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The Birmingham Campaign | Civil Rights Movement | Black History | PBS

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The Birmingham Campaign | Civil Rights Movement | Black History | PBS

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The Birmingham Campaign is considered one of the most influential campaigns of the Civil Rights Movement. It would become a major catalyst for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and usher a new era of freedom and equality in the United States. Revisit the Birmingham Campaign with PBS Black Culture Connection.

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English Civil Wars - British History - HISTORY.com

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Find out more about the history of English Civil Wars, including videos, interesting articles, pictures, historical features and more. Get all the facts on HISTORY.com

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http://origins.osu.edu/article/worlds-worst-humanitarian-crisis-understanding-darfur-conflict

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http://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/american-civil-war-historyhttp://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/american-civil-war-history

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http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/what-is-a-civil-war/what-is-a-civil-war.html?referrer=https://www.google.com/

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A civil war is when two parts of the same country are at war. Here I have linked eight steps to understanding what is currently happening in Syria
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868

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A civil war is a war between citizens of a country. A modern day civil war might be the war in Donbass, Ukraine http://www.globalresearch.ca/war-in-donbass-on-russias-doorstep-3600-civilians-killed-by-ukrainian-forces-and-neo-nazi-militia-since-minsk-ii-agreement/5544926

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If you like football this is for you!!!

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Chelsea Football Club - find the latest news, transfers, fixtures, live scores, results, videos, photos, squad and player stats on Sky Sports Football.

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http://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/american-civil-war-history

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Rosa Parks was a women who kept her stand and didn't feel the need of neglection for different coloured people!

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Kids learn about the biography of Rosa Parks, civil rights activist who refused to give up her seat on the bus.

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 Facts about Qatar and its History: http://thefactfile.org/interesting-facts-qatar/

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 Facts about Qatar and its History: http://thefactfile.org/interesting-facts-qatar/

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This is about Qatar's economy, government, religion ad other things. By: Arham Sheikh

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Once an impoverished British protectorate known mostly for its pearl-diving industry, today Qatar is the richest country on Earth, with over $100,000 US per capita GDP. It is a regional leader in the Persian Gulf and Arabian Peninsula, regularly mediating disputes among nearby nations, and is also home to the Al Jazeera News Network. Modern Qatar is diversifying from a petroleum-based economy, and coming into its own on the world stage.

Capital and Largest City

Doha, population 1,313,000

Government

The government of Qatar is an absolute monarchy, headed by the Al Thani family. The current emir is Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, who took power on June 25, 2013. Political parties are banned, and there is no independent legislature in Qatar. The current emir's father promised to hold free parliamentary elections in 2005, but the vote has been postponed indefinitely.

Qatar does have a Majlis Al-Shura, which acts only in a consultative role. It can draft and suggest legislation, but the emir has final approval of all laws. Qatar's 2003 constitution mandates direct election of 30 out of 45 of the majlis, but currently, all of them remain appointees of the emir.

Population

Qatar's population is estimated at about 2.16 million, as of 2014. It has a huge gender gap, with 1.4 million males and just 500,000 females. This is due to a huge influx of primarily male foreign guest workers.

Non-Qatari people make up more than 85% of the country's population. The largest ethnic groups among the immigrants are Arabs (40%), Indians (18%), Pakistanis (18%), and Iranians (10%). There are also large numbers of workers from the Philippines, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.

Languages

The official language of Qatar is Arabic, and the local dialect is known as Qatari Arabic.

English is an important language of commerce and is used for communication between Qataris and foreign workers. Important immigrant languages in Qatar include Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Nepali, Malayalam, and Tagalog.

Religion

Islam is the majority religion in Qatar, with approximately 68% of the population. Most actual Qatari citizens are Sunni Muslims, belonging to the ultra-conservative Wahhabi or Salafi sect. Approximately 10% of Qatari Muslims are Shi'ite. Guest workers from other Muslim countries are predominantly Sunni, as well, but 10% of them are also Shi'ite, particularly those from Iran.

