

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Student Learning: Observing and Assessing

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Below are links to assessment tools and techniques along with specific geoscience examples and resources. Concept Maps - A diagramming technique for assessing how well students see the "big picture". ...

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by TeachThought Staff

What are the types of assessment for learning?

And more importantly, when should you use which? If curriculum is the what of teaching and learning models are the how, assessment is the puzzled 'Hmmmm'-as in, I assumed this and this about student learning, but after giving this assessment, well....'Hmmmmm.'

In The Difference Between Assessment Of Learning And Assessment For Learning, we explained that "assessment for learning is commonly referred to as formative assessment-that is, assessment designed to inform instruction." Below, we identify types of assessment of learning-very briefly, with simple ways to 'think about' each so that you hopefully wake up with a better grasp of each type.
6 Types Of Assessment Of Learning 1. Diagnostic Assessment (as Pre-Assessment)
One way to think about it: Assesses a student's strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills prior to instruction

Another way to think about it: A baseline to work from

Tip: Done at the beginning-of the school year, beginning of a unit, beginning of a lesson, etc.

See also What Is Project-Based Learning?
2. Formative Assessment
One way to think about it: Assesses a student's performance during instruction, and usually occurs regularly throughout the instruction process

Another way to think about it: Like a doctor's 'check-up' to provide data to revise instruction

Tip: Using digital exit ticket tools like Loop can be an easy means of checking whether students have understood lesson content, while also promoting student reflection.
3. Summative Assessment
So what are the different types of assessment of learning? The next time someone says 'assessment,' you can say "Which type, and what are we doing with the data?" Summative assessment, for example.

One way to think about it: Measures a student's achievement at the end of instruction. It's like talking to someone about a movie after the movie is over. : )

Another way to think about it: It's macabre, but if formative assessment is the check-up, you might think of summative assessment as the autopsy. What happened? Now that it's all over, what went right and what went wrong?

Tip: By using measurements of student performance, summative assessments can be useful for teachers to improve units and lessons year over year because they are, in a way, as much of a reflection on the quality of the units and lessons themselves as they are the students.
4. Norm-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Compares a student's performance against other students (a national group or other 'norm')

Another way to think about it: Place, group or 'demographic' assessment. Many standardized tests are used as norm-referenced assessments.

Tip: These kinds of assessments are useful over time in student profiles or for placement in national-level programs, for example.
5. Criterion-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Measures a student's performance against a goal, specific objective, or standard

Another way to think about it: a bar to measure all students against

Tip: These can be a kind of formative assessment and should be integrated throughout your curriculum to guide the adjustment of your teaching over time. Mastery or competency-based learning would use criterion-referenced assessments.
6. Interim/Benchmark Assessment
One way to think about it: Evaluates student performance at periodic intervals, frequently at the end of a grading period. Can predict student performance on end-of-the-year summative assessments. A benchmark assessment is a type of interim assessment so it could be useful to think of them as distinct even though they function in a similar way.

Another way to think about it: Bar graph or chart growth throughout a year, often against specific 'benchmarks'

Tip: Benchmark assessments can be useful for communicating important facts and data to parents, district officials, and others to, among other goals, inform the allotment of resources (time and money) to respond to that data.
6 Types Of Assessment Of Learning

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From formative and summative assessment to criterion-referenced and benchmark assessment, each type of assessment has a unique function.

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Checklists, rating scales and rubrics

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Checklists, Rating Scales and Rubrics (Assessment)

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The quality of information acquired through the use of checklists, rating scales and rubrics is highly dependent on the quality of the descriptors chosen for assessment. Their benefit is also dependent on students' direct involvement in the assessment and understanding of the feedback provided.

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Example: air traffic controller

← Back to document page

assessment. This simulates real practice where unknown elements and irrelevancies are often encountered. Laboratory books / Reports Practical / Written Students are required to write a report for all (or a designated sample) of practicals in a single lab book. You could inform students that a sample of lab books will be collected

Assessment, Report, Methods, Write, Unknown, A z of assessment methods

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An A-Z of Assessment Methods - University of Reading download / an-a-z-of-assessment-methods-university-of-reading.pdf / PDF4PRO

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Download an-a-z-of-assessment-methods-university-of-reading.pdf - assessment. This simulates real practice where unknown elements and irrelevancies are often encountered. Laboratory books / Reports Practical / Written Students are required to write a report for all (or a designated sample) of practicals in a single lab book.

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Quick strategies

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Classroom Assessment Techniques: Quick Strategies to Check Student Learning in Class - CELT

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Classroom assessment techniques (CAT) are relatively quick and easy formative evaluation methods that help you check student understanding in "real time". These formative evaluations provide information that can be used to modify/improve course content, adjust teaching methods, and, ultimately improve student learning. Formative evaluations are most effective when they are done frequently and the information...

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NWU version

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BLOOMS REVISED TAXONOMY A-Z_Feb 2018.doc

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Formative vs. Summative

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Compare formative and summative assessments

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Association of American Colleges & Universities

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Below is a list of the VALUE rubrics, organized by learning outcome. Click on an outcome to preview, download, and learn more about a particular rubric. For information on acceptable use of the VALUE rubrics, as well as how to reference and cite the rubrics, visit: How to Cite the VALUE Rubrics.

Follow the instructions to download all VALUE rubrics at no cost. All rubrics are offered via AAC&U's Shopping Cart:

If you experience any difficulty downloading the rubrics, please contact
Intellectual and Practical Skills Personal and Social Responsibility Integrative and Applied Learning
Below is a link to the Japanese Translation of the VALUE Rubrics, organized by learning outcome:

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Below is a list of the VALUE rubrics, organized by learning outcome. Click on an outcome to preview, download, and learn more about a particular rubric. For information on acceptable use of the VALUE rubrics, as well as how to reference and cite the rubrics, visit: How to Cite the VALUE Rubrics.

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Preparing 21st century learners: a pedegogical paradigm shift

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Preparing 21st century learners: a pedegogical paradigm shift

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International Journal of Higher Education

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Read this Ultimate Guide to gain a deep understanding of Bloom's taxonomy, how it has evolved over the decades and how it can be effectively applied in the learning process to benefit both educators and learners.

In this guide, you'll learn about:

The six levels of thinking and how to apply them throughout a lesson plan;

The three key domains, cognitive, affective and psychomotor, and their importance;

How Bloom's taxonomy can aid in active learning, as well as in formative and summative assessments.

Finally, we'll address some of the criticisms of Bloom's taxonomy, and how to address these in your classroom planning.
Need some examples? Looking to get started with some worksheets? Hear from professors who have effectively put Bloom's taxonomy to work in their college classrooms - download our free e-book, The Professor's Guide to Using Bloom's Taxonomy. Features a free tool kit for implementing Bloom's in your class.
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Table of contents

1. What is Bloom's taxonomy?
2. The history of Bloom's taxonomy
2.1. Original Bloom's taxonomy from 1956
2.2. Revised Bloom's taxonomy from 2001
3. Why is Bloom's taxonomy important?
4. The levels of thinking in Bloom's taxonomy
4.1. What the levels of thinking in Bloom's taxonomy mean
4.2. How to use the levels of thinking
4.3. Level 1: Remembering
4.4. Level 2: Understanding
4.5. Level 3: Applying
4.6. Level 4: Analyzing
4.7. Level 5: Evaluating
4.8. Level 6: Creating
5. Learning objectives in Bloom's taxonomy
5.1. The cognitive domain in Bloom's taxonomy
5.2. The affective domain in Bloom's taxonomy
5.3. The psychomotor domain in Bloom's taxonomy
6. How to use Bloom's taxonomy in the classroom
6.1. Using Bloom's taxonomy in lesson planning and course design
6.2. Bloom's taxonomy and active learning
6.3. Bloom's taxonomy and formative assessment
6.4. Bloom's taxonomy and summative assessment
7. Problems with Bloom's taxonomy
7.1. Creativity as a goal, not as a tool
7.2. Over-reliance
8. Further reading

1. What is Bloom's taxonomy?

Put simply, Bloom's taxonomy is a framework for educational achievement in which each level depends on the one below. It's often depicted in the form of a pyramid-similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Basic knowledge, the first stage of learning, leads to the development of the skills and abilities that are crucial to completing the pedagogical process: Comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. While there are subcategories within each, each stage lies on a continuum. The belief is that students move up through each level of the pyramid in Bloom's taxonomy, starting from very basic learning, to acquiring deeper knowledge on a subject, with each level crucial to the development of the next.

Teachers can apply Bloom's taxonomy by asking questions and delivering assignments that directly correlate with specific learning objectives in each stage of the process, making the objectives clear to the student. For example, posing multiple choice questions can help gauge a student's level of basic understanding and remembering of a subject, while asking a student to come up with a comparison or analogy points towards entering the application or analysis stage.

2. The history of Bloom's taxonomy

2.1. Original Bloom's taxonomy from 1956

In the 1940s, Benjamin Bloom, along with his collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill and David Krathwohl, devised Bloom's taxonomy in order to place educational goals into specific categories, with the belief that this classification would be useful in order to better assess college student performance.

Each year for the following 16 years, Bloom and his colleagues revised and refined the framework at the American Psychological Association convention. In 1956, the final version was published as the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, showing the path of educational attainment through six orders of learning.

"After forty years of intensive research on school learning in the United States as well as abroad, my major conclusion is: What any person in the world can learn, almost all persons can learn if provided with appropriate prior and current conditions of learning."

Benjamin Bloom

Bloom's taxonomy has served as the backbone of many teaching philosophies since then. While it initially aided in the assessment of students, it quickly became a tool for teachers to devise their curriculum, outline clear learning objectives, and design classroom activities. It has been adapted for use in classrooms from K-12 to college and university level, and as proof of its versatility, you can even apply it to a series of Seinfeld episode clips, each relating to a level of the taxonomy.

For 50 years, Bloom's taxonomy in its original form was a guide for educational teaching-until its revamp for a new generation.

2.2. Revised Bloom's taxonomy from 2001

In 2001, a group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists, instructional researchers and testing assessment specialists led by Lorin Anderson, a colleague of Krathwohl's and former student of Bloom's, revised Bloom's taxonomy by putting together a series of more dynamic concepts for the classification system versus the original static, one-dimensional levels of educational objectives.

At the core of the revision of Bloom's taxonomy is the use of verbs to replace nouns-providing learners with clearer objectives for what is expected of them.

The new revision swaps the two final levels, Synthesis/Evaluation, making create the ultimate level achievable.

Additionally, Bloom's revised taxonomy separates the cognitive domain, which consists of all of the levels involved in learning noted above, into four distinct types within a matrix: factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive.

Factual knowledge is characterized by terminology and discrete facts. Conceptual by categories, principles, theories, and models, looking at the relationships among all elements within a larger structure that helps it work together. Procedural is the knowledge of a specific technique, process, or methodology: essentially, how to do something. Finally, metacognitive defines a student's self-assessment of his ability and knowledge of different skills and techniques. Is the student actually aware of their own cognition?

The matrix organization of the revised version of Bloom's taxonomy is designed to be a more precise form of thinking about learning, making it easier for educators to create clear objectives for lesson planning and student evaluation. It also makes it simpler for students to understand what is expected of them.

3. Why is Bloom's taxonomy important?

Bloom's taxonomy has been actively used by teachers from K-12 to college instructors for over five decades. Yet it is still just as important today as back in the '50s.

At the heart of the Bloom's taxonomy framework is the ability to create achievable learning goals that teachers and students understand, and build a definitive plan to meet them. Instructors are encouraged to view learning objectives in behavioral terms, such that they can see what students are capable of as a direct result of the instruction they have received in each level.

Using the categorization, educators can effectively organize objectives and create lesson plans with appropriate content and instruction to lead students up the pyramid of learning. Educators can also design valid assessment tools and strategies to ensure each category is met in turn, and that each part of the course material is in line with the level's objectives, whether it's basic knowledge at the beginning of a course (e.g. remembering and recalling basic concepts), or applying that knowledge towards the middle of a school year (e.g. using the learned information in specific settings by solving problems.)

For students, Bloom's taxonomy levels bridge the gap between what they know now, and what they need to learn in order to attain a higher level of knowledge.

At the end of the learning process, the goal with Bloom's taxonomy is that a student has honed a new skill, level of knowledge, and/or developed a different attitude towards the subject. And that teachers are able to effectively assess this learning on an ongoing basis, as the course moves through each stage of the framework.

4. The levels of thinking in Bloom's taxonomy

This pyramid, courtesy of the Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching, represents the revised Bloom's taxonomy framework and educational objectives and outlines the key levels of thinking.

It starts with the most basic level of knowledge at the bottom, Remembering, whereby students recall facts and basic concepts, and moves up towards the pinnacle: Create, where new or original work is produced in some fashion.

4.1. What the levels of thinking in Bloom's taxonomy mean

In any learning environment, according to Bloom's taxonomy, it's critical to start from the bottom level and work your way up. The lower-order skills require less cognitive processing, but provide an important base for learning. Meanwhile, the higher levels require deeper learning and a greater degree of cognitive processing, which can presumably only be achieved once the lower-order skills have been mastered.

4.2. How to use the levels of thinking

Complete each level of Bloom's taxonomy before moving on to the next. When course planning, bear in mind the implications-how quickly to introduce new concepts, when to reinforce them and how to test them.

The first stage, remember, is about recalling facts and concepts. A student can define and duplicate, make a list, memorize points, repeat information, and make valid statements. But this does not prove comprehension.

This is where understand, the next level, comes in. The student explains ideas and concepts, discusses and describes a topic in detail, explains what it means, recognizes it and translates the facts in some way. They can paraphrase a point, or compare and contrast information.

