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Rotter argued that cognition, in the form of expectations, is a crucial factor in social learning. Rotter claimed that behavior is determined by two major types of "expectancy": the expected outcome of a behavior and the value a person places on that outcome.

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SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY - ALBERT BANDURA

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SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY - ALBERT BANDURA

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The social learning theories of Albert Bandura emphasize the reciprocal relationship among cognition, behavior, and environment

Social Cognitive Theory- suggest that human behaviour is influenced by many cognitive factors as well as by reinforcement contingencies, and that human beings have an impressive capacity to regulate their own actions.

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An approach to personality that emphasizes the interaction between personal traits and environment and their mediation by cognitive processes. Social learning theory has its roots in the behaviorist notion of human behavior as being determined by learning, particularly as shaped by reinforcement in the form of rewards or punishment.

1- Social Cognitive Theory- Albert  Bandura
2- Social Learning Theory - Julian Rotter
https://psychology.jrank.org/pages/593/Social-Learning-Theory.html

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According to Carl Rogers, a fully functioning person is one who is in touch with their deepest and innermost feelings and desires.1 These individuals understand their own emotions and place deep trust in their own instincts and urge. Unconditional positive regard plays an essential role in becoming a fully functioning person.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html

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As a humanist, Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be self-actualized, that is, to be all they can be. In order to achieve these ultimate goals, however, a number of more basic needs must be met such as the need for food, safety, love, and self-esteem.1

There are five different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html#gsc.tab=0

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Humanistic theories focused on the individual and believed that humans striving for growth, dignity & self-determination are just as important in the development of personality.
CHARACTERISTICS
1- Emphasized personal responsibility. Our fate is in our own hands.
2- They generally focus on the present.
3- Stress the importance of personal growth.

THEORIST
1- Need Hierarchy Theory - Abraham Maslow
2- Fully Functioning- Carl Rogers

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All right. Let's talk about another theory of personality called the humanistic theory. But before I begin, I have to give you a little caveat. Now, all these theories of personality are not mutually exclusive. One isn't more dominant over the other. One isn't better than the other. All these theories are just different ways to look at how personality develops in people. And they've all come from different branches, you can say, of psychology, which is why they're from perspectives of different psychologists or theorists. OK. So the humanistic theory says that individuals have free will and that we can actively develop ourselves to our highest potential and reach self-actualization. So "free will" is an important word. And the term "self-actualization" is also another defining word in this theory. So the primary difference between Freud's psychoanalytic theory and humanism is that Freud's theory was deterministic. So what I mean by that is that his theory says our behavior is determined by our unconscious desires. His theory also focuses on individuals who have these mental conflicts and not all people. Now, the humanistic theory focuses on the conscious as opposed to the unconscious. And it also says that people are inherently good, and that we are self-motivated to improve. And we want to always improve because we want to reach self-actualization. Now, the first major theorist of this theory was Abraham Maslow. And he formed the hierarchy of needs, which we can depict using a pyramid. So all of our needs are built upon each other in this pyramid. He says that we must first fulfill our physiological needs that form the base of the pyramid, and then we can work our way up. So after our physiological needs are met, our need for safety must be fulfilled, and then love, and then self-esteem. And lastly, self-actualization can be met. Now, that sounds easy enough, right? We can all reach self-actualization. Well, what are some characteristics of self-actualizing people? Well, they must be self-aware, obviously. They are caring. They're wise. And their interests are problem-centered. They focus their energies on a task that's the mission of their life. And they have a higher purpose that's focused on larger causes and less about the basic aspects of life. So they don't focus on the basic aspects of life. They're always trying to strive and think broader and for larger causes. Well, I hate to be the Debbie Downer here, but self-actualization is rarely achieved. Maslow believed that only 1% of people ever reach self-actualization. The average person seeks to self-actualize, but may not ever get to that point. Jeez. Well, it looks like we all have something to work harder towards, huh? So are you going to be the Martin Luther King or the Mahatma Gandhi or Mother Teresa of our time? Pretty sure they all reached self-actualization. OK. Let's talk about the second major theorist of this theory. His name is Carl Rogers. Carl Rogers used Maslow's idea and the qualities he described, and says that they are nurtured early in life. He said that self-actualization is a constant growth process that is nurtured in a growth-promoting climate. So that's another very important word, "growth-promoting climate." And this climate, in order for this climate to help someone reach self-actualization, there's two conditions that need to be met. And the first is that growth is nurtured by when an individual is being genuine. So one has to be open and revealing about themselves. They have to be genuine and true to who they are. And the second condition that needs to be met is that growth is nurtured through acceptance, and acceptance from others. So one must receive acceptance and receive an unconditional positive regard from others. So what does that mean? For example, a parent may get upset at their child and punish them for doing something wrong. But they're going to still love their child and regard their child without any conditions, no matter what. So this allows us to be open and learn without fearing others are going to look at us differently if we do something wrong. And genuine relationships with others and acceptance is what allows us to live up to the ideals of our true, real self, versus this ideal self that is bounded by conditions that people rarely can live up to. And both Maslow and Rogers said a central feature of our personality is self-concept. And that's achieved when we bring genuineness acceptance together and achieve this growth-promoting climate. So as individuals, we tend to act and perceive the world positively. And we try to answer the question, who am I? And that is what the humanistic theory talks about.