Other foreign workers in Qatar are Hindu (14% of the foreign population), Christian (14%), or Buddhist (3%). There are no Hindu or Buddhist temples in Qatar, but the government does allow Christians to hold mass in churches on land donated by the government. The churches must remain unobtrusive, however, with no bells, steeples, or crosses on the outside of the building.

Geography

Qatar is a peninsula that juts north into the Persian Gulf off of Saudi Arabia. Its total area is just 11,586 square kilometers (4,468 square miles). Its coastline is 563 kilometers (350 miles) long, while its border with Saudi Arabia runs for 60 kilometers (37 miles).

Arable land makes up just 1.21% of the area, and only 0.17% is in permanent crops.

Most of Qatar is a low-lying, sandy desert plain. In the southeast, a stretch of towering sand dunes surrounds a Persian Gulf inlet called the Khor al Adaid, or "Inland Sea." The highest point is the Tuwayyir al Hamir, at 103 meters (338 feet). The lowest point is sea level.

Qatar's climate is mild and pleasant in the winter months, and extremely hot and dry during the summer. Nearly all of the tiny amount of annual precipitation falls during January through March, totaling only about 50 millimeters (2 inches).

Economy

Once dependent on fishing and pearl diving, the economy of Qatar is now based on petroleum products. In fact, this once-sleepy nation is now the richest on Earth. Its per capita GDP is $102,100 (in comparison, the United States' per capita GDP is $52,800).

Qatar's wealth is based in large part on exports of liquefied natural gas. An astonishing 94% of the workforce is foreign migrant workers, mainly employed in the petroleum and construction industries.

History

Humans have likely lived in Qatar for at least 7,500 years. Early inhabitants, much like Qataris throughout recorded history, relied on the sea for their living. Archaeological finds include painted pottery traded from Mesopotamia, fish bones and traps, and flint tools.

In the 1700s, Arab migrants settled along the coast of Qatar to begin pearl diving. They were ruled by the Bani Khalid clan, who controlled the coast from what is now southern Iraq through Qatar. The port of Zubarah became the regional capital for the Bani Khalid and also a major transit port for goods.

The Bani Khalid lost the peninsula in 1783 when the Al Khalifa family from Bahrain captured Qatar. Bahrain was a center for piracy in the Persian Gulf, angering the officials of the British East India Company. In 1821, the BEIC sent a ship to destroy Doha in revenge for Bahraini attacks on British shipping. The bewildered Qataris fled their ruined city, not knowing why the British were bombarding them; soon, they rose against Bahraini rule. A new local ruling family, the Thani clan, emerged.

In 1867, Qatar and Bahrain went to war. Once more, Doha was left in ruins. Britain intervened, recognizing Qatar as a separate entity from Bahrain in a settlement treaty. This was the first step in establishing a Qatari state, which took place on December 18, 1878.

In the intervening years, however, Qatar fell under Ottoman Turkish rule in 1871. It regained some measure of autonomy after an army led by Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammad Al Thani defeated an Ottoman force. Qatar was not fully independent, but it became an autonomous nation within the Ottoman Empire.

As the Ottoman Empire collapsed during the course of World War I, Qatar became a British protectorate. Britain, from November 3, 1916, would run Qatar's foreign relations in return for protecting the Gulf state from all other powers. In 1935, the sheikh got treaty protection against internal threats, as well.

Just four years later, oil was discovered in Qatar, but it would not play a major role in the economy until after World War II. Britain's hold on the Gulf, as well as its interest in empire, began to fade with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947.

In 1968, Qatar joined a group of nine small Gulf nations, the nucleus of what would become the United Arab Emirates. However, Qatar soon resigned from the coalition due to territorial disputes and became independent on its own on September 3, 1971.

Still under Al Thani clan rule, Qatar soon developed into an oil-rich and regionally influential country. Its military supported Saudi units against the Iraqi Army during the Persian Gulf War in 1991, and Qatar even hosted Canadian coalition troops on its soil.