Once this level is conquered, students move up the pyramid to the next stage of learning: apply. They use the information they've learned in new situations, whether it's to solve a problem, demonstrate an idea, interpret, schedule, sketch-whichever method works for the specific type of learning, course of study, and/or class environment.

Then, they must draw connections between ideas in the analyze level of Bloom's taxonomy, and differentiate, organize, relate, compare, contrast, examine, question or test their knowledge. Critical thinking finally comes into play, as the student distinguishes between fact and opinion, and breaks information down into component parts.

In the evaluate stage, the student can justify a stand or decision by appraising a situation, arguing, defending, judging, critiquing, supporting, or weighing in with thoughts based on the knowledge and application they've acquired thus far. In the original version of Bloom's taxonomy, this was considered the pinnacle of learning. But in the revised version, as noted, Create (which Bloom originally called Synthesis) is at the top of the pyramid. There, students produce new or original work.

Something can't be understood without first remembering it; can't be applied without understanding it; must be analyzed before evaluating it; and an evaluation needs to have been conducted prior to making an accurate conclusion.

Using verbs and actions allows educators to encourage success through each level of thinking in Bloom's taxonomy, and accurately measure learning. Do so by defining learning outcomes, and breaking them down as parts of a lecture. Use three key pillars to achieve this: condition (the resource being used), performance (what students should accomplish by the end), and criteria (the method of measuring success).

Importantly, some education-related words like include, understand, and learn can't be measured in a meaningful way. Following the framework of Bloom's taxonomy makes performance actionable and effective, using verbs that set clear expectations and can be specifically measured.

4.3. Level 1: Remembering

In the first stage of Bloom's taxonomy, you might ask students to recite something you've taught them, quoting information from memory based on previous lectures, reading material and notes. Educators can use verbs like define, describe, identify, label, list, outline, recall, and reproduce to effectively measure success in this stage. It's the most basic level in Bloom's taxonomy, but represents an important foundation; a stepping stone toward deeper learning. A basic way to test learning on this level is simple questions and answer periods, or multiple choice questions. This shows that the student is able to memorize facts and recall them. But it does not yet suggest that students actually understand the material.

4.4. Level 2: Understanding

Ask students to discuss a problem or idea in their own words, in order to evaluate their comprehension from the "remembering" stage of Bloom's taxonomy. For example, they might have to paraphrase a story or definition, explain a concept in their own words, tell a story that relates to it, or provide analogies. To measure this, verbs like defend, explain, generalize, paraphrase, summarize and translate. A student who reaches this level can interpret the materials, and demonstrate comprehension of the material.

4.5. Level 3: Applying

The student will now have to take what they've learned and apply it to a scenario outside of the classroom. For example, they can use a math formula they've learned to calculate a family budget in the real world, or apply a legal ruling to a specific case in the news headlines. Verbs to use in this stage of Bloom's taxonomy include apply, demonstrate, predict, show, solve or use. That could come in the form of collaborative group projects or the composition of a blog.

4.6. Level 4: Analyzing

Now it's time to reach the higher half of the learning levels in Bloom's taxonomy. Here, students can draw connections between ideas, utilize critical thinking, and break down knowledge into the sum of its parts. This can include using logical deduction to figure out how a piece of equipment works, or finding fallacies in the reasoning of an argument. Key verbs for measurement include analyze, break down, compare, contrast, differentiate, deconstruct and infer. On achieving this level of Bloom's taxonomy, a student can demonstrate that they fully understand the material on the whole, and as its component parts. They might be able to draw diagrams or deconstruct thought processes.

4.7. Level 5: Evaluating

Here is where the student makes an educated judgment about the value of the material they've just learned, applied and analyzed, to be able to tell the difference between fact and opinions or inferences. That could include finding an effective solution to a problem, or justifying a specific decision and being able to back up that justification with knowledge. Appraise, conclude, critique, evaluate, support and summarize are all good verbs to use in this level of Bloom's taxonomy. Tools like surveys and blogs can help in this particular level.

4.8. Level 6: Creating

In the final level of Bloom's taxonomy, the student demonstrates full knowledge by applying what they've learned, analyzed and evaluated, and building something, either tangible or conceptual. That could include writing a manual or report on a particular topic, designing a piece of machinery, or revising a process to improve the results. Verbs to use include categorize, combine, compile, devise, design, generate, modify and write. Projects can range from detailed essays that put parts of the learning together to form a whole concept or idea, or networking with others to discuss the merits of a study.

5. Learning objectives in Bloom's taxonomy

Bloom's taxonomy is further divided into three distinct learning objectives, or domains of educational activities: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. These are also referred to by the acronym KSA, for Knowledge (cognitive), Skills (psychomotor), and Attitudes (affective). The goal is that by the end of a learning session, the student will have acquired new knowledge, skills and attitudes towards a subject.

5.1. The cognitive domain in Bloom's taxonomy

Knowledge and development of intellectual skills is at the heart of the cognitive domain of Bloom's taxonomy, whereby a student can recall or recognize facts, patterns, and concepts that will serve as a foundation for deeper learning. This is where the six key facets of Bloom's taxonomy-Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation-come in.

5.2. The affective domain in Bloom's taxonomy

In this domain, students have new feelings or emotions about the subject, and/or themselves. They should be able to place more value on something, and have a greater appreciation for it, along with different motivations and attitudes. In a medical or caregiving setting, students might be able to demonstrate empathy towards patients or children. Students can be assessed in several ways when it comes to the affective domain, such as their ability to listen with respect and provide their unwavering attention, actively participate in class discussions, resolve conflicts and exhibit consistent and pervasive behaviours that reflect their internalized values.

5.3. The psychomotor domain in Bloom's taxonomy

The psychomotor domain is one of the later additions to Bloom's taxonomy, as the original team did not believe they had sufficient knowledge in teaching such skills at the post-secondary level. In this domain of Bloom's taxonomy, students develop manual or physical skills. There are three versions: physical movement, coordination and the use of motor skills. A student in a medical setting might demonstrate psychomotor development by properly stitching a wound; a student of construction through an understanding of how to operate a backhoe. Psychomotor skills can represent basic manual tasks, like washing a car or planting a garden, as well as more complex activities, like operating heavy machinery or following choreographed dance steps. Psychomotor skills are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures and technique.

6. How to use Bloom's taxonomy in the classroom

6.1. Using Bloom's taxonomy in lesson planning and course design

Educators can use the tools of Bloom's taxonomy to precisely focus curricula throughout the year on specific parts of the framework, ensuring that students demonstrate the proper cognitive abilities in each assignment and exam before moving on to the next.

This way, students can have clear, concise, and measurable goals to achieve. They answer questions and complete tasks based on which objective is the focus at the time, using the measurable verbs like the ones previously noted for each level to elicit the proper types of responses. For example, questions asking students to compare, discuss, and predict will help their basic understanding of a project, while the use of verbs like "investigate" and "relate" suggest that they've moved on to the analyzing stage.

Students can move from the lower to the higher levels of learning through course materials, topics, lectures, assignments and in-classroom activities that are fine-tuned to help them succeed. Following the framework of Bloom's taxonomy, assignments and classroom learning can be restructured to ensure that they fall in line with each level in succession, so students have the critical tools to move towards achieving that all-important deeper level of learning: the top of the Bloom's taxonomy pyramid.

6.2. Bloom's taxonomy and active learning

In modern classrooms, students aren't always sitting passively in front of a lecturer. Mobile devices and online course materials are the norm. It's a testament to the versatility of Bloom's taxonomy that it fits extremely well into lesson planning for active learning.

In the Remember stage of Bloom's taxonomy, instead of sitting back and absorbing information you could ask students to challenge each other to recollect facts, or make a list at the end of class of the most important facts they learned that day. And in the Analyze stage of Bloom's taxonomy, you can spark class discussion of problems, comparisons, and examining how a subject might relate to students' everyday lives.

Being explicit about expectations in class can also help guide students in the right direction-a great application of metacognition within Bloom's taxonomy. In this way, you can help students take responsibility for their own learning. For instance, in a marketing class, teachers can instruct students that, by the middle of the term, they should not only know the components of an effective TV commercial, but why each is important, and how they holistically work together to achieve the goals of the company placing the advertisement.

(You can find a comprehensive list of applied active learning tools and techniques in our free Bloom's taxonomy e-book.)

6.3. Bloom's taxonomy and formative assessment

A student's grade isn't directly impacted by ongoing, or formative, assessment,, but it's a way for educators to gauge how well students are learning, and moving up the Bloom's taxonomy hierarchy. Formative assessment is not a scale that determines the success or failure of a student, but it's used as a continued tool for teaching.

Focus on what you want students to achieve, using Bloom's taxonomy as a guide, versus whether a specific activity will contribute toward their overall grade. Develop concrete learning objectives for each stage, and give the students clear expectations. Identify what action a student would be taking with your assignment, and to which level it would apply. Then, match suggested assessment techniques and questions to the lecture, and choose activities that will encourage results.

In the Remember and Understand stage of Bloom's taxonomy in an entry-level class, for example, multiple choice or true or false questions make sense. Once you reach top Analyze, Evaluate, and Create levels of Bloom's taxonomy, whether it's in an advanced class or toward the end of the course, consider oral examinations or written essays. Even if they aren't tied to a grade, the assignments can paint a picture of how much the students have truly learned to date so educators can tweak course materials or even their approach. This will help better prepare students to succeed when it comes time for summative assessment.

6.4. Bloom's taxonomy and summative assessment

For assignments and exams that impact grading, Bloom's taxonomy can also apply. Typically, mid-term exams might cover material and learning that fits closer to the bottom of the pyramid, in remember, understanding, and applying.

When you get to the final exams, however, this is when it can be useful to assess learning towards the top of the pyramid, including analyzing, evaluating and creating.

Students should be able to apply their knowledge to everyday situations beyond course material, provide informed opinions and defend them, and consider additional questions that need to be addresses, even providing examples. Perhaps ask them to make a booklet outlining five to ten important rules, a mock marketing campaign, a flowchart, or a series of tips based on their learning. By the time you get to summative assessment, the results should indicate a deeper level of learning that fits within the top of the Bloom's taxonomy pyramid.

7. Problems with Bloom's taxonomy

Bloom's taxonomy is by no means a hard and fast rulebook that needs to be followed to a tee; it's a theoretical construct that can be interpreted in many ways to fit individual teaching styles, courses, and lesson plans. Some believe that it is only appropriate for the lower levels of learning, and that it fails to address more recent developments in cognitive psychology, including the ability for students to create knowledge in their own minds throughout the learning process. Some also frown on the idea that students must start at the lowest level and work their way up before engaging in a meaningful dialog about facts, which isn't always necessarily the case.

7.1. Creativity as a goal, not as a tool

Sometimes, creativity isn't just a goal, it's a tool that can be effectively used toward further learning. You could ask students to create something in the first lesson, like a mock advertisement in an marketing class, or a proposed solution to global warming. Educators can deconstruct and compare the results with them, and use that creative project to introduce facts, concepts, and basic knowledge of the topics. In that respect, while the components of the framework are always the same, it isn't always necessarily organized neatly into a pyramid, as with the original Bloom's taxonomy. The Bloom's taxonomy structure can morph into everything from a circle, to a web, a flower, or even a mandala (below) in design, showing each level of learning feeding into one another, and occurring at different points in the process. No matter which way you slice (or organize) Bloom's taxonomy, though, it always uses the six key principles to result in deeper learning.

Bloom's taxonomy mandala. Based on an image from K. Aainsqatsi

7.2. Over-reliance

As with any construct, there's always room for improvement and further development. With Bloom's taxonomy, the 21st-century revision proved there was in making important adjustments that helped the framework remain relevant for future decades. Sticking to the template without thinking about the reasons behind it can lead to an over-reliance of the literal interpretation of Bloom's taxonomy. Just because a student is able to defend a position, for example, doesn't mean they're doing so in anything more than a superficial way. And the ability to come up with a detailed plan isn't evidence that the plan itself is the result of good judgment and analysis. There's more than meets the eye to learning and education, but using Bloom's taxonomy as a guide to ensure all six levels are covered, in whichever way works best, can put you on the right path to success.

8. Further reading

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Bloom's Taxonomy | The Ultimate Guide To Bloom's | Top Hat

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Read this Ultimate Guide to gain a deep understanding of Bloom's taxonomy, how it has evolved over the decades and how it can be effectively applied in the learning process to benefit both educators and learners.

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By Dr. Saul McLeod updated 2018

The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:

"responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108-109)."

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism.

Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior.

Skinner wasn't the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.

Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning.

Fig 1: Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle box experiment.

He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.

Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.

Edward Thorndike put forward a " Law of effect " which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

Critical Evaluation

Thorndike (1905) introduced the concept of reinforcement and was the first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning.

His research led to many theories and laws of learning, such as operant conditioning. Skinner (1938), like Thorndike, put animals in boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn.

The learning theories of Thorndike and Pavlov were later synthesized by Hull (1935). Thorndike's research drove comparative psychology for fifty years, and influenced countless psychologists over that period of time, and even still today.

How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2018, January 14). Edward Thorndike. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html
APA Style References

Gray, P. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.) New York: Worth Publishers.

Hull, C. L. (1935). The conflicting psychologies of learning-a way out. Psychological Review, 42(6), 491.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.

Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 2(4), i-109.

Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler.

How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2018, January 14). Edward Thorndike. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html
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Edward Thorndike - Law of Effect - Simply Psychology

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By Dr. Saul McLeod updated 2018 The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that: "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, p.