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Humanistic theory (video) | Behavior | Khan Academy

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All right. Let's talk about another theory of personality called the humanistic theory. But before I begin, I have to give you a little caveat. Now, all these theories of personality are not mutually exclusive. One isn't more dominant over the other. One isn't better than the other.

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Hi, everyone. Welcome back. We're going to be talking about the trait theory today. So what better way to describe individual personalities than by using traits? Well, the trait theory is a very straightforward approach describe personality. We do it everyday. It basically defines personality in terms of identifiable patterns of behavior. So that is a key word. They are patterns of behavior. And I'll explain that in a little bit, into a little bit more depth. So it describes traits instead of explaining them as in many other personality theories. So this theory uses description versus explanation, versus other theories of personality tend to use explanation to describe patterns of behavior. So what exactly is a trait? Now, if someone asked you to describe your best friend, what kind of things would you say? Maybe that your best friend was funny, caring, loyal, even-tempered? Well, all of these words that I just called off represent traits. A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic. So that is another defining word. It is a stable characteristic. And what do I mean by stable? So it's a stable characteristic that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways. So it has to be consistent. I guess that's synonymous with stable. So the combination and interaction of various traits forms a personality. And that's what's unique to each individual. No two people have the exact same personality. We can even see that within our families. Even though we share many genes, we all have different personalities because we all possess these different traits. Well, let's get into what different theorists of the trait theory have to say in trying to describe traits. So, a little aside over here, I found these personality tests to be so fascinating, like the Myers-Briggs personality type test. I don't know if you've taken it before. But basically, it gives you a set of four letters that categorizes you into one of 16 personality types. And then within each one of those personality types, there's a set of traits and behaviors that you tend to dominate in your everyday life. So anyways, if you haven't checked those types of personality tests out, I highly recommend it. I know a lot of companies use them for employment. And it's just a fun way to get to know yourself and your tendencies a little better. I'm always curious. So individual trait theories differ in terms of whether or not they believe that all individuals possess the same traits. And I'll get into that in a little bit. And you'll see why I say that. So let's go through the first theorist. His name was Gordon Allport. So what Allport said is that all of us have different traits. He didn't believe that all individuals have the same traits. He said that they could differ amongst individuals. And he actually came up with a list of 4,500 different descriptive words to describe traits. And that wasn't the original list. Apparently, the original had over 10,000. That's crazy. So anyways, from those 4,500, he was able to come up with three basic categories of traits. And the first one are our cardinal traits. The second one are our central traits. And the last are our secondary traits. Now of these three, the cardinal traits are the characteristics that direct most of a person's activities. So these are the dominant traits, the ones that lie in the cardinal category. For example, one person may have a cardinal trait of selflessness, or power motivation, but Allport says that not all individuals have selflessness or power motivation. So that's the key right there. Individuals have some subset of traits from a universal possibility of traits. But not all individuals have the same traits. We mix and match. We all possess different ones. Now these cardinal traits influence all of our behaviors, including the central and the secondary traits, or dispositions, which influence behavior to a lesser degree. So