In 1995, Qatar underwent a bloodless coup, when Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani ousted his father from power and began to modernize the country.

He established the Al Jazeera television network in 1996, allowed the construction of a Roman Catholic church, and has encouraged women's suffrage. In a sure sign of Qatar's closer ties with the west, the emir also allowed the US to base its Central Command on the peninsula during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. In 2013, the emir handed over power to his son, Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani.

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Once an impoverished British protectorate known mostly for its pearl-diving industry, today Qatar is the richest country on Earth, with over $100,000 US per capita GDP. It is a regional leader in the Persian Gulf and Arabian Peninsula, regularly mediating disputes among nearby nations, and is also home to the Al Jazeera News Network.

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http://www.infoplease.com/country/qatar.html

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You guys can check out this website - Its Nelson Mandela's biogra

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Qatar was first occupied about 50,000 years ago

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Qatar was first occupied about 50,000 years ago

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This was all during the Neolithic era when mankind began to form proper civillizations

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The Museum of Islamic Art represents Islamic art from three continents over 1,400 years. MIA is the flagship of Qatar Museums which, under the leadership of its Chairperson H.E. Sheikha Al Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, is transforming the State of Qatar into a cultural capital of the Middle East.

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The Museum of Islamic Art represents Islamic art from three continents over 1,400 years. MIA is the flagship of Qatar Museums which, under the leadership of its Chairperson H.E. Sheikha Al Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, is transforming the State of Qatar into a cultural capital of the Middle East.

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The Qatar Oil Discoveries. Rasoul Sorkhabi, Ph.D. In January 1940 (now 70 years ago), with the discovery of the onshore Dukhan oil field, Qatar joined the Middle East's oil club. In 1960 (50 years ago), Qatar's first offshore field was discovered.

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The Qatar Oil Discoveries. Rasoul Sorkhabi, Ph.D. In January 1940 (now 70 years ago), with the discovery of the onshore Dukhan oil field, Qatar joined the Middle East's oil club. In 1960 (50 years ago), Qatar's first offshore field was discovered.

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https://www.visitqatar.qa/discover/cultural-treasures/historic-sites

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Some words are borrowed directly from Arabic; but most of these words have taken the scenic route, through Spanish, Italian, and/or French; or through Turkish, Persian, or Urdu; or through Hebrew or Latin. This produces a good deal of phonological deformation; as does the dialect variation within Arabic.

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Infoplease is the world's largest free reference site. Facts on world and country flags, maps, geography, history, statistics, disasters current events, and international relations.

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Martin Luther King Day is on the 16th of January because the 15th of January was his day of birth

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This was a very nice website that I found about Martin Luther King!

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Martin Luther King, Jr.

Martin Luther King, Jr. was one of the leading men involved in the civil rights movement.

He was a Baptist Minister and most well-known for following Mahatma Gandhi's belief of non-violent protest.

King was involved in many of the social and political activist movements from the mid 1950's until the day he was assassinated in 1968.

Martin Luther King Jr. born and raised

He was born in 1922 in Atlanta, Georgia and was from a family that had its roots in the country areas of Georgia; and his father and father-in-law had been ministers in the local church.

He and his father adopted the name of 'Martin Luther' to honor the German protestor that established the Protestant religion.

King's family environment discouraged any prejudice based on race, religion or economic situation.

These lessons would be the founding base for King's beliefs for the rest of his life.

What school did Martin Luther King Jr go to?

By 1944, King attended Moorehouse College an early-admission student at the age of 15 and then Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania.

He was considered to be a good student, but rebelled against what he thought was the more conservative religious attitude of his father.

A friend of his father, theologian Reinhold Niebbuhr, became the single individual that had the most influence over King's growing spiritual and intellectual development.

King was accepted by a number of colleges and universities for his doctoral study which included Yale and Scotland's Edinburgh; he chose to go to Boston University.

He graduated when he was 25 years old and became pastor of a Montgomery, Alabama church.