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VALUES

* Please note that anything with an asterisk is just a suggestion. The diversity of options with asterisks are interchangeable and purposed to stimulate your own ideas. Any one of these suggestions could be replaced with a written paper, any form of art project (drawing, painting, music, paper mache, clay, wood, knitting/embroidery, metals, etc. etc.), an experiment, a presentation, a mindmap, a computer program, a web design project, a piece of poetry or a song, an interpretive dance or play, a group project, or anything else. What we feel is most important is that both the Learner and the Teacher agree on an exercise/activity they both feel would be maximally engaging, fun, and effective. If you come up with an idea we haven't already thought of, please share it with us.

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Information Lesson Plan: All Subjects | Any Age | Any Learning Environment | Open Source and Free-shared

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An open source/free-shared and globally collaborative lesson plan with the central theme of "Information." It is for teaching all educational subjects to all educational levels in any learning environment. Purposed for teachers and learners/students, this lesson plan is for use in community education environments, homeschool environments, traditional schooling environments, or as a supplemental and fun addition to any education program.

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Pavlov's Dog Experiment

Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. For example, dogs don't learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is 'hard-wired' into the dog.

Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food.

Pavlov's studies of classical conditioning have become famous since his early work between 1890 and 1930. Classical conditioning is "classical" in that it is the first systematic study of the basic laws of learning (also known as conditioning).

Pavlov's dogs were individually situated in secluded environments, secured within harnesses. A food bowl was positioned before them, and a device was employed to gauge the frequency of their salivary gland secretions.

The data from these measurements were systematically recorded onto a rotating drum, allowing Pavlov to meticulously monitor the rates of salivation throughout the course of the experiments.

First, the dogs were presented with the food, and they salivated. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response. (i.e., a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate)

In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his neutral stimulus. By itself, the metronome did not elicit a response from the dogs.

Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) > No Response

Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking metronome was introduced just before he gave food to his dogs. After a number of repeats (trials) of this procedure, he presented the metronome on its own.

As you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own now caused an increase in salivation.

Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) > Conditioned Response (Salivate)

So, the dog had learned an association between the metronome and the food, and a new behavior had been learned.

Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response (and also known as a Pavlovian response). The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

Temporal contiguity

Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time (such as a bell).

He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned stimulus (bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not occur.

'Unconditioning' through experimental extinction

In extinction, the conditioned stimulus (the bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (the food).

Over time, the dog stops associating the sound of the bell with the food, and the conditioned response (salivation) weakens and eventually disappears.

In other words, the conditioned response is "unconditioned" or "extinguished."

Spontaneous recovery

Pavlov noted the occurrence of "spontaneous recovery," where the conditioned response can briefly reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented after a rest period, even though the response has been extinguished.

This discovery added to the understanding of conditioning and extinction, indicating that these learned associations, while they can fade, are not completely forgotten.

Generalization

The principle of generalization suggests that after a subject has been conditioned to respond in a certain way to a specific stimulus, the subject will also respond in a similar manner to stimuli that are similar to the original one.

In Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs, he found that after conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell (which was paired with food), the dogs would also salivate in response to similar sounds, like a buzzer.

This demonstrated the principle of generalization in classical conditioning.

However, the response tends to be more pronounced when the new stimulus closely resembles the original one used in conditioning.

This relationship between the similarity of the stimulus and the strength of the response is known as the generalization gradient.

This principle has been exemplified in research, including a study conducted by Meulders and colleagues in 2013.

Impact of Pavlov's Research

Ivan Pavlov's key contribution to psychology was the discovery of classical conditioning, demonstrating how learned associations between stimuli can influence behavior.

His work laid the foundation for behaviorism, influenced therapeutic techniques, and informed our understanding of learning and memory processes.

1. Behaviorism: Pavlov's work laid the foundation for behaviorism, a major school of thought in psychology. The principles of classical conditioning have been used to explain a wide range of behaviors, from phobias to food aversions.

2. Therapy Techniques: Techniques based on classical conditioning, such as systematic desensitization and exposure therapy, have been developed to treat a variety of psychological disorders, including phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

In these therapies, a conditioned response (such as fear) can be gradually "unlearned" by changing the association between a specific stimulus and its response.

3. Little Albert Experiment: The Little Albert experiment, conducted by John B. Watson in 1920, demonstrated that emotional responses could be classically conditioned in humans. A young child, "Little Albert," was conditioned to fear a white rat, which generalized to similar objects.

4. Educational Strategies: Educational strategies, like repetitive learning and rote memorization, can be seen as applications of the principles of classical conditioning. The repeated association between stimulus and response can help to reinforce learning.

5. Marketing and Advertising: Principles from Pavlov's conditioning experiments are often used in advertising to build brand recognition and positive associations.

For instance, a brand may pair its product with appealing stimuli (like enjoyable music or attractive visuals) to create a positive emotional response in consumers, who then associate the product with it.

Critical Evaluation

Pavlovian conditioning is traditionally described as learning an association between a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US), such that the CS comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR). This fits many lab studies but misses the adaptive function of conditioning (Domjan, 2005).

From a functional perspective, conditioning likely evolves to help organisms effectively interact with biologically important unconditioned stimuli (US) in their natural environment.

For conditioning to happen naturally, the conditioned stimulus (CS) can't be arbitrary, but must have a real ecological relationship to the US as a precursor or feature of the US object.

Pavlovian conditioning prepares organisms for important biological events by conditioning compensatory responses that improve the organism's ability to cope.

The critical behavior change from conditioning may not be conditioned responses (CRs), but rather conditioned modifications of unconditioned responses (URs) to the US that improve the organism's interactions with it.

Evidence shows conditioning occurs readily with naturalistic CSs, like tastes before illness, infant cues before nursing, prey sights before attack. This conditioning is more robust and resistant to effects like blocking.

Traditional descriptions of Pavlovian conditioning as simply the acquired ability of one stimulus to evoke the original response to another stimulus paired with it are inadequate and misleading (Rescorla, 1988).

New research shows conditioning is actually about learning relationships between events, which allows organisms to build mental representations of their environment.

Just pairing stimuli together doesn't necessarily cause conditioning. It depends on whether one stimulus gives information about the other.

Conditioning rapidly encodes relations among a broad range of stimuli, not just between a neutral stimulus and one eliciting a response. The learned associations allow complex representations of the world.

Recently, Honey et al. (2020, 2022) presented simulations using an alternative model called HeiDI that accounts for Rescorla's findings. HeiDI differs by allowing reciprocal CS-US and US-CS associations. It uses consistent learning rules applied to all stimulus pairs.

The simulations suggest HeiDI explains Rescorla's results via two mechanisms:

1. Changes in US-CS associations during compound conditioning, allowing greater change in some US-CS links

2. Indirect influences of CS-CS associations enabling compounds to recruit associative strength from absent stimuli

HeiDI integrates various conditioning phenomena and retains key Rescorla-Wagner insights about surprise driving learning. However, it moves beyond the limitations of Rescorla-Wagner by providing a framework to address how learning translates into performance.

HeiDI refers to the authors of the model (Honey, Dwyer, Iliescu) as well as highlighting a key feature of the model - the bidirectional or reciprocal associations it proposes between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli.

H - Honey (the lead author's surname), ei - Bidirectional (referring to the reciprocal associations), D - Dwyer (the second author's surname), I - Iliescu (the third author's surname).

References

Domjan, M. (2005). Pavlovian conditioning: A functional perspective. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 56, 179-206.

Honey, R.C., Dwyer, D.M., & Iliescu, A.F. (2020a). HeiDI: A model for Pavlovian learning and performance with reciprocal associations. Psychological Review, 127, 829-852.

Honey, R. C., Dwyer, D. M., & Iliescu, A. F. (2022). Associative change in Pavlovian conditioning: A reappraisal. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition.

Meulders A, Vandebroek, N. Vervliet, B. and Vlaeyen, J.W.S. (2013). Generalization Gradients in Cued and Contextual Pain-Related Fear: An Experimental Study in Health Participants. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7(345). 1-12.

Pavlov, I. P. (1897/1902). The work of the digestive glands. London: Griffin.

Pavlov, I. P. (1928). Lectures on conditioned reflexes. (Translated by W.H. Gantt) London: Allen and Unwin.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Translated and edited by Anrep, GV (Oxford University Press, London, 1927).

Rescorla, R. A. (1988). Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is. American Psychologist, 43(3), 151.

Pavlov, I. P. (1955). Selected works. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House.

Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist Views It. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177.

Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of experimental psychology, 3(1), 1.

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Pavlov's Dogs Experiment & Pavlovian Conditioning Response

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Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food in front of them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant, who was bringing them the food.

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We are living in the age where constant entertainment and stimulation is necessary to keep student going on. Educators today carry huge responsibility to keep their students engaged and interested in the classroom. It is also because, today, distraction can be easily caused.

But there are a lot of ways teachers can combat distraction and engage their students in healthy learning. One of the most productive ways to combat distraction is to create engaging lesson plans; clutching student's interest meanwhile providing valuable content is a win-win situation.

We took this question to social media platform and asked a number of educators on how they plan their lessons to keep their student interested as well as provide valuable content.

"I would say, we need a variation of activities to meet the students' different needs (visuals, audios, writing, and reading on paper or on tablet). I use songs and podcasts from YouTube, Kagan activities (Group activities, moving around the class, partner work on paper), I make them create Videos, Audios, Podcasts, do practical exercises and research on Internet, games(real ones and online), Projects are also very popular among my students." Says one of the educator.

21st century teaching involves integrating technology. Today a number of educators are including technology in their lesson plans to help student to develop 21st century skills like critical thinking, collaboration, team work, etc.

Other says, "I use Camtasia to create my short videos that allow students to work at their own pace as I walk around assisting those who might have trouble. I also walk around and provide more depth as they work. The lessons usually involve tapping into their creativity. I use Google Apps for many of my classroom projects: Website building; creating surveys; collaborating with stories with Google Docs, etc."

Not every educator believes that integrating technology in their 21st century lesson plans is the only way to make it engaging, they believe in keeping the right balance with the technology in their lesson plans.

Randy Matusky, a secondary school educator explains, "I like to construct my lesson plans based on a layer template. What I mean is that the first layer of the lesson is for when I'm completely cut-off of any technology in the classroom. Hopefully this doesn't occur often, but it still can and we need to be prepared or else it'll just be a waste of a lesson.

Each additional layer of the lesson is for when I have access to another form of technology, be it a projector, wifi access or a laptop/iPad cart for the students. I know this sounds complicated, and it takes time, which is a resource most teachers don't really have, but over time it becomes second nature and you don't really need to think about it. I like thinking about it as if a carpenter was asked to build a piece of furniture.

In scenario one the carpenter only has access to basic tools, such as a hammer and a handsaw. In scenario two the carpenter has access to his entire work tools. The carpenter's design plan will drastically change depending on which of these two scenarios he/she's facing. It's the same for educators and technology."

Being an educator and preparing lesson plan for a number of students with different mental level, background and intellectually ability is really a challenging task. Here are some tips that may assist you in this.
Identify Learning Objective
The first thing you need to do is to determine the leaning objective for your class. To help to identify the learning objectives answer these questions:

Topic of the lesson?

What do you want your students to learn?

What do you want your student to do at the end of class?

What do to help them to learn after the particular lesson?

More importantly

What are the crucial ideas, skills and concepts you want to your students to learn and apply?

If out of time then which topics to be left and which not?

Introduction
Now when you have identified the learning objectives, it's time to develop the introduction. Consider these questions while writing introduction of the learning objectives.

What/How will I introduce the topic

How do I check if the students have any knowledge about the topic or not?

What are the common ideas about the topic that students might know?

Plan to explain the body of the topic in detail
These important questions will help you to write effective body of you lesson plan.

What will you do to illustrate and explain the topic in a distinct way?

How will you engage the student in the topic?

What are the relevant real-life instances and situation, you will use to explain topic better?

Check the Student's Understanding
It is important to check the understanding of the student about a topic right after explain the topic. Form the questions that you will ask to your students to check their understanding.
Summarize and Preview
You can do this in a number of ways:

Revise the main points by yourself

Ask any one or two student to summarize it

Or ask students to write what they think the important point of the lesson was.

Always conclude the lesson by summarizing the current lesson as well as previewing the next chapter.

You can do all these things by using various apps available over the Internet. These apps have amazing features that will let you to organize everything. Some of the apps are listed here:

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How to Plan Lessons to Engage 21st Century Students

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A must read

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Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, is a theory of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.

By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.

Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.

The work of Skinner was rooted in the view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike's (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior that is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a " " which was similar to Thorndike's puzzle box.

A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to objectively record an animal's behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.

Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers. As a child, you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences.

For example, when you were younger, if you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.

If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. In positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.

Primary reinforcers are stimuli that are naturally reinforcing because they are not learned and directly satisfy a need, such as food or water.

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that are reinforced through their association with a primary reinforcer, such as money, school grades. They do not directly satisfy an innate need but may be the means. So a secondary reinforcer can be just as powerful a motivator as a primary reinforcer.

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so that a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.

The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food, if they pressed the lever, ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward), you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

The Premack principle is a form of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning. It suggests using a preferred activity (high-probability behavior) as a reward for completing a less preferred one (low-probability behavior).

This method incentivizes the less desirable behavior by associating it with a desirable outcome, thus strengthening the less favored behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a response.

This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is 'rewarding' to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever.

Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

In fact, Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current from being switched on.

These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.

Punishment (weakens behavior)

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone's pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

They are two distinct methods of punishment used to decrease the likelihood of a specific behavior occurring again, but they involve different types of consequences:

1. Positive Punishment:

Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus or something unpleasant immediately following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future.