these are dominant, and these are expressed at a lesser degree. So an example of a essential trait is honesty or sociability or shyness, which are less dominant than these cardinal traits. And a secondary trait is something like a love for modern art or a reluctance to eat meat. And these are more preferences, or attitudes. Let's go to the second theorist. And his name was Raymond Cattell. So now what Cattell did is that he proposed that we all have 16 essential personality traits. We all do. He said that they represent the basic dimensions of personality. And he turned this into the 16 personality factor questionnaire, or 16PF for short. That was his contribution. So he categorized all of our traits into 16 personality traits that we all possess. The third theorist was Hans Eysenck. and what Eysenck did, his theory is based on the assumption that we all have three major dimensions. And these three major dimensions of personality encompass all traits that we all possess. But the degree to which we individually express them are different. So this is different from Allport. Again, Allport said we have different unique subsets of traits. Eysenck is saying we all have these traits, but we express them at different degrees. So there's three major dimensions of his theory. The first is extroversion. So you know what that is. Extroversion versus introversion, and that is the degree of sociability. The second is neuroticism, and neuroticism is our emotional stability. And the third is psychoticism. Let me make sure I'm spelling this right. There we go. Psychoticism is the degree to which reality is distorted. OK, so I know I said Eysenck said that we all possess traits that lie in these three categories, but we display them, or express them to different degrees. Well, there's a little caveat here because Eysenck said that we all have varying degrees of extroversion and neuroticism, but not necessarily psychoticism. All right, moving on, the last major theory trait is called the big five. And the big five, again, is found in all people of all populations. So the first major personality trait in the big five is openness. Let me do this in a different color. So the first is openness. And what I mean by openness is that we ask the question, are you independent, or are you conforming? Are you imaginative, or are you practical? The second is conscientiousness. And that is a mouthful. So in conscientiousness, we're asking the questions, are you careful or careless? Are you disciplined or impulsive? Are you organized or disorganized? The third is extroversion. And in extroversion, we're asking the questions, are you talkative, or are you quiet? Are you fun loving, or are you sober? The fourth is agreeableness. And in agreeableness, we're asking the questions, are you kind, or you cold? Are you appreciative or unfriendly? And the last we've already seen from Eysenck, and that is neuroticism. So in neuroticism, we're asking the questions, are you stable or tense? Calm or anxious? Secure or insecure? So the best way I learned to memorize the big five is using the acronym O.C.E.A.N, O-C-E-A-N. Easy. OK, so Cattell, Eysenck, and the big five all over here used something called factor analysis to come up with this these categories of our traits. So factor analysis is a statistical method that categorizes and determines our major categories of traits. And Allport's theory did not use that. He relied on different procedures to determine traits. So basically, factor analysis reduces the number of variables and detects structure in the relationships between variables. And we do that because we want to classify variables. So in the past, probably at the time of Cattell and Eysenck, all of this was done out by hand. All the possible combinations in determining the number of categories of traits was done by hand. But now, we have fancy computer software that can do all the math for us. And it's what gives us these final sets of variables or classification of personality traits.

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Hi, everyone. Welcome back. We're going to be talking about the trait theory today. So what better way to describe individual personalities than by using traits? Well, the trait theory is a very straightforward approach describe personality. We do it everyday. It basically defines personality in terms of identifiable patterns of behavior.