Rosa Parks

December 1, 1955 was the date that Rosa Parks, a Black American woman, refused to give up her seat to a white person and was arrested.

The segregation and prejudice of the time was bad and the local chapter of the NAACP met with King and other community members to arrange a boycott of the bus system.

King was elected to speak to the community and this speech started his career on the road to the many protests against unfair situations.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

The success of King's reception and his ability to speak to the people led him and others to form the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.

Their purpose was to address unfair practices for the Black American community and other race-related topics. He traveled all over the country preaching reform and especially non-violent protest.

Martin Luther King Arrested

Dr. King encouraged and participated all types of non-violent protest efforts including 'sit-ins' at lunch rooms where the black and whites were separated.

Returning to Atlanta, he took over his father's church, and continued to support civil rights.

He was arrested in 1960 when he and 75 other Black Americans entered a department store and requested service at the lunch counter and were denied due to their race.

They continued to sit until the time they were arrested.

The story was brought to the attention of the then candidate for President, John F. Kennedy, who called King's wife and expressed concern for the treatment.

What happened in Birmingham Alabama 1963?

In 1963 King organized a demonstration in Birmingham, Alabama.

Police turned fire hoses on the demonstrators and the attention for mistreatment became nationwide.

King was arrested along with a number of other people and it was from his jail cell that he announced the nonviolent way to achieve success:

"Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community, which has constantly refused to negotiate, is forced to confront the issue."

I Have a Dream Speech

King worked with others to organize a massive 1963 demonstration to Washington, D.C. Over 200,000 people showed up and it was there, at the podium, that Dr. King gave his famous "I have a dream" speech.

Tensions were mounting in cities and towns across the country and it became obvious that change in discrimination had to occur.

Dr. King's actions helped the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and Dr. King received the Nobel Peace Prize.

What happened on Bloody Sunday in Selma?

While Dr. King always asked for nonviolence and peaceful protest, violence broke out in Selma, Alabama during Civil Rights march.

This horrible situation became known as "Bloody Sunday" and while Dr. King wasn't there, the nation watched as police turned violent against the demonstrators.

By the time a third march was planned, Dr. King knew they couldn't violate the restraining order that had been set in place, so instead, white and black demonstrators marched to the Pettus Bridge where the barricades had been set in place and everyone kneeled in prayer.

They then turned and walked away.

His point had been made at the bridge, without violence, but some of the less patient younger supporters began to shy away from these kinds of tactics. Dr. King made the decision to extend the protests to include the Vietnam War.

The unpopular and politically motivated war was taking American lives and many across the country was in opposition to it.

He added additional positions to address the poor and unemployed.

In 1968, Dr. King was frustrated with the slow movement of civil rights and equality and was attempting to broaden the range of programs that he wanted to address in the hope that it would attract leaders that would take action.

Martin Luther King Assassination

On Thursday, April 4th, 1968, while standing on a balcony at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, he was killed by a sniper bullet from James Earl Ray who was a former convict.

King's last words were to musician Ben Branch, "Ben, make sure you play 'Take My Hand, Precious Lord' in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty."

James Earl Ray was later sentenced to 99 years' imprisonment for the murder of Dr. King.

Facts about Martin Luther King

Born January 15, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia

His birth name was Michael, not Martin

He went to Booker T. Washington High School

He started his college education at Morehouse College in 1944

Arrested on Oct 19 1960 at Atlanta sit-in

The civil rights leader went to jail 29 times

Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964.

Assassinated On Thursday, April 4th, 1968

Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is a national holiday held on the third Monday of each January.

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Martin Luther King, Jr. was one of the leading men involved in the civil rights movement. He was a Baptist Minister and most well-known for following Mahatma Gandhi's belief of non-violent protest. King was involved in many of the social and political activist movements from the mid 1950's until the day he was assassinated in ...

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This is a factfile all about Qatar. https://www.google.com/url

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Here are some interesting facts about Qatar !

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Here are some interesting facts about Qatar !