It aims to weaken the target behavior by associating it with an undesirable consequence.

Example: A child receives a scolding (an aversive stimulus) from their parent immediately after hitting their sibling. This is intended to decrease the likelihood of the child hitting their sibling again.

2. Negative Punishment:

Negative punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus or something rewarding immediately following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future.

It aims to weaken the target behavior by taking away something the individual values or enjoys.

Example: A teenager loses their video game privileges (a desirable stimulus) for not completing their chores. This is intended to decrease the likelihood of the teenager neglecting their chores in the future.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.

Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.

Does not necessarily guide you toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, and punishment only tells you what not to do.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

1. Positive Reinforcement: Suppose you are a coach and want your team to improve their passing accuracy in soccer. When the players execute accurate passes during training, you praise their technique. This positive feedback encourages them to repeat the correct passing behavior.

2. Negative Reinforcement: If you notice your team working together effectively and exhibiting excellent team spirit during a tough training session, you might end the training session earlier than planned, which the team perceives as a relief. They understand that teamwork leads to positive outcomes, reinforcing team behavior.

3. Negative Punishment: If an office worker continually arrives late, their manager might revoke the privilege of flexible working hours. This removal of a positive stimulus encourages the employee to be punctual.

4. Positive Reinforcement: Training a cat to use a litter box can be achieved by giving it a treat each time it uses it correctly. The cat will associate the behavior with the reward and will likely repeat it.

5. Negative Punishment: If teenagers stay out past their curfew, their parents might take away their gaming console for a week. This makes the teenager more likely to respect their curfew in the future to avoid losing something they value.

6. Ineffective Punishment: Your child refuses to finish their vegetables at dinner. You punish them by not allowing dessert, but the child still refuses to eat vegetables next time. The punishment seems ineffective.

7. Premack Principle Application: You could motivate your child to eat vegetables by offering an activity they love after they finish their meal. For instance, for every vegetable eaten, they get an extra five minutes of video game time. They value video game time, which might encourage them to eat vegetables.

8. Other Premack Principle Examples:

A student who dislikes history but loves art might earn extra time in the art studio for each history chapter reviewed.

For every 10 minutes a person spends on household chores, they can spend 5 minutes on a favorite hobby.

For each successful day of healthy eating, an individual allows themselves a small piece of dark chocolate at the end of the day.

A child can choose between taking out the trash or washing the dishes. Giving them the choice makes them more likely to complete the chore willingly.

Skinner's Pigeon Experiment

B.F. Skinner conducted several experiments with pigeons to demonstrate the principles of operant conditioning.

One of the most famous of these experiments is often colloquially referred to as " Superstition in the Pigeon."

This experiment was conducted to explore the effects of non-contingent reinforcement on pigeons, leading to some fascinating observations that can be likened to human superstitions.

Non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) refers to a method in which rewards (or reinforcements) are delivered independently of the individual's behavior. In other words, the reinforcement is given at set times or intervals, regardless of what the individual is doing.

The Experiment:

1. Pigeons were brought to a state of hunger, reduced to 75% of their well-fed weight.

2. They were placed in a cage with a food hopper that could be presented for five seconds at a time.

3. Instead of the food being given as a result of any specific action by the pigeon, it was presented at regular intervals, regardless of the pigeon's behavior.

Observation:

1. Over time, Skinner observed that the pigeons began to associate whatever random action they were doing when food was delivered with the delivery of the food itself.

2. This led the pigeons to repeat these actions, believing (in anthropomorphic terms) that their behavior was causing the food to appear.

Findings:

1. In most cases, pigeons developed different "superstitious" behaviors or rituals. For instance, one pigeon would turn counter-clockwise between food presentations, while another would thrust its head into a cage corner.

2. These behaviors did not appear until the food hopper was introduced and presented periodically.

3. These behaviors were not initially related to the food delivery but became linked in the pigeon's mind due to the coincidental timing of the food dispensing.

4. The behaviors seemed to be associated with the environment, suggesting the pigeons were responding to certain aspects of their surroundings.

5. The rate of reinforcement (how often the food was presented) played a significant role. Shorter intervals between food presentations led to more rapid and defined conditioning.

6. Once a behavior was established, the interval between reinforcements could be increased without diminishing the behavior.

Superstitious Behavior:

The pigeons began to act as if their behaviors had a direct effect on the presentation of food, even though there was no such connection. This is likened to human superstitions, where rituals are believed to change outcomes, even if they have no real effect.

For example, a card player might have rituals to change their luck, or a bowler might make gestures believing they can influence a ball already in motion.

Conclusion:

This experiment demonstrates that behaviors can be conditioned even without a direct cause-and-effect relationship. Just like humans, pigeons can develop "superstitious" behaviors based on coincidental occurrences.

This study not only sheds light on the intricacies of operant conditioning but also draws parallels between animal and human behaviors in the face of random reinforcements.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Imagine a rat in a "Skinner box." In operant conditioning, if no food pellet is delivered immediately after the lever is pressed then after several attempts the rat stops pressing the lever (how long would someone continue to go to work if their employer stopped paying them?). The behavior has been extinguished.

Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on

1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).

2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).

Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e., people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable-ratio reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous reinforcement.

(A) Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is SLOW

Extinction rate is FAST

(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is MEDIUM

Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing.

Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is SLOW

Applications

1. Behavior Modification Therapy

Behavior modification is a set of therapeutic techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person's behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones.

This is not as simple as it sounds - always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is basically bribery.

There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a reward strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer.

Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping.

Token Economy

Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).

Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards can range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities. For example, teachers use token economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good behavior.

Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However, the patients can become over-reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to society once they leave prison, hospital, etc.

Staff implementing a token economy program have a lot of power. It is important that staff do not favor or ignore certain individuals if the program is to work. Therefore, staff need to be trained to give tokens fairly and consistently even when there are shift changes such as in prisons or in a psychiatric hospital.

Behavior Shaping

A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time.

In shaping, the form of an existing response is gradually changed across successive trials towards a desired target behavior by rewarding exact segments of behavior.

To do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.

According to Skinner, most animal and human behavior (including language) can be explained as a product of this type of successive approximation.

2. Educational Applications

In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance.

A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g., compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation.

A variable-ratio produces the highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initial reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced.

For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be praised.

Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them). This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However, it is important to vary the type of reinforcement given so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

Operant Conditioning vs. Classical Conditioning

Learning Type

While both types of conditioning involve learning, classical conditioning is passive (automatic response to stimuli), while operant conditioning is active (behavior is influenced by consequences).

Classical conditioning links an involuntary response with a stimulus. It happens passively on the part of the learner, without rewards or punishments. An example is a dog salivating at the sound of a bell associated with food.

Operant conditioning connects voluntary behavior with a consequence. Operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action to be rewarded or punished. It's active, with the learner's behavior influenced by rewards or punishments. An example is a dog sitting on command to get a treat.

Learning Process

Classical conditioning involves learning through associating stimuli resulting in involuntary responses, while operant conditioning focuses on learning through consequences, shaping voluntary behaviors.

Learning by Association (Classical Conditioning): In learning by association, a person (or animal) learns to associate two stimuli, causing a behavior change. A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Over time, the person responds to the neutral stimulus as if it were the unconditioned stimulus, even when presented alone. The response is involuntary and automatic.

An example is a dog salivating (response) at the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) after it has been repeatedly paired with food (unconditioned stimulus).

Learning by Consequences (Operant Conditioning): In learning by consequences, behavior is learned based on its outcomes or consequences. The learner is active, and the response is voluntary.
Behavior followed by pleasant consequences (rewards) is more likely to be repeated, while behavior followed by unpleasant consequences (punishments) is less likely to be repeated.

For instance, if a child gets praised (pleasant consequence) for cleaning their room (behavior), they're more likely to clean their room in the future.

Conversely, if they get scolded (unpleasant consequence) for not doing their homework, they're more likely to complete it next time to avoid the scolding.

Timing of Stimulus & Response

The timing of the response relative to the stimulus differs between classical and operant conditioning:

Classical Conditioning (response after the stimulus): In this form of conditioning, the response occurs after the stimulus. The behavior (response) is determined by what precedes it (stimulus).

For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the dogs started to salivate (response) after they heard the bell (stimulus) because they associated it with food.

Operant Conditioning (response before the stimulus): In this form of conditioning, the response generally occurs before the consequence (which acts as the stimulus for future behavior).
The anticipated consequence influences the behavior or what follows it. It is a more active form of learning, where behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus influencing their likelihood of repetition.

For example, a child might behave well (behavior) in anticipation of a reward (consequence), or avoid a certain behavior to prevent a potential punishment.

Summary

Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons' / rat's behavior we can identify some of the major assumptions of the behaviorist approach.

* Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner's study of behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.

* Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats learned to press a lever because they wanted food. He instead concentrated on describing the easily observed behavior that the rats acquired.

* The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study, because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that behavior, e.g., operant conditioning.

* There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Therefore research (e.g., operant conditioning) can be carried out on animals (Rats / Pigeons) as well as on humans. Skinner proposed that the way humans learn behavior is much the same as the way the rats learned to press a lever.

So, if your layperson's idea of psychology has always been of people in laboratories wearing white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then you are probably thinking of behavioral psychology.

Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the psychological perspectives. The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we learn to behave in certain ways.

We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior. behavioral psychology is the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes place.

Critical Evaluation

Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the process of learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It also has practical applications (such as token economy) which can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals.

Researchers have found innovative ways to apply operant conditioning principles to promote health and habit change in humans.

In a recent study, operant conditioning using virtual reality (VR) helped stroke patients use their weakened limb more often during rehabilitation. Patients shifted their weight in VR games by maneuvering a virtual object. When they increased weight on their weakened side, they received rewards like stars. This positive reinforcement conditioned greater paretic limb use (Kumar et al., 2019).

Another study utilized operant conditioning to assist smoking cessation. Participants earned vouchers exchangeable for goods and services for reducing smoking. This reward system reinforced decreasing cigarette use. Many participants achieved long-term abstinence (Dallery et al., 2017).

Through repeated reinforcement, operant conditioning can facilitate forming exercise and eating habits. A person trying to exercise more might earn TV time for every 10 minutes spent working out. An individual aiming to eat healthier may allow themselves a daily dark chocolate square for sticking to nutritious meals. Providing consistent rewards for desired actions can instill new habits (Michie et al., 2009).

Apps like Habitica apply operant conditioning by gamifying habit tracking. Users earn points and collect rewards in a fantasy game for completing real-life habits. This virtual reinforcement helps ingrain positive behaviors (Eckerstorfer et al., 2019).

Operant conditioning also shows promise for managing ADHD and OCD. Rewarding concentration and focus in ADHD children, for example, can strengthen their attention skills (Rosén et al., 2018). Similarly, reinforcing OCD patients for resisting compulsions may diminish obsessive behaviors (Twohig et al., 2018).

However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals.

For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of insight rather than be trial and error learning. Also, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal experience.

The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation. Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy and physiology is different from humans, and they cannot think about their experiences and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who discovered operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning was discovered by B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, in the mid-20th century. Skinner is often regarded as the father of operant conditioning, and his work extensively dealt with the mechanism of reward and punishment for behaviors, with the concept being that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are reinforced, while those followed by negative outcomes are discouraged.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning, focusing on how voluntary behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences, such as rewards and punishments.

In operant conditioning, a behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow it. In contrast, classical conditioning involves the association of a neutral stimulus with a natural response, creating a new learned response.

While both types of conditioning involve learning and behavior modification, operant conditioning emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping voluntary behavior.

How does operant conditioning relate to social learning theory?

Operant conditioning is a core component of social learning theory, which emphasizes the importance of observational learning and modeling in acquiring and modifying behavior.

Social learning theory suggests that individuals can learn new behaviors by observing others and the consequences of their actions, which is similar to the reinforcement and punishment processes in operant conditioning.

By observing and imitating models, individuals can acquire new skills and behaviors and modify their own behavior based on the outcomes they observe in others.

Overall, both operant conditioning and social learning theory highlight the importance of environmental factors in shaping behavior and learning.

What are the downsides of operant conditioning?

The downsides of using operant conditioning on individuals include the potential for unintended negative consequences, particularly with the use of punishment. Punishment may lead to increased aggression or avoidance behaviors.

Additionally, some behaviors may be difficult to shape or modify using operant conditioning techniques, particularly when they are highly ingrained or tied to complex internal states.

Furthermore, individuals may resist changing their behaviors to meet the expectations of others, particularly if they perceive the demands or consequences of the reinforcement or punishment to be undesirable or unjust.

What is an application of bf skinner's operant conditioning theory?

An application of B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning theory is seen in education and classroom management. Teachers use positive reinforcement (rewards) to encourage good behavior and academic achievement, and negative reinforcement or punishment to discourage disruptive behavior.

For example, a student may earn extra recess time (positive reinforcement) for completing homework on time, or lose the privilege to use class computers (negative punishment) for misbehavior.

Video

Further Reading

References

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Dallery, J., Meredith, S., & Glenn, I. M. (2017). A deposit contract method to deliver abstinence reinforcement for cigarette smoking. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50(2), 234-248.

Eckerstorfer, L., Tanzer, N. K., Vogrincic-Haselbacher, C., Kedia, G., Brohmer, H., Dinslaken, I., & Corbasson, R. (2019). Key elements of mHealth interventions to successfully increase physical activity: Meta-regression. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 7(11), e12100.