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THE BIG FIVE FACTOR THEORY - COSTA & McCRAE

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THE BIG FIVE FACTOR THEORY - COSTA & McCRAE

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The Big Five personality traits, also known as the OCEAN model, is a suggested taxonomy, or grouping, for personality traits.
The theory identifies five factors:

openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious)

conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. extravagant/careless)

extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved)

agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. critical/rational)

neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. resilient/confident)

The five factors are abbreviated in the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE.

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Cattell's theory of personality described 16 personality traits that each person possesses to varying degrees. The personality traits are referred to as "primary factors," of which someone can be in the "low range," or "high range." Within those rangers are descriptors of attributes someone may possess, or ways someone may act, who falls within those ranges.

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He emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the internal cognitive and motivational processes that influence behavior. For example, intelligence, temperament, habits, skills, attitudes, and traits.

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Traits - stable dimensions of personality along which people vary from very low to very high.

Such theories focus on key dimensions of personality-the most important ways in which people differ.

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What the Trait Theory Says About How Our Personalities Are Composed

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Trait theory suggests that personality is made up of a number of broad traits. Learn more about this theory and explore a few of the key traits.

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PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY- ERIK ERIKSON

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PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY- ERIK ERIKSON

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Erikson theory deals with development across the entire life span. It suggests that all human beings pass through specific stages or phases of development. He is concerned primarily with social rather than cognitive development.

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Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

Here's the conflict:

Trust: If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate.

This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential threats.

Mistrust: Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity.

This could lead to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable world, fostering a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.

Under such circumstances, the child may lack confidence in their ability to influence events, viewing the world with apprehension.

Infant Feeding

Feeding is a critical activity during this stage. It's one of infants' first and most basic ways to learn whether they can trust the world around them.

It sets the stage for their perspective on the world as being either a safe, dependable place or a place where their needs may not be met.

Trust: When the caregiver consistently responds to the child's hunger cues, providing nourishment sensitively and reliably, the child learns that their needs will be met.
This consistent, dependable care helps the child feel a sense of security and trust in the caregiver and their environment.

They understand that when they have a need, such as hunger, someone will be there to provide for that need.

Mistrust: If the caregiver is neglectful, inconsistent, or insensitive in feeding, the child may experience discomfort, distress, and hunger.
These negative experiences can lead to a sense of mistrust in their environment and caregivers.

They may start to believe that their needs may not be met, creating anxiety and insecurity.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over-feeling mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early attachment experience can affect relationships with others in later life.

The balance between trust and mistrust allows the infant to learn that while there may be moments of discomfort or distress, they can rely on their caregiver to provide support.

This helps the infant to build resilience and the ability to cope with stress or adversity in the future.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Here's the conflict:

Autonomy: If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.

They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and have a sense of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives.

Shame and Doubt: On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.

This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of inadequacy about their self-control abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc.

Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Toilet Training

This is when children start to exert their independence, taking control over their bodily functions, which can greatly influence their sense of autonomy or shame and doubt.

Autonomy: When parents approach toilet training in a patient, supportive manner, allowing the child to learn at their own pace, the child may feel a sense of accomplishment and autonomy.

They understand they have control over their own bodies and can take responsibility for their actions. This boosts their confidence, instilling a sense of autonomy and a belief in their ability to manage personal tasks.

Shame and Doubt: Conversely, if the process is rushed, if there's too much pressure, or if parents respond with anger or disappointment to accidents, the child may feel shame and start doubting their abilities.

They may feel bad about their mistakes, and this can lead to feelings of shame, self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in their autonomy.

Success and Failure In Stage Two

Erikson states parents must allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Suppose children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves. In that case, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Control?

Success leads to feelings of autonomy, and failure results in shame and doubt.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes, a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task, they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be "self-control without a loss of self-esteem" (Gross, 1992).