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http://www.lifeinqatar.com/Pages/en/article/living/interesting-facts-about-qatar.html this was helpful

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This is really helpful if you are researching about Qatar's History

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A chronology of key events:

1700s - Migrants establish pearling and trading settlements along the coast of present-day Qatar.

Asian Games

Qatar became the first Arab country to host the Asian Games in 2006

Biggest event in the 55-year history of the Games

45 countries, regions took part

1867 - Conflict with neighbouring Bahrain over territorial claims; Doha is all but destroyed.

Seeds of independence are sown when Britain signs a treaty which recognises Qatar as a separate entity, rather than a dependency of Bahrain.

1871-1913 - Turkish Ottoman forces establish a garrison at the emir's invitation.

1916 - Deal signed under which Britain controls Qatar's external affairs in return for guaranteeing its protection.

Oil discovered

1939 - Oil reserves discovered. Exploitation is delayed by World War II, but oil comes to replace pearling and fishing as Qatar's main source of revenue.

1950s - Oil revenues fund the expansion and modernisation of Qatar's infrastructure.

1968 - Britain announces that it will withdraw its forces from the Gulf; Qatar negotiates with Bahrain and present-day United Arab Emirates on forming a federation.

Independence

1971 - Qatar becomes independent on 3 September.

1972 - Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani takes power in a palace coup after infighting in the ruling family.

1990 August - After Iraq invades Kuwait, Qatar says it will allow foreign forces on its soil. Qatari troops later take part in the liberation of Kuwait.

1995 - Sheikh Khalifa deposed by his son, Hamad, in a bloodless coup.

1996 - Al-Jazeera satellite TV launches, as an independent channel funded by the emir. Based in Qatar but broadcasting to much of the Arab world, it establishes a reputation for its news coverage and willingness to tackle controversial issues.

1999 - Municipal elections, the first democratic polls since 1971, mark the start of a democratisation programme.

2000 February - A cousin of the emir and 32 other people are jailed for life for planning a foiled coup in 1996.

2001 March - Qatar settles long-running border disputes with Saudi Arabia and Bahrain.

Iraq war

2002 - Qatar looms large in US plans for a possible war against Iraq. Its al-Udeid air base is developed and expanded. Washington says it will deploy US Central Command staff to Qatar.

2003 March-April - Qatar-based US Central Command forward base serves as the nerve centre in the US-led military campaign in Iraq.

2003 April - Voters approve a new constitution, which provides for a 45-member parliament with 30 elected members and the rest selected by the emir.

Capital: Doha

Doha was transformed by oil money

Originally a pearling and fishing village

Destroyed in 1867 war with Bahrain

Population: 264,000

2003 August - In a surprise move, the emir names his younger son Prince Tamim as crown prince, replacing his other son Prince Jassim.

Chechen killed

2004 February - Former Chechen president Zelimkhan Yanderbiyev is killed in an explosion in Doha, where he had been living. Qatar hands life sentences to two Russian agents over the killing; relations with Russia deteriorate. The pair are extradited to Russia in late 2004.

2005 March - A car bomb at a theatre near a British school in Doha kills one Briton and injures 12 other people.

2005 June - Qatar's first written constitution comes into effect, providing for some democratic reforms.

2005 November - Qatar and the US launch a $14 billion joint project to build the world's largest liquefied natural gas plant. Most of the gas will be exported to the US.

2007 September - Qatar and Dubai become the two biggest shareholders of the London Stock Exchange, the world's third largest stock exchange.

2008 March - St Mary's Roman Catholic Church becomes the first official Christian church inaugurated in Qatar. Christians were previously not permitted to worship openly.

2008 December - Saudi Arabia and Qatar agree final delineation of borders and pledge to boost co-operation after diplomatic relations restored in March.

2009 January - Qatar cuts trade ties with Israel over Gaza offensive. Was sole Gulf state to have trade ties with Israel.

2010 December - Qatar wins bid to host 2022 Fifa World Cup.

2011 March - Qatar joins international military operations in Libya.

2011 April - Qatar hosts meeting of international "contact group" on Libya, which calls on Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi to quit.