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Kohler, W. (1924). The mentality of apes. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Kumar, D., Sinha, N., Dutta, A., & Lahiri, U. (2019). Virtual reality-based balance training system augmented with operant conditioning paradigm. Biomedical Engineering Online, 18(1), 1-23.

Michie, S., Abraham, C., Whittington, C., McAteer, J., & Gupta, S. (2009). Effective techniques in healthy eating and physical activity interventions: A meta-regression. Health Psychology, 28(6), 690-701.

Rosén, E., Westerlund, J., Rolseth, V., Johnson R. M., Viken Fusen, A., Årmann, E., Ommundsen, R., Lunde, L.-K., Ulleberg, P., Daae Zachrisson, H., & Jahnsen, H. (2018). Effects of QbTest-guided ADHD treatment: A randomized controlled trial. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(4), 447-459.

Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition'in the pigeon. Journal of experimental psychology, 38(2), 168.

Schunk, D. (2016). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Pearson.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.

Skinner, B. F. (1948). Superstition" in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.

Skinner, B. F. (1951). How to teach animals. Freeman.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 2(4), i-109.

Twohig, M. P., Whittal, M. L., Cox, J. M., & Gunter, R. (2010). An initial investigation into the processes of change in ACT, CT, and ERP for OCD. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 6(2), 67-83.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Saul Mcleod, PhD
Educator, Researcher

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Operant Conditioning In Psychology: B.F. Skinner Theory

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Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. B.F Skinner is regarded as the father of operant conditioning and introduced a new term to behavioral psychology, reinforcement.

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AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT SUGGESTIONS
Good lesson planning is essential to the process of teaching and learning.A teacher who is prepared is well on his/her way to a successful instructional experience.The development of interesting lessons takes a great deal of time and effort.As a new teacher you must be committed to spending the necessary time in this endeavor.

It is also important to realize that the best planned lesson is worthless if interesting delivery procedures, along with good classroom management techniques, are not in evidence.There is a large body of research available pertaining to lesson development and delivery and the significance of classroom management.They are skills that must be researched, structured to your individual style, implemented in a teacher/learning situation, and constantly evaluated and revamped when necessary.Consistency is of the utmost importance in the implementation of a classroom management plan.

All teachers should understand that they are not an island unto themselves.The educational philosophy of the district and the uniqueness of their schools should be the guiding force behind what takes place in the classroom.The school's code of discipline, which should be fair, responsible and meaningful, must be reflected in every teacher's classroom management efforts.

SUGGESTED PRACTICES

Establish a positive classroom environment

Make the classroom a pleasant, friendly place

Accept individual differences

Learning activities should be cooperative and supportive

Create a non-threatening learning environment

Organize physical space; eliminate situations that my be dangerous or disruptive

Establish classroom rules and procedures and consistently reinforce them

Begin lessons by giving clear instructions

State desired quality of work

Have students paraphrase directions

Ensure that everyone is paying attention

Ensure that all distractions have been removed

Describe expectations, activities and evaluation procedures

Start with a highly motivating activity

Build lesson upon prior student knowledge

Maintain student attention

Use random selection in calling upon students

Vary who you call on and how you call on them

Ask questions before calling on a student; wait at least five seconds for a response

Be animated; show enthusiasm and interest

Reinforce student efforts with praise

Vary instructional methods

Provide work of appropriate difficulty

Demonstrate and model the types of responses or tasks you want students to perform

Provide guided practice for students; monitor responses and deliver immediate corrective feedback

Use appropriate pacing

Be aware of your teaching tempo

Watch for cues that children are becoming confused, bored or restless;sometimes lesson have to be shortened

Provide suitable seatwork

Seatwork should be diagnostic and prescriptive

Develop procedures for seeking assistance; have a "help" signal

Develop procedures for what to do when finished

Move around to monitor seatwork

Vary methods of practice

Evaluate what has taken place in your lesson

Summarize the lesson and focus on positive gains made by students; use surprise reinforcers as a direct result of their good behavior

Determine if the lesson was successful; were goals accomplished?

Make a smooth transition into next subject

Have materials ready for next lesson

Maintain attention of students until you have given clear instructions for the next activity

Do not do tasks that can be done by students (i.e. passing out paper or collecting assignments); use monitors

Move around and attend to individual needs

Provide simple, step-by-step instructions

Utilize a freeze and listen signal, when necessary

Develop positive teacher/student relationships

Set a good example; be a positive role model

Create an exciting learning environment for all students

Reward good behavior; create special activities that children will enjoy doing

Correct misbehaviors; have consequences of disruptive behavior; communicate them to children

Handling disruptions

Keep is short and simple (KISS)

Use a warning system

Defer disruptive behavior proactively (eye contact, close space between you and student, use head/hand gestures)

Help students be successful

Use planned ignoring (and teach other student to also ignore)

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EFFECTIVE LESSON PLANNING, DELIVERY TECHNIQUES

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AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT SUGGESTIONS Good lesson planning is essential to the process of teaching and learning.A teacher who is prepared is well on his/her way to a successful instructional experience.The development of interesting lessons takes a great deal of time and effort.As a new teacher you must be committed to spending the necessary time in this endeavor.

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Examples, stages, the classroom and more

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Classical Conditioning | Simply Psychology

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Classical conditioning is learning through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.

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Differences

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The difference between classical and operant conditioning - Peggy Andover

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Three ideas for fostering collaboration, critical thinking, communication, and creativity with easy-to-use apps and tools.

©Shutterstock/Monkey Business Images

Collaboration, critical thinking, communication, and creativity are the 4 Cs of a 21st-century learner, according to the Partnership for 21st Century Learning. Given that technology use continues to expand in schools, it's worthwhile to think of how that technology can function in assignments designed to develop the skills our students need.

Communication and Creativity: Personal Narrative Podcast

Stories are a powerful learning tool in the classroom. For an 11th-grade narrative unit, I asked students to analyze classic narrative essays such as George Orwell's "Shooting an Elephant" and Amy Tan's "Mother Tongue" using the traditional plot diagram and paying attention to literary narrative devices. Next, they explored contemporary personal narratives from NPR's This I Believe series and chose three essays to read based on their interests. Then I asked them to compose their own personal narratives to share an important event in their lives.

Most of my students were not familiar with podcasts, so as a class we explored a few episodes from NPR's This American Life series-listening to them together and then discussing oral storytelling techniques. Students then individually chose several This I Believe audio clips to further their knowledge of storytelling.

After becoming familiar with the world of podcasting, students used GarageBand to create their own podcasts, integrating elements such as sound effects and music. (I've given the names of the tools we used in my class, but there are a lot of others you can use with these kinds of assignments.) Some students chose to work together on interview-style podcasts, while others worked individually to create dramatic renderings of their personal events.

The stories students told were highly engaging and ranged from grieving over a lost grandmother to being surrounded by lions while in a tent on a safari to competing in a swim meet event for the first time. Through creativity and communication, students were able to share a personal event that enriched their lives, and that sharing further connected them as a classroom community.

Critical Thinking and Creativity: Visual Interpretation of Poetry

Like many teachers, I've found over the years that students are hesitant to explore poetry. However, doing so is an excellent way to develop critical thinking skills. For a 10th-grade poetry unit, I had students read traditional poems such as Wilfred Owen's "Dulce et Decorum Est" and Emily Dickinson's "Because I could not stop for Death," and analyze the poetic devices in them.

To add a visual element, I had students watch selected contemporary poems from the Poetry Foundation's Poem Videos series, which we then discussed as a class. I left some time at the end of the lesson for students to explore some of the videos on their own.

They then chose a poem to use in creating a visual interpretation using iMovie or other video-making platforms of their choice. They were elated to be able to choose their poems, selecting texts that were meaningful to them. The only requirement for the video was that it should include an explicit interpretation of the theme or message of the poem.

The videos the students created were representative of their personal interpretations and varied in format from live action to photographic images to personal drawings to stop motion. Giving students agency to choose and analyze a poem resulted in engaging videos that reflected their burgeoning critical thinking and creative skills.

Collaboration: Group Research Paper

While collaborative work is a necessary skill in the 21st century, students are often hesitant to work in groups, fearful of being stuck with all of work. I addressed that fear in an 11th-grade unit on The Merchant of Venice by having students divide an assigned research question into three or four subtopics depending on the number of people in the group-each individual had his or her own responsibility as the groups explored the cultural and contextual background of the play and then wrote a collaborative research paper.

Using NoodleTools, a virtual collaboration environment, groups created a shared project accessible through their individual student accounts. They shared their projects with me, so I was able to monitor group participation and answer any questions they had right there within the project.

Each individual was responsible for creating one virtual source card and three virtual note cards on his or her subtopic. The source and note cards are individually tracked, but are compiled together by groups online, so students were able to easily share and view each other's work in the virtual environment.

Each group then created and shared a Google Doc through NoodleTools, and students wrote individual sections on one group document. Each group wrote an introduction together and created a reference page in MLA format together. The result for each group was a single research paper with both individual and collaborative input. My students found NoodleTools incredibly easy to use, and no one reported feeling frustrated at having to submit group work that was created by only one or two individuals.

These are just some of the ways the 4 Cs can be developed through technology in the secondary classroom. The beauty of technology nowadays is that there are many variations on how it can enhance student learning and motivation.

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Three ideas for fostering collaboration, critical thinking, communication, and creativity with easy-to-use apps and tools.

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Behaviorism, also known as behavioral learning theory, is a theoretical perspective in psychology that emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in understanding human and animal actions.

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Register for free and download

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Browse Lesson Plans. Award winning educational materials designed to help kids succeed. Start for free now!

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The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of operant and classical condition - SU5

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The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of operant and classical condition - SU5

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Textbook: additional material (click the link: https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.nwulib.nwu.ac.za/lib/northwu-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1695067 )

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Textbook: additional material (click on the link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1A8UVAGKrfCqB1frfx5NDmuXip5Jz5gYA/view?usp=sharing )

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information about 10 tips for lesson planning

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Articles for teachers on 10 Tips for Lesson Planning, including tips and strategies that work.

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Cognitive learning theories - theoretical statements - SU5

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Cognitive learning theories - theoretical statements - SU5

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Theories of Piaget, Bruner and Ausubel: explications and implications (follow the link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CQUKEkCMmr_xtdn5RnGdI5Pj6RdrAaZF/view?usp=sharing )

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Prescribed textbook (for EDCC 114) - 5th edition (Buy at Van Schaik)

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15 reasons why having a lesson plan is important

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15 reasons why having a lesson plan is important

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15 Reasons Why Having a Lesson Plan is Important | Edsys

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A lesson plan provides a teaching framework about what and how to teach. Here are 10 reasons that support this tool for both the learners and teachers.

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Criterion vs. Norm referenced assessment SU3

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Criterion vs. Norm referenced assessment SU3

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Criterion vs Norm Referenced Assessment: Examples & Evaluation

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An explanation of positive and negative reinforcement

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Operant conditioning: Positive-and-negative reinforcement and punishment | MCAT | Khan Academy

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Teaching and Learning strategies - SU2-6

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Teaching and Learning strategies - SU2-6

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Textbook: additional material (click on link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1SVVYWRpCGoYwlyroKQT4u_FehNQhkU_C/view?usp=sharing )

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Basic assumptions

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Throughout history many psychologists and educators have and continue to address the different ways humans beings learn. The Cognitive Psychology theory is one of many different approaches trying to answer such perennial question. This site was created to provide the reader with the basic assumptions of this theoretical perspective.

This learning theory asserts that cognitive processess influence how and what people actually learn: Cognitivists believe that the mental processes individuals experience while trying to remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate or create will largely affect weather or not they will reach their learnin goals.

Contrary to the behaviorist learning theory, this theorical perspective claims that some cognitive process can be deduced from observation: By observing how people react to different stimuli , cognitivists believe they can study and/or even measure some of the mental processes of an individual.

Cognitive theoriests believe that human beings are selective about their learning: They believe that the human brain is uncapable of perceiving and effectively interpreting everything one encounters on a daily basis. As such, this theoriests believe that all individuals chose what information they will actually process, examine, and utilize, while ignoring all other stimuli.

The learner is the only builder of knowledge: The construction process of knowledge does not result from the environment or from the lesson at hand, but from the what individuals do with the different information they have received. People take information from their environment or from their teachers and use it in their own idiosyncratic way to construct their understanding or knowledge of the topic at hand. This new formed meaning or understanding may or may not closely reflect the original learning objective. Misconstruction does occur.

The human brain goes through multiple changes as people age: With the passage of time and the experiences human beings acquired thru it , most individuals will develop increasingly sophisticated cognitive abilities. Such maturational brain changes may explain adults' progressive ability to hold attention for longer periods of time, and the ability to encode and retrieve information more effectively.

Learning how to learn more effectively requires assistance:

Educators can help students develop the skills and expertise necessary to properly use knowledge. By helping learners develop effective learning strategies such as: heuristics, critical thinking, frequently self-monitoring, identification of key information, note taking, etc... students can become successful learners.

Knowledge is a complicated concept:

Educators must strive to teach learners the true nature of knowledge. Knowledge cannot be obtained from a passive absorption of facts, learning requires an active construction, a manipulation and evaluation of said facts. Learners must also evaluate the relationship between their new found knowledge and their existing knowledge, as well as striving to understand how such wisdom can be transferred to other skills or areas of life. Lastly, learners must realize that the effective acquisition of knowledge is not an easy task. Mastering complex topics or skills usually requires lots of work and dedication. The effective educators and learners are those who are willing to dedicate themselves at the difficult task at hand.