The balance between autonomy and shame and doubt allows the child to understand that while they can't always control their environment, they can exercise control over their actions and decisions, thus developing self-confidence and resilience.

Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

Here's the conflict:

Initiative: When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative, they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face challenges.

The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment.

They can begin to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps foster a sense of purpose.

Guilt: If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.

This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

What Happens During This Stage?

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child's life. According to Bee (1992), it is a "time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

During this period, the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it allows children to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

The child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing tasks, and facing challenges.

Exploration

Here's why exploration is important:

Developing Initiative: Exploration allows children to assert their power and control over their environment. Through exploration, children engage with their surroundings, ask questions, and discover new things.

This active engagement allows them to take the initiative and make independent choices, contributing to their autonomy and confidence.

Learning from Mistakes: Exploration also means making mistakes, and these provide crucial learning opportunities. Even if a child's efforts lead to mistakes or failures, they learn to understand cause and effect and their role in influencing outcomes.

Building Self-Confidence: When caregivers support and encourage a child's explorations and initiatives, it bolsters their self-confidence. They feel their actions are valuable and significant, which encourages them to take more initiative in the future.

Mitigating Guilt: If caregivers respect the child's need for exploration and do not overly criticize their mistakes, it helps prevent feelings of guilt. Instead, the child learns it's okay to try new things and perfectly fine to make mistakes.

Success and Failure In Stage Three

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success at this stage leads to the virtue of purpose.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiative too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child's questions as trivial, a nuisance, or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening, the child may feel guilty for "being a nuisance".

Too much guilt can slow the child's interaction with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.

The balance between initiative and guilt during this stage can help children understand that it's acceptable to take charge and make their own decisions, but there will also be times when they must follow the rules or guidelines set by others. Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of purpose.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, caregivers must provide a safe and supportive environment that allows children to explore freely. This nurtures their initiative, helps them develop problem-solving skills, and builds confidence and resilience.

By understanding the importance of exploration and providing the right support, caregivers can help children navigate this stage successfully and minimize feelings of guilt.

Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth.

Here's the conflict:

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is coping with new learning and social demands.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, and to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child's life as they teach specific skills.

At this stage, the child's peer group will gain greater significance and become a major source of the child's self-esteem.

The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies valued by society and develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

School

This stage typically occurs during the elementary school years, from approximately ages 6 to 11, and the experiences children have in school can significantly influence their development.

Here's why:

Building Life Skills: School also provides opportunities for children to develop crucial life skills, like problem-solving, teamwork, and time management. Successfully acquiring and utilizing these skills promotes a sense of industry.

Success and Failure In Stage Four

Success leads to the virtue of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competence) and confident in their ability to achieve goals.

If this initiative is not encouraged, if parents or teacher restricts it, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities, and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society demands (e.g., being athletic), they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary.

The balance between industry and inferiority allows children to recognize their skills and understand that they have the ability to work towards and achieve their goals, even if they face challenges along the way.

How Can Parents & Teachers Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, teachers and parents need to provide consistent, constructive feedback and encourage effort, not just achievement.

This approach helps foster a sense of industry, competence, and confidence in children, reducing feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

Here's the conflict:

What Happens During This Stage?

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent and looking at the future regarding careers, relationships, families, housing, etc.

The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.

According to Erikson, this is important to forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, between the morality learned by the child and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245).

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. During this stage, the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is.

Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

Social Relationships

Given the importance of social relationships during this stage, it's crucial for adolescents to have supportive social networks that encourage healthy exploration of identity.

It's also important for parents, teachers, and mentors to provide guidance as adolescents navigate their social relationships and roles.

Here's why:

Success and Failure In Stage Five

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is "a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one's appropriate sex role". During this stage, the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims adolescents may feel uncomfortable about their bodies until they can adapt and "grow into" the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based on the outcome of their explorations.