Qatar reportedly arms Libyan opposition.

2011 November - Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani says elections to the advisory council will be held in 2013, in what would be Qatar's first legislative elections.

2012 January - The Afghan Taliban say they are setting up a political office in Qatar to facilitate talks.

2012 October - Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa al Thani visits Gaza, the first head of state to do so since Hamas took power there five years previously.

2013 June - Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad al-Thani takes over as emir after his father abdicates.

2013 October - Court upholds 15-year jail sentence for poet Mohammed al-Ajami who was convicted of inciting people to overthrow government.

2014 March - Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and the UAE temporarily withdraw their ambassadors from Qatar after alleging that it has been meddling in their internal affairs.

2014 September - Qatar and four other Arab states take part in US-led air strikes on Islamic State militants in Syria.

2015 March - Qatar and four other GCC states take part in Saudi-led air strikes on Houthi rebels in Yemen.

2016 March - Human rights group Amnesty International, says in a new report that migrant workers employed on construction sites for the 2022 football World Cup in Qatar, face systematic abuse which sometimes amounts to forced labour.

2016 December - Government says it is abolishing the controversial labour sponsorship system or "kafala" that forces foreign workers to seek their employers' consent to change jobs or leave the country.

2017 June - Diplomatic crisis as Saudi Arabia leads an air, land and sea blockade by Arab countries, in an attempt to get Qatar to cut its alleged connections with terrorism and distance itself from Iran.

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A chronology of key events: 1700s - Migrants establish pearling and trading settlements along the coast of present-day Qatar. Qatar became the first Arab country to host the Asian Games in 2006 Biggest event in the 55-year history of the Games 45 countries, regions took part 1867 - Conflict with neighbouring Bahrain over territorial claims; Doha is all but destroyed.

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With these 29 fascinating facts about Qatar,you will learn about the peaceful state of Qatar, which lies in the Arabian Gulf. Travelers who visit the sovereign country gain great insight into the Arab World. Read a Qatar travel guide to learn much about tourist attractions in this tiny state with huge ambitions.

Facts about Qatar's economy

#1. Qatar is among the top ten leading producers of LNG - liquefied natural gas.

#2. The state of Qatar recently spent an incredible $30 billion dollarson new infrastructure. Leading transport projects included Ashghal's Expressway and the New Port Project. Leading property projects included the Msheireb developmentand the Lusail City project.

#4. The Hamad International Airport was opened in 2014. It has the ability to handle around fifty million passengers each year.

#5. The Hamad International Airport is the ninth biggest in the world. ( Facts About Airplanes)

Sports in Qatar

#7. Qatar will host the next FIFA World Cup to be staged in 2022. Qataris also enjoy many sports including handball, drag racing, golf, powerboat racing, futsal, basketball, camel racing, water sports, swimming, and cricket.

#8. The opening trip of the World Motocross championship was held in Qatar in February 2015. The off-road motorcycle race was run during the night owing to the extreme daytime heat.

#9. The Qatari National Football League are Middle East Champions. The Qatar Stars League was founded in 1963 and consists of fourteen teams.

#11. The Aspire Zone sports academy was built on 240 hectares of land. The sporting paradise is home to medical facilities, a mosque, parkland, a retail area, an International sports Stadium, a sports club and a sports education class.

Flag of Qatar

Facts about food in Qatar

#12. Qataris eat their main meal of the day at lunchtime. Karak tea is served after meals; the rich milky tea is laced with Cardamom. The Friday midday meal, after prayers, is usually a time for the whole family to get together.
Continue reading on the next page...

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29 Interesting Facts About Qatar - The Fact File

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With these 29 fascinating facts about Qatar,you will learn about the peaceful state of Qatar, which lies in the Arabian Gulf. Travelers who visit the sovereign country gain great insight into the Arab World. Read a Qatar travel guide to learn much about tourist attractions in this tiny state with huge ambitions.