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Throughout history many psychologists and educators have and continue to address the different ways humans beings learn. The Cognitive Psychology theory is one of many different approaches trying to answer such perennial question. This site was created to provide the reader with the basic assumptions of this theoretical perspective.

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Interactive teaching is all about instructing the students in a way they are actively involved with their learning process. There are different ways to create an involvement like this. Most of the time it's through

teacher-student interaction

student-student interaction

the use of audio, visuals, video

hands-on demonstrations and exercises

You encourage your students to be active members of your class, thinking on their own, using their brains, resulting in long-term memory retention. Not only the students' knowledge will improve, but their interest, strength, knowledge, team spirit and freedom of expression will increase as well.

In this blog post, I will talk about the use of interactive methods for teaching, encouraging more dedication towards the lesson material. We will see some interactive teaching tools, interactive teaching ideas, and interactive teaching games.
Not only will I talk about the use of interactive methods of teaching, but I'll also give you some examples of methods used in the present classroom as well.

Ready? Let's find out some interactive classroom activities to engage your pupils!

3 Effective interactive teaching strategies to encourage speech in your classroom

First, I want to put some activities in the spotlight. The following interactive student activities are three of the most effective ways to encourage more speech in your classroom.

1. Think, pair and share

Set a problem or a question around a certain topic, and pair up your students. Give each pair of students enough time so they can reach a proper conclusion, and permit the kids to share their conclusion in their voice. This way your students will be engaged, communicating, and remember more of the class than ever before.

2. Brainstorming

Interactive brainstorming is mostly performed in group sessions. The process is useful for generating creative thoughts and ideas. Brainstorming helps students learn to work together, and above all, learn from each other. You'll be surprised by all the great ideas they come up with! Check out these 8 fun brainstorming apps you can use in your classroom, or use BookWidgets' Mindmap widget to structure thinking.

3. Buzz session

Participants come together in session groups that focus on a single topic. Within each group, every student contributes thoughts and ideas. Encourage discussion and collaboration among the students within each group. Everyone should learn from each other's input and experiences. As a teacher, you could give your students some keywords to spark the conversation.

Of course, there are many other interactive teaching ideas as well. I split up the activities in different categories:

Individual student activities

Student pair activities

Student group activities

Interactive game activities

Individual student activities

4. Exit slips

These are best used at the end of the class session. You'll ask the students to write for one minute on a specific question. It might be generalized to "what was the most important thing you learned today". Then, you can decide if you are going to open up a conversation about it in your next class. You can ask them if they still remember what they wrote down. Need a digital exit slip template? Try this one from BookWidgets and learn more about the possibilities of an exit slip. Looking for inspiration? Check this out! You will find 60 examples of digital exit tickets.

5. Misconception check

Discover students' misconceptions. See if students can identify what is the correct answer when given a false fact. It's useful when going over a previous lesson. It encourages students to think deeply and wager all the possibilities.

6. Circle the questions

Make a worksheet or a survey that has a list of questions (make them specific) about your topic, and ask students to circle (or check) the ones they don't know the answers to. Then, let them turn in the paper.

Create corners concerning different questions that were circled. Let your students work on the extra exercises and explanation in the corners, individually. As your students will all have circled different questions, you have to give each student a different and personalized order to visit the corners.

7. Ask the winner

Ask students to silently solve a problem on the board. After revealing the answer, instruct those who got it right to raise their hands (and keep them raised). Then, all other students have to talk to someone with a raised hand to better understand the question and how to solve it next time.

Student pair activities

8. Pair-share-repeat

After a Think-pair-share experience, which I've written about in the first interactive learning lesson idea, you can also ask students to find a new partner and share the wisdom of the old partnership to this new partner.

9. Teacher and student

Let students brainstorm the main points of the last lesson. Then, pair up your students and assign them 2 roles. One of them is the teacher, and the other the student. The teacher's job is to sketch the main points, while the student's job is to cross off points on his list as they are mentioned and come up with 2 to 3 points that the teacher missed.

10. Wisdom from another

After an individual brainstorm or creative activity, pair students to share their results. Then, call for volunteers who found their partner's work to be interesting or exemplary. Students are often more willing to share the work of fellow students publicly than their work. Of course, you can always encourage sharing their objectives as well.

11. Forced debate

Let students debate in pairs. Students must defend the opposite side of their personal opinion. It encourages them to step away from their own beliefs and teaches them to look through a different colored glass once in a while.

Variation: one half of the class takes one position, the other half takes the other position. Students line up and face each other. Each student may only speak once so that all students on both sides can engage the issue.

12. Optimist/Pessimist

In pairs, students take opposite emotional sides of a case study, statement, or topic. Encourage them to be empathic and truly "live" the case study. You'll discover some good solution proposals and your students will learn some exceptional social skills.

13. Peer review writing task

To assist students with a writing assignment, encourage them to exchange drafts with a partner. The partner reads the essay and writes a three-paragraph response: the first paragraph outlines the strengths of the essay, the second paragraph discusses the essay's problems, and the third paragraph is a description of what the partner would focus on in revision if it were her essay. Students can learn a lot from each other and themselves as well! Here are 10 more creative self-assessment ideas.

Student group activities

14. Board rotation

This interactive learning strategy is even more interactive than others! Divide your class into different groups of students and assign them to each of the boards you've set up in the room. Assign one topic/question per board. After each group writes an answer, they rotate to the next board. Here, they write their answer below the first answer of the previous group. Let them go around the room until all the groups have covered all the boards. Not that many boards in your classroom? Try using tablets and BookWidgets' interactive whiteboard.

15. Pick the Winner

Divide the class into groups and let them work on the same topic/problem. Let them record an answer/strategy on paper or digitally. Then, ask the groups to switch with a nearby group and let them evaluate their answer. After a few minutes, allow each set of groups to merge and ask them to select the best answer from the two choices, which will be presented to the complete class.

16. Movie Application

In groups, students discuss examples of movies that made use of a concept or event discussed in class, trying to identify at least one way the movie makers got it right, and one way they got it wrong. Think about movies showing historical facts, geographical facts, biographies of famous people, ...

Interactive game activities

Create an interactive classroom full of interactive learning games. Games are so much fun for students since it doesn't feel like learning. With BookWidgets, you can make interactive learning games like crossword puzzles, pair matching games, bingo games, jigsaw puzzles, memory games, and many more in minutes (and there's a Google Classroom integration as well).

17. Crossword puzzle

The crossword game is perfect to use as repetition activity. Choose a list of words and their description, and BookWidgets creates an interactive crossword for you. The crossword game transforms these boring lessons into a fun experience. Here you can read more about how to create them and for which topics you can use them (not only for teaching languages)!

18. Scrabble

Use the chapter (or course) title as the pool of letters from which to make words (e.g., mitochondrial DNA), and allow teams to brainstorm as many words relevant to the topic as possible. You can also actually play scrabble and ask students to form words from the newly learned vocabulary.

19. Who/what am I?

Tape a term or name on the back of each student. You can also tape it on their forehead. Each student walks around the room, asking "yes or no" questions to the other students in an effort to guess the term. Of course, the term has something to do with your lesson topic.

20. Bingo

Bingo is a fun game that can be used for all sorts of exercises: language exercises, introductory games, math exercises, etc. Take a look at this blog post with all the different bingo possibilities here. You'll be surprised about how many interactive lesson activities you can do with just one game.

Want to create a bingo game yourself? You can start for free right here:

Wrap up

That's it! Like in any list, you could add many other interactive lesson ideas. I could go on for quite a while myself. But what about you? Share your creative, interactive classroom ideas in our Facebook Group. This way, we can build out this article with many more great ideas!

One more thing... Don't forget to follow us on Twitter! 😉

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20 interactive teaching activities for in the interactive classroom

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Interactive teaching is all about instructing the students in a way they are actively involved with their learning process. There are different ways to create an involvement like this.

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Jigsaw

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Fishbowl

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5 elements

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Designing your own

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Free Crossword Maker

Creating a crossword puzzle is easy. Just enter a list of words with hints that give clues for each word. You can also enter a title and some instructions that you want printed on your puzzle. Then just press the Create button.

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Create your own printable crossword puzzles with our free Crossword Maker

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Large group teaching

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Large Group Teaching | UNSW Teaching Staff Gateway

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Large-group teaching need not be stressful for teachers or boring and inactive for students. At its best, learning in large group contexts can:

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Case studies

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Case Studies | UNSW Teaching Staff Gateway

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What are case studies? Case studies are stories or scenarios, often in narrative form, created and used as a tool for analysis and discussion. They have long been used in higher education, particularly in business and law. Cases are often based on actual events, which adds a sense of urgency or reality.

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Discussions

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Discussion | UNSW Teaching Staff Gateway

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What is discussion? An effective discussion moves towards one or two major points, but unlike the Lecture, this process is not controlled by one individual presentation. Rather, the teacher must walk a fine line between controlling the group and letting its members speak.

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Cooperative learning

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NOTE: This content is taken from materials presented at The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Instructional Excellence Retreat, May 1996. Barbara J. Millis, PhD, Associate Director for Faculty Development, United States Air Force Academy, Facilitator

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a generic term for various small group interactive instructional procedures. Students work together on academic tasks in small groups to help themselves and their teammates learn together. In general, cooperative learning methods share the following five characteristics.

Student work together on common tasks or learning activities that are best handled through group work.

Students work together in small groups containing two to five members.

Students use cooperative, pro-social behavior to accomplish their common tasks or learning activities.

Students are positively interdependent. Activities are structured so that students need each other to accomplish their common tasks or learning activities.

Students are individually accountable or responsible for their work or learning.

Why Cooperative Learning?
Cooperative Learning enhances student learning by:

providing a shared cognitive set of information between students,

motivating students to learn the material,

ensuring that students construct their own knowledge,

providing formative feedback,

developing social and group skills necessary for success outside the classroom, and

promoting positive interaction between members of different cultural and socioeconomic groups.

Cooperative Learning Structures and Techniques

Faculty assigns roles or students can "play" themselves. Faculty may also give interview questions or information that should be "found."

A interviews B for the specified number of minutes, listening attentively and asking probing questions.

At a signal, students reverse roles and B interviews A for the same number of minutes.

At another signal, each pair turns to another pair, forming a group of four. Each member of the group introduces his or her partner, highlighting the most interesting points.

Roundtable structures can be used to brainstorm ideas and to generate a large number of responses to a single question or a group of questions.

Faculty poses question.

One piece of paper and pen per group.

First student writes one response, and says it out loud.

First student passes paper to the left, second student writes response, etc.

Continues around group until time elapses.

Students may say "pass" at any time.

Group stops when time is called.

The key here is the question or the problem you've asked the students to consider. It has to be one that has the potential for a number of different "right" answers. Relate the question to the course unit, but keep it simple so every student can have some input.

Once time is called, determine what you want to have the students do with the lists...they may want to discuss the multitude of answers or solutions or they may want to share the lists with the entire class.

Example: Ask students to list 5-7 words or phrases that describe or define what a motivated student does. From there, you might ask students to get together in small groups to discuss the lists, or to select the one that they can all agree on. Combine this technique with a number of the other techniques and you can have a powerful cooperative learning structure.

Have the participants brainstorm or select a problem for them to consider.

Assign numbers to members of each group (or use playing cards). Have each member of the group be a different number or suit.

Discuss task as group.

Each participant should be prepared to respond. Each member of the group needs to understand the response well enough to give the response with no help from the other members of the group.

Ask an individual from each group to respond. Call on the individual by number (or suit).

What was the most important or useful thing you learned today?

What two important questions do you still have; what remains unclear?

What would you like to know more about?

You can use these one minute papers to begin the next day's discussion, to facilitate discussion within a group, or to provide you with feedback on where the student is in his or her understanding of the material.

Students discuss key points and look for divergent and convergent thinking and ideas.

Together students prepare a composite annotation that summarizes the article, chapter, or concept.

Potential group roles and their functions include:

Leader - The leader is responsible for keeping the group on the assigned task at hand. S/he also makes sure that all members of the group have an opportunity to participate, learn and have the respect of their team members. The leader may also want to check to make sure that all of the group members have mastered the learning points of a group exercise.

Recorder - The recorder picks and maintains the group files and folders on a daily basis and keeps records of all group activities including the material contributed by each group member. The recorder writes out the solutions to problems for the group to use as notes or to submit to the instructor. The recorder may also prepare presentation materials when the group makes oral presentations to the class.

Reporter - The reporter gives oral responses to the class about the group's activities or conclusions.

Monitor - The monitor is responsible for making sure that the group's work area is left the way it was found and acts as a timekeeper for timed activities.

Wildcard (in groups of five) - The wildcard acts as an assistant to the group leader and assumes the role of any member that may be missing.

Each member of a group generates a problem and writes it down on a card. Each member of the group then asks the question to other members.

If the question can be answered and all members of the group agree on the answer, then that answer is written on the back of the card. If there is no consensus on the answer, the question is revised so that an answer can be agreed upon.

The group puts a Q on the side of the card with the question on it, and an A on the side of the card with an answer on it.

Each group sends its question cards to another group.

Each group member takes ones question from the stack of questions and reads one question at a time to the group. After reading the first question, the group discusses it.

If the group agrees on the answer, they turn the card over to see if they agree with the first group's answer.

If there again is consensus, they proceed to the next question.

If they do not agree with the first group's answer, the second group write their answer on the back of the card as an alternative answer.

The second group reviews and answers each question in the stack of cards, repeating the procedure outlined above.

The question cards can be sent to a third, fourth, or fifth group, if desired.

Stacks of cards are then sent back to the originating group. The sending group can then discuss and clarify any question

Variation: A variation on the send a problem is to use the process to get groups to discuss a real problem for which there may be no one set answer.