Adolescents who establish a strong sense of identity can maintain consistent loyalties and values, even amidst societal shifts and changes.

Erikson described 3 forms of identity crisis:

1. severe (identity confusion overwhelms personal identity)

2. prolonged (realignment of childhood identifications over an extended time)

3. aggravated (repeated unsuccessful attempts at resolution)

Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don't know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion.

However, if adolescents don't have the support, time, or emotional capacity to explore their identity, they may be left with unresolved identity issues, feeling unsure about their roles and uncertain about their future.

This could potentially lead to a weak sense of self, role confusion, and lack of direction in adulthood.

Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education, or political activities).

Also, pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

Here's the conflict:

Intimacy: Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form intimate, reciprocal relationships with others.

They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves the ability to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to relationships and make personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.

Isolation: If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.

Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This could lead to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.

Success and Failure In Stage Six

Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of love. Individuals who develop this virtue have the ability to form deep and committed relationships based on mutual trust and respect.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

However, if individuals struggle during this stage and are unable to form close relationships, they may feel isolated and alone. This could potentially lead to a sense of disconnection and estrangement in adulthood.

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.

Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through our careers, families, and contributions to society.

Here's the conflict:

Generativity: If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of generativity.

Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future generations, often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to society.

Stagnation: If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.

Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of growth, and feelings of emptiness.

What Happens During This Stage?

Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.

During middle age, individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society by raising our children, being productive at work, and participating in community activities and organizations. We develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture through generativity.

Work & Parenthood

Both work and parenthood are important in this stage as they provide opportunities for adults to extend their personal and societal influence.

Work: In this stage, individuals often focus heavily on their careers. Meaningful work is a way that adults can feel productive and gain a sense of contributing to the world.

It allows them to feel that they are part of a larger community and that their efforts can benefit future generations. If they feel accomplished and valued in their work, they experience a sense of generativity.

However, if they're unsatisfied with their career or feel unproductive, they may face feelings of stagnation.

Parenthood: Raising children is another significant aspect of this stage. Adults can derive a sense of generativity from nurturing the next generation, guiding their development, and imparting their values.

Through parenthood, adults can feel they're making a meaningful contribution to the future.

On the other hand, individuals who choose not to have children or those who cannot have children can also achieve generativity through other nurturing behaviors, such as mentoring or engaging in activities that positively impact the younger generation.

Success and Failure In Stage Seven

If adults can find satisfaction and a sense of contribution through these roles, they are more likely to develop a sense of generativity, leading to feelings of productivity and fulfillment.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of care. Individuals who develop this virtue feel a sense of contribution to the world, typically through family and work, and feel satisfied that they are making a difference.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

We become stagnant and feel unproductive by failing to find a way to contribute. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole.

This could potentially lead to feelings of restlessness and unproductiveness in later life.

Stage 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Here's the conflict:

Ego Integrity: If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life, they will experience ego integrity.

This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and fulfillment.

Despair: On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they have made poor decisions, or believe they've failed to achieve their life goals, they may experience despair.

Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one's life, and a fear of impending death.

What Happens During This Stage?

This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one's life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one's life or feeling a deep sense of regret.

Erikson described ego integrity as "the acceptance of one's one and only life cycle as something that had to be" (1950, p. 268) and later as "a sense of coherence and wholeness" (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as retired people.

Success and Failure In Stage Eight

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Individuals who reflect on their lives and regret not achieving their goals will experience bitterness and despair.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

This could potentially lead to feelings of fear and dread about their mortality.

A continuous state of ego integrity does not characterize wise people, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by integrity and despair as alternating states that must be balanced.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson's Theory

Support

1. One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the entire lifespan.
By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development, filling a major gap in Freud's emphasis on childhood. (McAdams, 2001).

2. Based on Erikson's ideas, psychology has reconceptualized how the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.

3. Erikson's theory has good face validity. Many people find they can relate to his theories about various life cycle stages through their own experiences.

Criticism

1. Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.
Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs.