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http://www.zompist.com/arabic.html arabic words used in English

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English Words That Are Originated From The Arabic Region

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English Words That Are Originated From The Arabic Region

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

There are numerous Arabic loanwords in English, i.e., words of English acquired directly from Arabic or indirectly, by passing from Arabic into a third language (often Spanish) and then into English.

But some of these loanwords from Arabic (a Semitic language) are not of Arabic origin: they are loanwords in Arabic itself. Arabic acquired words from Latin, Greek, Persian, or from fellow members of the Afroasiatic language family. Within the Afro-Asiatic language family, Arabic borrowed words from the Semitic languages Hebrew, Aramaic, and Akkadian and the non-Semitic language Coptic (Ancient Egyptian).

Reliability of etymological claims

Speaking about etymological claims in general, interested persons are cautioned to examine them carefully for validity and detail. Many claimed etymologies are difficult to verify. Various dictionaries may differ among themselves on the etymology of a given word, to a minor extent or a major extent. Some etymological claims are nothing more than a speculation as to what the etymology could possibly be; an example of this is the claim that "monkey" derives from Arabic. Speculative claims are identified properly (as being speculative) by some dictionaries and not by other dictionaries. In cases where parts of the claimed etymology are beyond doubt, perusal of various dictionaries may reveal that the dictionaries differ among themselves on the details. Such as zipher[n]

Content and substantiation of list entries

A list of dictionaries consulted has been given. Detailed explanations have been given only for the few loanwords whose interpretation has been impacted by substantial developments in intellectual or social history. For example, the meaning conveyed by "alcohol" seems not to have been borrowed from Arabic, but seems rather to have arisen among European alchemists after the word had been borrowed. Furthermore, efforts have been made to indicate which Arabic words are themselves loanwords. But it has been deemed unnecessary to provide sources or detailed etymologies for the mere purpose of confirming that an entry is indeed an Arabic loanword, given: the ready availability of online dictionaries; the length of this list; and, the fact already mentioned that different dictionaries differ on the details of some word etymologies.

Rationale for inclusion in the list

Words not proven to be Arabic loanwords are listed below separately, following the section for the letter Z.

This list has been edited to serve the purpose of identifying words that represent some lasting influence of one culture upon another, specifically, of the Arabic speaking world upon Europe. Examples of "influence" are: the adoption by European societies of new material objects, technology, intellectual knowledge, ideas, or cultural practices from the Arabic speaking world; the adoption of new words for already possessed material objects, technology, etc. This does not describe the situation of people referring to objects or beliefs in the course of discussing foreign places or societies. For example, the fact that a speaker of English may be curious about boats, beverages, or fairy tales distinctive to Arabic speaking cultures does not make the Arabic language names of boats, beverages, or fairy tale characters loanwords in English.

This principle may be explained by examples. The word "alidade" is the name of a measuring instrument traditionally used by surveyors to determine direction. Although very few English speaking persons have been surveyors, traditionally this device was part of the craft of English speaking surveyors. Also, the name of the Islamic holy city of Mecca has come to mean "a place that is regarded as the center of an activity or interest", and is fairly widely used in this sense by educated people even when they are not Muslim and they are not referring to the city of Mecca itself. Therefore the words "alidade" and "Mecca" rate as additions to English speaking culture and/or technology. By contrast, English speaking people do not use the Arabic word tell meaning 'hill' and would not have occasion to use it except in the context of "this is what Arabs call a hill". Nor do English speaking people refer to fortresses as "alcazars". Spanish speaking people may, but that is a matter of Spanish speaking history or culture, and English speakers would not have occasion to use alcazar except to discuss Spanish history or culture. Similarly, the English language has the word "God". English speakers who have monotheistic religious belief but do not follow Islam use the word "God", not "Allah". Therefore, 'tell', 'alcazar', and 'Allah' do not rate as loanwords in English. As for star names, even astronomy enthusiasts do not know most of the star names of Arabic origin; therefore, Arabic star names are not part of any English speaking subculture, except for a handful of names that refer to the some of the most prominent stars.