Groups decide on one problem they will consider. It is best if each group considers a different problem.

The same process is used, with the first group brainstorming solutions to a single problem. The problem is written on a piece of paper and attached to the outside of a folder. The solutions are listed and enclosed inside the folder.

The folder is then passed to the next group. Each group brainstorms for 3-5 minutes on the problems they receive without reading the previous group's work and then place their solutions inside the folders.

This process may continue to one or more groups. The last group reviews all the solutions posed by all of the previous groups and develops a prioritized list of possible solutions. This list is then presented to the group.

Present an issue or topic to the group and ask each member to determine how they feel about the issue (could use a 1-10 scale; 1 being strong agreement, 10 being strong disagreement).

Form a rank-ordered line and number the participants from 1 up (from strong agreement to strong disagreement, for example).

Form your groups of four by pulling one person from each end of the value line and two people from the middle of the group (for example, if you had 20 people, one group might consist of persons 1, 10, 11, 20).

Uncommon Commonalities
Uncommon Commonalities can be used to foster a more cohesive group.

Groups get together and first list individual things about themselves that define them as people).

Groups then discussed each item, finding things that 1, 2, 3, or 4 of them have in common.

When the group finds an item that all of them have in common, they list that item under 4; when they find something that 3 of them have in common, the list that item under 3, etc.

Some of the common fears about working with groups include student fears that each member will not pull their weight as a part of the group. Students are scared that their grade will be lower as a result of the group learning vs. learning they do individually. One way to address this issue is to use a group activity to allow the group to outline acceptable group behavior. Put together a form and ask groups to first list behaviors (expectations) they expect from each individual, each pair and as a group as a whole.

Groups then can use this as a way to monitor individual contributions to the group and as a way to evaluate group participation.

Students read and reflect on the assigned reading(s).

Students prepare the double entry journal, listing critical points of the readings (as they see them) and any responses to the readings, in general, or specific critical points.

Students bring their journal notes to class

Once in class, students may use their double entry journal to begin discussion, to do a paired annotation, or for other classroom and group activity.

Faculty conducts a brief (10-15 minutes) lecture on a topic or content area. Faculty may assign a reading or written assignment as well.

Instructor then gives the students a set of generic question stems.

Students work individually to write their own questions based on the material being covered.

Students do not have to be able to answer the questions they pose. This activity is designed to force students to think about ideas relevant to the content area.

Students should use as many question stems as possible.

Grouped into learning teams, each student offers a question for discussion, using the different stems.

Sample question stems:

What is the main idea of...?

What if...?

How does...affect...?

What is a new example of...?

Explain why...?

Explain how...?

How does this relate to what I've learned before?

What conclusions can I draw about...?

What is the difference between... and...?

How are...and...similar?

How would I use...to...?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of...?

What is the best...and why?

Cooperative Learning References

Solomon, R., Davidson, N., & Solomon, E. (1992). Handbook for the Fourth R: Relationship Activities for Cooperative and Collegial Learning . (Volume III). Columbia, MD: National Institute for Relationship Training, Inc.

Bossert, S.T. (1988). Cooperative activities in the classroom. Review of Educational Research, 15, 225-250.

Bruffee, K.A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cohen, E.G.: (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Review of Educational Research, 64, 1-35.

Cooper, J. (1990, May). Cooperative learning and kludge teaching: Tips from the trenches. The Teaching Professor, pp 1-2.

Davis, J.R. Better teaching, more learning. Phoenix, AZ: The Oryx Press.

Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning (2nd ed.). San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers.

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NOTE: This content is taken from materials presented at The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Instructional Excellence Retreat, May 1996. Barbara J. Millis, PhD, Associate Director for Faculty Development, United States Air Force Academy, Facilitator Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is a generic term for various small group interactive instructional procedures.

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President Obama spoke at my college once, the night before he was elected into congress. Upon reaching the room containing the overflow crowd where I was standing, he had but a few minutes left to speak-so he told us a story. Even though he had just spent the last 40 minutes speaking to another room full of supporters, it was interesting that out of all the things he could've talked about, he chose to speak from the heart.

And it's strange-I've noticed that many of my former students will come back and ask, "Do you still tell your class that story about ...?"

Of all the knowledge that I attempted to instill in their minds, those goofy stories I told from time to time seemed to leave the longest-lasting impression.

There's something about stories that stick with us. Something about an organized narrative teaching strategy that serves as a unique kind of glue, lingering with us long after the facts and formulas fade away. It's exactly this kind of adhesive that I want to leverage for my own students, weaving the skills and information they need together with the magic of storytelling. But despite how magnetic these teaching strategy narratives may be, it can be difficult to pry time away from our busy day-to-day lesson plans. So how do we make it work?

Should we schedule time for it, or should it be organic? Should we attach requirements to storytelling, or simply allow it for fun? Honestly, there's no right or wrong way to include them. Here are a few simple approaches you might take to include storytelling in your classroom:

Share your own stories, just for fun: Tell them about when you were their age, about times you failed, succeeded, or about memorable lessons you learned. This builds a strong connection between you and your classroom, letting them know that you can relate to them, and vice versa.

Use stories as introductions: Just as we encourage students to use attention-getting devices for their essays and speeches, we can use the same technique as educators. Begin class with an interesting story, but one that is relevant to the lecture's focus.

Use stories as illustrations: When you're hammering through a relatively difficult concept with your class, one easy way to explain it is to illustrate the concept with a story. When facts and figures won't do, simple narratives sometimes can.

Tie storytelling to learning goals: We want our students to develop listening skills, and we can incorporate storytelling into the larger picture of achieving these outcomes.

Tell stories to engage reluctant learners: Some students experience difficulty connecting to drab textbooks or abstract concepts. However, those same learners typically have little struggle connecting to stories. Through telling stories, you make life and learning more relevant, giving reluctant learners a better angle of engagement.

Types of Stories

There are several different types of stories you could potentially tell in your classroom. Harbor knowledge of each type, so if you're lacking in one kind, you can replace it with another.

A true story from your own life.

A true story from the life of someone you know, like a friend, family member, or neighbor.

A true story from the news or a current event.

A story that took place sometime in history.

A fictional story, with made up characters or events.

An "Imagine if ..." story that sets up a hypothetical situation.

Of course, there are various genres and styles of storytelling, but the above list represents the essential variety that you might incorporate into the classroom.

Why Storytelling Works

In its simplest form, storytelling remains a powerful element of communication, with the narrative being equally as compelling as essays and textbooks. They humanize learning. It offers us the opportunity to connect to like-minded characters, or see the world literally from within someone else's skin. Stories touch our emotions and make us laugh, cry, fear, and get angry-a sharp contrast to a plain old presentation.

Plus, no matter how organized or detailed a textbook might be, there's something about the shape of a narrative-the exposition, the problem, the quest for a solution, the resolution-that resonates with our mental makeup.

Have Students Tell Their Stories

As you incorporate your own stories, recognize how they connect with students on a different level. But why keep the power of storytelling to yourself? You can also actively help students become their own powerful storytellers, too!

Allow students to write, illustrate, and tell their own tales. The way you incorporate this may vary depending on your curricular goals, but it is essential that children understand how to tell a good story and how this relates to effectively accomplishing an objective. Students can use stories in their essays and argumentation-they can help in remembering processes or formulas, or connecting events with one another. The opportunities are endless, and easy to employ.
How do YOU incorporate storytelling in the classroom? Share your ideas with us in the comments below! Check out TeachHUB.com's extensive library of back-to-school and first-day of school articles, a list which grows every day: 7 First Day of School Activities Students Love Back to School: 6 Things to Do at the Start of the Year Back to School: Starting the Year on the Right Foot How Parents Can Prepare for Back to School Time Back to School: Top 5 Grammar Tips Back to School: 10 Ways Teachers Can Prepare
Jordan Catapano is a high school English teacher in a Chicago suburb. In addition to being National Board Certificated, he also has worked with the Illinois Association of Teachers of English and currently serves as a school board member for a private school. You can follow him on Twitter at @BuffEnglish, or visit his website .

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Storytelling in the Classroom as a Teaching Strategy

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President Obama spoke at my college once, the night before he was elected into congress. Upon reaching the room containing the overflow crowd where I was standing, he had but a few minutes left to speak-so he told us a story.

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Teacher centered and student centered learning SU1

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Teacher centered and student centered learning SU1

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5.1 Teacher-centered and Student-centered Teaching Methods

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Teacher vs Student centered learning SU1

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Teacher vs Student centered learning SU1

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From the Teacher-Directed to the Student-Centered classroom SU1

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From the Teacher-Directed to the Student-Centered classroom SU1

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From the Teacher-Directed to the Student-Centered classroom.

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An outline of the transformation of the primary school classroom from the 1950's until today. I do not own the rights to any of the images, videos or music in this clip. I do not own any of the images used in this video. No copyright infringement intended.

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On-the-spot scaffolding for students

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Scrambling in the moment to figure out what students need when they just don't get it is one of the exciting challenges of teaching. Being able to respond to learners' needs on the spot is hands down one of the greatest tricks of this trade.

And when lesson planning, we can't always guess how many steps we will need to break a lesson into and how much support will be needed for each chunk. I know I've made assumptions about what students will "get" and then in the middle of the lesson, I've had to stop, think on my feet, and add something to help move the learning forward.

Just to be clear: Scaffolding a lesson and differentiating instruction are two different things. Scaffolding is breaking up the learning into chunks and then providing a tool, or structure, with each chunk. When scaffolding reading, for example, you might preview the text and discuss key vocabulary, or chunk the text and read and stop and discuss as you go. With differentiation, you may give a child an entirely different piece of text to read, you might shorten the text or alter it, and you may modify the writing assignment that follows.

Simply put, scaffolding is what you do first with kids, then for those students who are still struggling, you may need to differentiate by modifying an assignment and/or making accommodations for a student (for example, choose more accessible text and/or assign an alternative project).

3 Scaffolding Strategies

On-the-spot scaffolding and differentiating are essential skills for teachers. And the longer you teach, the better you become at both.

So when do we do it? Well, if we get The Look from students (a distant stare, a furrowed brow) this means it's time to stop, check for understanding by asking questions or in some other way, and then review. If that doesn't work, we need to add a step -- bolster what has already been shared by adding something more.

Here's some ideas to consider when the learners in the midst of a lesson need a little extra something:

Idea #1: Sentence starters. These writing training wheels work wonders for any struggling writer, whether elementary or secondary school students (heck, I use them with university students). So if a student is sitting there and says with words (or simply with a look) "I don't know what to write," take your pencil and write a few words out with a line that follows. Here's examples: "One thing I don't understand about the civil war is____," "People disagree about this issue because____," "Something important to know about photosynthesis is____." If many students are struggling to get started with a writing task, create a few sentence starters on the white board for all to see.

Idea #2: Use an image or short film clip. In the middle of a lesson, when the thinking is stuck in the room, I've jumped online to find a short film clip or a photo. One example is a time we read about and discussed McCarthyism and my eleventh grade students needed more to really get it. I quickly went online and found and projected a few anti-communism propaganda advertisements. These over-the-top messages really made the hysteria surrounding this era come to life for them. After that, our discussion deepened and so did their questions about McCarthyism and The Cold War.

Using visuals for on-the-spot scaffolding (for an individual student or for the group) is unquestionably a best practice. Research shows that the population is made up of 65 percent visual learners. And only 10 percent of students are auditory learners yet 80 percent of instruction is delivered orally (University or Illinois, 2009).

Idea #3: Give them time to talk with a guiding question. Never underestimate giving students time to talk. As learners, we need to make sense of what is coming at us -- new information, new ideas, and concepts. If you see The Look from many, stop the lesson and invite students to engage in low stakes discussion with each other and focus it on a guiding question. The question can be framed, for example, so as to clarify the information they've already received or to compare or to connect the new information to what they already know. For example, "If someone were to walk into this room right now, how would you explain McCarthyism?" Or, "What does McCarthyism remind you of? In what ways is it different (or the same) in government/politics today?"

How do you on-the-spot scaffold? What tools and tips do you have worked well with students? Please share in the comments section below.

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Scrambling in the moment to figure out what students need when they just don't get it is one of the exciting challenges of teaching. Being able to respond to learners' needs on the spot is hands down one of the greatest tricks of this trade.

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Practical tips when using technology

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Given the number of technology tools being used by educators and students, it's no wonder that mobile technologies and mobile learning are being explored in various implementations. From data collection tools to mobile phones, students are learning at school and on their own.

Remember, however, that technology is a tool for learning, so we still need to focus on models that provide engaging uses for these tools. Project-based learning can pair well with tenets and best practices for mobile learning to create intention and flexible contexts for learning.

Here are some tips and ideas to consider if you want to try mobile learning with your next PBL project.

1. Backchannel Need To Know

Educators can use the "Need to Know" activity, and have students create a list of questions and "need to knows" to compete the project. This list is revisited often for revision, reflection and goal setting, and sometimes these questions and "need to knows" come up outside of the formal learning environment.

Use Twitter, or another related tool, with a hashtag to create a backchannel list of "need to knows." Also, give students the flexibility and space to question and think outside of the formal classroom.

2. Field Work

PBL projects present a great opportunity to have students go out in the field. Perhaps students can interview experts in their area of study or ask witnesses of historical events to support a project.

Using mobile phones and apps like Evernote and Instagram, students can actively and quickly document the work. For example, they can record data on water quality or do video documentary work. The possibilities are endless, and PBL can create the intentional space for authentic real-world learning.