For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

Erikson also does not explain what propels the individual forward into the next stage once a crisis is resolved. His stage model implies strict sequential progression tied to age, but does not address variations in timing or the complexity of human development.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a 'tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.' Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

2. Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams, 1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).
The lack of elucidation of the dynamics makes it challenging to test Erikson's stage progression hypotheses empirically. Contemporary researchers have struggled to operationalize the stages and validate their universal sequence and age ranges.

3. The stage theory may be biased towards Western, particularly American, culture. Stages may differ across cultures.
Erikson based his theory of psychosocial development primarily on observations of middle-class White children and families in the United States and Europe. This Western cultural perspective may limit the universality of the stages he proposed.

The conflicts emphasized in each stage reflect values like independence, autonomy, and productivity, which are deeply ingrained in Western individualistic cultures. However, the theory may not translate well to more collectivistic cultures that value interdependence, social harmony, and shared responsibility.

For example, the autonomy vs. shame and doubt crisis in early childhood may play out differently in cultures where obedience and conformity to elders is prioritized over individual choice. Likewise, the identity crisis of adolescence may be less pronounced in collectivist cultures.

4. Core conflicts are not exclusive to their originating stage but recurrent throughout the lifespan. Osborne (2009) argues that these crises extend beyond the stages in which they initially occur.
As an illustration, the identity crisis experienced in adolescence often resurfaces as adults transition into retirement (Logan, 1986). Although the context differs, managing similar emotional tensions promotes self-awareness and comprehension of lifelong developmental dynamics.

Applications

1. Erikson's model remains highly relevant in later life stages like retirement, as adults recurrently face crises first encountered in childhood and adolescence.
Retirees can gain insight into retirement challenges by recognizing the parallels between current struggles and earlier psychosocial conflicts.

Retirees often revisit identity issues faced earlier in life when adjusting to retirement. Although the contexts differ, managing similar emotional tensions can increase self-awareness and understanding of lifelong psychodynamics.

2. Erikson's stages of psychosocial development provide a useful framework for mental health providers treating patients facing major life adjustments or developmental turning points.
Cultural sensitivity can increase patient self-awareness during counseling. For example, nurses could use the model to help adolescents tackle identity exploration or guide older adults in finding purpose and integrity.

Recent research shows the ongoing relevance of Erikson's theory across the lifespan. A 2016 study found a correlation between middle-aged adults' sense of generativity and their cognitive health, emotional resilience, and executive function.

Interprofessional teams could collaborate to create stage-appropriate, strengths-based care plans. For instance, occupational therapists could engage nursery home residents in reminiscence therapy to increase ego integrity.

Specific tools allow clinicians to identify patients' current psychosocial stage. Nurses might use Erikson's Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) to reveal trust, autonomy, purpose, or despair struggles.

With this insight, providers can deliver targeted interventions to resolve conflicts and support developmental advancement. For example, building autonomy after a major health crisis or fostering generativity by teaching parenting skills.

Erikson vs Maslow

How does Maslow's hierarchy of needs differ from Erikson's stages of psychosocial development?

Maslow

Erikson

Maslow proposed a series of motivational stages, each building on the previous one (i.e., cannot progress without satisfying the previous stage).

Erikson proposed a series of predetermined stages related to personality development. The stages are time related.

Progression through the stages is based on life circumstances and achievement (i.e., it is flexible).

Progression through the stages is based a person's age (i.e., rigid). During each stage an individual attains personality traits, either beneficial or pathological.

There is only one goal of achievement, although not everyone achieves it.

The goal of achievement vary from stage to stage and involve overcoming a psychosocial crisis.

Individuals move up the motivational stages / pyramid in order to reach self-actualisation. The first four stages are like stepping stones.

Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths used to resolve subsequent crises.

Erikson vs Freud

Freud (1905) proposed a five-stage model of psychosexual development spanning infancy to puberty, focused on the maturation of sexual drives. While groundbreaking, Freud's theory had limitations Erikson (1958, 1963) aimed to overcome.

1. Erikson expanded the timeline through the full lifespan, while Freud focused only on the first few years of life. This more holistic perspective reflected the ongoing social challenges confronted into adulthood and old age.

2. Whereas Freud highlighted biological, pleasure-seeking drives, Erikson incorporated the influence of social relationships, culture, and identity formation on personality growth. This broader psychosocial view enhanced realism.

3. Erikson focused on the ego's growth rather than the primacy of the id. He saw personality developing through negotiation of social conflicts rather than only frustration/gratification of innate drives.

4. Erikson organized the stages around psychosocial crises tied to ego maturation rather than psychosexual erogenous zones. This reformulation felt more relevant to personal experiences many could identify with.

5. Finally, Erikson emphasized healthy progression through the stages rather than psychopathology stemming from fixation. He took a strengths-based perspective focused on human potential.

Summary Table

Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenetic principle.

Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development include:

Stage

Age

Developmental Task

Description

References

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child. London: HarperCollins.

Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An investigation into Erikson's ninth stage. Journal of Aging Studies, 17(4), 415-426.

What is Erikson's main theory?

Erikson said that we all want to be good at certain things in our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we go through eight developmental stages as we grow up, from being a baby to an old person. In each stage, we have a challenge to overcome.

If we do well in these challenges, we feel confident, our personality grows healthily, and we feel competent. But if we don't do well, we might feel like we're not good enough, leading to feelings of inadequacy.

What is an example of Erikson's psychosocial theory?

Throughout primary school (ages 6-12), children encounter the challenge of balancing industry and inferiority. During this period, they start comparing themselves to their classmates to evaluate their own standing.

As a result, they may either cultivate a feeling of pride and achievement in their academics, sports, social engagements, and family life or experience a sense of inadequacy if they fall short.

Parents and educators can implement various strategies and techniques to support children in fostering a sense of competence and self-confidence.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Saul Mcleod, PhD
Educator, Researcher

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

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Erikson's theory outlines 8 stages of psychosocial development from infancy to late adulthood. At each stage, individuals face a conflict between two opposing states that shapes personality. Successfully resolving the conflicts leads to virtues like hope, will, purpose, and integrity. Failure leads to outcomes like mistrust, guilt, role confusion, and despair.

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Karen Horney (pronounced Horn-eye) was built on the assumption that social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for shaping personality. People who do not have their needs for love and affection satisfied during childhood develop basic hostility toward their parents and, as a consequence, suffer from basic anxiety.
https://sites.google.com/site/ubmichellebadillo/theories-of-personality/karen-horney-psychoanalytic-social-theory

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5- Type Theorist

Bodily Fluids- Hippocrates

Bodily Types - Sheldon & Kretschmer

Type A & B personality - Friedman

https://www.simplypsychology.org/personality-a.html

6- Humanistic Theories ;

Need Hierarchy Theory - Abraham Maslow

Self-Concept Theory - Carl Rogers

7- Learning Theories ;
Social Cognition Theory - Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory - Julian Rotter

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1- Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality - Sigmund Freud
https://youtu.be/jdawTFsCNtc
2- Neo-Freudian or Post Freudians ;

Theory of Neurotic Needs - Karen Horney (Defector)

Psychosocial Development Theory - Erik Erikson (Disciple)

3- Trait Theorist ;

Gordon Allport

Raymond Cattell

The Big Five Factor Theory - Paula Costa & Robert McCrae

4- AYURVEDA THEORY OF PERSONALITY

CHARAK SAMITHA

# data[].attributes.body
Gordon Allport - Personality is the dynamic organization of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics behaviour and thoughts,

Raymond Cattell - Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.

Hans Eysenck - Personality is more or less stable and enduring organization of a persons character temperament, intellect and physique which determine his unique adjustment to the environment.