3. Limited Tools

It's easy with mobile learning to get a little "technology happy," overwhelming the classroom with Web 2.0 tools. Remember that even though many of our students are exposed to technology on a regular basis, we still must model their effective use.

This can require instructional time devoted to learning the tool. To curb this concern, limit the number of tools that students use in a PBL project and across multiple projects. Let them become experts with a finite set of great tools, allowing them to build their skills. Not only will this keep you sane as a teacher, it will also create college-ready students who have mastered several mobile tools.

4. Mobile Collaboration

Why limit when and where students collaborate with each other? I know my students text each other constantly to check in and set goals for work.

Allow students use this as evidence for collaboration. Not only can you use mobile tools to teach and assess collaboration, but you can also use them to document the assessment process. Model this practice for students and reward their collaborative work through text message logs and other mobile apps.

5. Celebration of Mobile Learning

It is important to honor collaborative mobile learning as a valuable component in the learning process. Therefore, have students not only share their work but also celebrate their work.

Perhaps you assign homework that involves a mobile device. If a student did extra work on a mobile device at home, acknowledge that student's work publicly and have him or her share it to help teach others. An essential component of PBL is the public celebration of work. Do the same for mobile learning moments when they occur.

Because PBL provides voice and choice in how students use their time and how they explore, the flexibility in mobile learning can support a great PBL project. The key, as with any technology tool, is to be intentional in the choice. Know where the mobile technology fits within the PBL project.

Ultimately, we should move to a learning environment where technology is invisible. We can accomplish this by pairing PBL and mobile learning to create a space where technology is integral, and where the focus is on authentic, engaging and purposeful PBL projects.

This blog is part of a series sponsored by Autodesk.

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Practical Tips for Mobile Learning in the PBL Classroom | Edutopia

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Given the number of technology tools being used by educators and students, it's no wonder that mobile technologies and mobile learning are being explored in various implementations. From data collection tools to mobile phones, students are learning at school and on their own.

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How to do it...

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How to do a Think Pair Share - TeachLikeThis

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What is it?

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Think-pair-share is a cooperative learning strategy used to easily monitor student understanding of content or language objectives (Echevarria, Vogt, Short, 2014). It gives all students a chance to think and discuss.

Steps in implementing think-pair-share:
1. Teacher asks a question to the whole class.
2. Think: Students think independently about the question and form own ideas.
3. Pair: Students are grouped in pairs (elbow partners) to discuss thoughts and ideas.
4. Share: Students share ideas with a larger group or whole class.

Teachers can model the think-pair-share strategy before students participate. This step is beneficial for students who are ELL because each step is explicitly explained and demonstrated. In using think-pair-share, students are allotted silent think time, which improves the quality of student responses. This time to process ideas is especially important for students who are ELL. Oral communication skills are built as students of any age share with classmates in a low-risk environment. This provides all students with opportunities to elaborate on ideas through talk and practice language skills, which highly benefits students who are ELL. According to Wright, students who are ELL can receive clarification of misunderstandings from their partner and can answer with greater confidence in a whole group setting after practicing their answer (2015). Think-pair-share is based on the social constructivist learning theory, which emphasizes collaborative learning. As students collaborate to reflect and discuss in a think-pair-share, information is retained at a higher level. This strategy also fosters student ownership of learning and promotes participation.

In the video above, steps in implementing the think-pair-share in the classroom are described. The video suggests helpful tips to using this strategy and ways it can be varied. This includes having individual students raise their hands during step 3, which is sharing, or calling on groups to share. Another variation to this strategy is writing student responses on the whiteboard for the rest of the class to see. Students who are visual learners or those who are ELL will then be able to easily see each response as it is offered. Another variation discussed in the video is having students write their answers down. This way, students remember their original ideas and become more confident in sharing ideas after they are written down on paper. Lastly, wait time is described as being used to slow down the question and answer process, which is important in giving all students a voice.

The picture above shows a think-pair-share anchor chart that can be displayed in a classroom for students of any grade level and used for any content area. This anchor chart includes guiding questions such as, "what experiences have you had?" and "what connections can you make?" during the first "think" step. For the other steps, "pair" and "share," this chart sets guidelines to follow when listening and sharing ideas with others. The picture next to each step serves as a visual that would help students who are ELL better understand what each part of the strategy looks like.

The video above shows a teacher at Roosevelt Elementary in Willmar, Minnesota implementing the think-pair-share strategy in her second grade classroom. The example shown is used with the reading curriculum to introduce a new topic. Mrs. Johns asks students, "what can families do to work together?" Students then pair with one partner and share their ideas. Mrs. Johns calls on individual students to respond, then uses the think-pair-share strategy once more to ask, "why is it important that they work together?" All students have an equal opportunity to voice their opinion in this example, which encourages students who tend to avoid speaking in front of the class to share.

Reading- Think-pair-share can be used in reading when discussing a variety of topics. Students can participate in a think-pair-share to make predictions before reading a new story or during reading. This is beneficial for struggling readers or students who are ELL because they begin thinking about the text and can anticipate what might happen next, increasing comprehension. Think-pair-shares can also be used to discuss the theme of a book. Students who are ELL benefit from using this strategy when it comes to discussing new vocabulary words based on context clues in a particular story. Students are able to better comprehend text as they discuss and build vocabulary.

Math- Think-pair-shares can be used in math as students complete word problems. Students can think about a given word problem and the steps that could be used in order to solve it. Without solving the problem, students can share the problem-solving strategies they thought of with a partner. After discussing, students can solve the problem on their own and compare answers with a partner. This is beneficial for those who are ELL because they are given an opportunity to discuss their thinking prior to solving the problem. Students can think aloud their understanding with a peer, and receive feedback in solving the given problem.

Science- This strategy can be used in science as a means of discussing experiments. While students are conducting an experiment, a think-pair-share can be used to form hypotheses. For example, prior to completing an experiment on density, students could think about which items will float when placed in a tub of water. Students could then discuss their predictions with an elbow partner. This fosters learning especially for students who are ELL because they are given an opportunity to listen to and offer ideas, and ask questions they may have. That way, they begin to create understanding prior to conducting an experiment. The think-pair-share strategy could also be used in drawing conclusions after an experiment is performed.

Social Studies- Students can participate in a think-pair-share when presented with a new topic or lesson, when discussing prior knowledge of a given topic, or when analyzing causes and effects of important events. When introducing the United States government for example, students can think independently about what they already know about the government and share with a peer. There may be a range of background knowledge students have on a given topic. Students who are unfamiliar with the topic, which could include students who are ELL, benefit from discussing a broad range of topics because it builds background and fosters connections to past learning. As students share ideas, they build off one another and students' learning is maximized as they think aloud ideas.

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Think-pair-share is a cooperative learning strategy used to easily monitor student understanding of content or language objectives (Echevarria, Vogt, Short, 2014). It gives all students a chance to...

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Scaffolding strategy

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Background

Think Alouds help students learn to monitor their thinking as they read an assigned passage. Students are directed by a series of questions which they think about and answer aloud while reading. This process reveals how much they understand a text. As students become more adept at this technique they learn to generate their own questions to guide comprehension.

Benefits

Think Alouds are practical and relatively easy for teachers to use within the classroom. Teachers are able to model the Think Aloud technique and discuss how good readers often re-read a sentence, read ahead to clarify, and/or look for context clues to make sense of what they read. Think alouds slow down the reading process and allow students to monitor their understanding of a text.

Create and use the strategy

Begin by modeling this strategy. Model your thinking as you read. Do this at points in the text that may be confusing for students (new vocabulary, unusual sentence construction). Then introduce the assigned text and discuss the purpose of the Think Aloud strategy. Then develop the set of questions to support thinking aloud (see examples below).

1. What do I know about this topic?

2. What do I think I will learn about this topic?

3. Do I understand what I just read?

4. Do I have a clear picture in my head about this information?

5. What more can I do to understand this?

6. What were the most important points in this reading?

7. What new information did I learn?

8. How does it fit in with what I already know?

Teachers should next (1) give students opportunities to practice the technique, either in pairs, small groups or individually; and (2) offer structured feedback to students.

Initially, the teacher reads the selected passage aloud as the students read the same text silently. At certain points the teacher stops and "thinks aloud" answers to some of the pre-selected questions. Teachers should demonstrate how good readers monitor their understanding by rereading a sentence, reading ahead to clarify, and/or looking for context clues. Students then learn to offer answers to the questions as the teacher leads the Think Aloud strategy. As students become familiar with the Think Aloud process, they may work individually or in small groups. Teachers may choose to have students write down responses to the Think Aloud strategy which provides a record of learning.

Further reading

Davey, B. (1983). Think-aloud: Modeling the cognitive processes of reading comprehension. Journal of Reading, 27(1), 44-47.

Olshavsky, J. E. (1977). Reading as problem-solving: An Investigation of Strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 12(4), 654-674.

Wilhelm, J. D. (2001). Improving Comprehension with Think-Aloud Strategies. New York: Scholastic Inc.

Wilhelm, J. D. (2008). National Writing Project. Navigating Meaning: Using Think-Alouds to Help Readers Monitor Comprehension. Retrieved 2008, March 5, from http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/495

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Think Alouds help students learn to monitor their thinking as they read an assigned passage. Students are directed by a series of questions which they think about and answer aloud while reading. This process reveals how much they understand a text. As students become more adept at this technique they learn to generate their own questions to guide comprehension.

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Scaffolding strategy

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Student Fishbowl
This activity requires 60-90 minutes.

Purpose:

Fishbowl activities force participants to listen actively to the experiences and perspectives of a specific group of people. A student fishbowl gives pre-service and in-service educators an opportunity to hear the experiences, ideas, and feedback of current students while giving the students an opportunity to be active in the dialogue on educational equity.

Preparation:

The only major resources needed for this activity are current K-12 students. My exerpience has been that eight or ten students comprise an optimum fishbowl group. If your class or workshop focuses on a particular educational level (i.e., early childhood, secondary, etc.), you should try to find students at that level to participate. A useful strategy for finding fishbowl participants is to tap into local schools.

To prepare for the actual fishbowl dialogue, ask the fishbowl students to sit in a circle in the middle of the room. Your class or workshop participants, or the "observers," should sit in a larger circle around the fishbowl students.

Instructions:

The following steps will set the ground rules, then initiate and process the dialogue for the student fishbowl activity:

1. One important ground rule must guide the participation of the observers: During the course of the fishbowl, observers are not allowed to speak. Their job is to listen and learn from the fishbowl students. Mention that the observers will have an opportunity to discuss any issues that emerge in later processing dialogue.

2. If possible, assign one of the fishbowl students the role of facilitator. It will be her or his responsibility to ask questions, facilitate the fishbowl discussion, and make sure everyone has an opportunity to talk. If necessary, you can play the role of facilitator.

3. The topics to be discussed by the fishbowl can be developed to be relevant to your course or workshop. For the most part, fishbowl participants should have an opportunity to take the conversation where they want - or need - it to go. If it becomes necessary to push the conversation along, possible prompts include the following:

What are your favorite things about school?

What aspects of your school do you feel should be improved?

What can your teachers do to help you learn better?

Share a story about when one of your teachers did something that made you feel especially included in the learning process.

Share a story about when you felt you were especially excluded from your own learning process.

Who is your favorite teacher? Why?

Who is your least favorite teacher? Why?

What do you feel is the role of school in your life?

What do you feel should be the major goals of schools?

4. Make sure everybody in the fishbowl has an opportunity to talk.

5. Allow the fishbowl discussion to continue for at least 30 minutes. You can allow it to continue longer if time permits.

6. When the fishbowl discussion winds down, divide the combination of your participants and the fishbowl students into small groups of 6-10. This will provide the observers an opportunity to ask for clarification on comments made during the fishbowl. Instruct the observers that they are not to invalidate or question the students' experiences or perspectives. They should use the small group discussions only to learn more from the fishbowl students. Allow at least 30 minutes for small group discussions.

7. After small group discussions, call everyone back together. This will be the final processing discussion. A variety of questions can guide this conversation:

To the observers: Was it difficult to not respond to the fishbowl students' comments during the fishbowl? Why?

To the fishbowl students: How did it feel to share your feelings about school, knowing that these teachers were listening closely?

To the fishbowl students: Do you usually have opportunities to share your perspectives on school and your education?

To the observers: Did you hear anything from the fishbowl that surprised you?

8. To wrap up the exercise, pose a final question, giving everyone an opportunity to answer: What is one thing you have learned from this experience?

Facilitator Notes:

A few simple strategies will help you facilitate this activity smoothly. First, remember that this activity is as much about reminding teachers that students are their most important resources as it is about teaching. As mentioned above, it is thus crucial that observers show maximum respect to the fishbowl students by following the silence ground rule. It may take some effort to enforce this ground rule, as many teachers are not fully ready to play the role of learner from people who may be their own students. Consider writing something on the chalkboard or newsprint pad such as "We are all teachers. We are all learners."

Student fishbowl discussions usually are most successful when they are informal. Remember that the fishbowl students have not had an opportunity to develop comfort with the participants of your class or workshop.

A noticeable level of tension often is evident in the room as teachers learn about their own possible areas for improvement from students and students try to respectfully critique the people who they have been taught to trust and respect. A variety of strategies can be used to ease the tension, ranging from starting with a fun icebreaker to serving snacks.

[ Return to the Awareness Activities Page ]

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Student Fishbowl This activity requires 60-90 minutes. Purpose: Fishbowl activities force participants to listen actively to the experiences and perspectives of a specific group of people. A student fishbowl gives pre-service and in-service educators an opportunity to hear the experiences, ideas, and feedback of current students while giving the students an opportunity to be active in the dialogue on educational equity.