For explanations of words pertaining to Arabic speaking cultures, Islamic practices, or Middle Eastern geography, and for words which are loanwords in languages other than English, consult articles addressing those topics.

Phonetic transcriptions

As for phonetic transcriptions, three symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), [ʕ, x, γ] have been consistently applied.

* [ʕ] is found in [ʕarab] 'Arab'. Traditionally, it is spelled with a single opening quote mark, but computer keyboards do not distinguish between opening and closing quote marks.
* [x] is like 'ch' in German, and it is usually spelled 'kh' in spelling Arabic words.
* [γ] (lower case Greek gamma) represents the voiced counterpart of [x].

Other transcriptions use non-IPA symbols which are standard in the literature on Arabic grammar and literature. The numeral '7' denotes the glottal stop as in the middle sound of the English interjection, "uh-oh". When an entire word is spelled in IPA, it is enclosed in square brackets per IPA standard.

Loanwords listed in alphabetical order

A

admiral
أميرالبحار, amīr al-bihār commander of the seas.
adobe
الطوب aṭ-ṭūb, the bricks.
albacore
الباكورة al-bakūra, perhaps from bakūr, premature.
albatross (or algatross)
الغطاس al-γaṭṭās (or al-ghaṭṭās), the diver.
alchemy
الكيمياء alkīmiyā, from Greek khēmia, khēmeia, art of transmuting metals[1]
alcohol
الغول - الكحول in the literature of late European alchemy, the quintessence of an earthly substance. See kohl in this list. The idea of "quintessences of earthly substances" and the use of "alcohol" to denote quintessences are developments in European alchemy in the 14th century. From the 1500s on, the denotation of "alcohol" narrowed down to "quintessence of wine" or "spirit of wine", i.e., ethanol, CH3CH2OH, as the term "alcool vini" (quintessence of wine) got shortened to "alcool" or "alcohol". The term alco(h)ol vini supplanted the original quinta essentia vini, "fifth essence of wine".[2][3]
alcove
قبة - طاقة al-qubba, "the vault".
alembic
الإنبيق al-anbiq, "still" (the distillation device), from Greek ambix, stem ambik-, "cup".
algebra
الجبر al-jabr, the restoring of missing parts. This word is reported to have entered Middle English in the sense of 'the setting of broken bones'. The modern mathematical sense comes from the title of a book, al-kitāb al-muxtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala, "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing", by the 9th-century Muslim mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsa al-Xwārizmī. The appellation al-xwārizmī means literally "the Khwārizmian", referring to Khwārizm, now Khiva, in Uzbekistan. Another legacy of this mathematician is that his appellation gave rise to the word algorithm الخوارزمية.
algorism
[1] see algorithm in this list.
algorithm or algorism
الخوارزمي al-xwārizmī, the Khwārizmian. Appellation of the Persian scientist, Muḥammad ibn Mūsa al-Xwārizmī, who wrote the first book on algebra. See algebra in this list
alidade
عضادة , عِضَادة . A surveying instrument.
alizarin
العصارة al-ʕaṣārah, the juice. A dye.
alkali
القلي from qalā, to fry, to roast. 'Alkali' originally meant a saline substance derived from the ashes of plants.
almanac
المناخal-manāx (or al-manākh), "the climate", possibly from Greek almenichiakon, calendar
alfalfa
al-fisfisa, fresh fodder [2]
alkanet
الحنة '"al-hinna'"=the henna.[3]
amalgam
الملغم al-malgham. [4]
amber
amber/anbar, yellow [5]
aniline
نيلة - صبغ النيل al-nili, from Persian and Sanskrit[citation needed]
apricot
البرقوق al-birquq
arsenal
دار الصناعة dār aṣ-ṣināʕa, house of manufacturing
artichoke
الخرشوف al-xurshūf or from ardi chawki meaning "land thorn"
assassin
حشاشين ḥashshāshīn, those who use hashish (cannabis resin).
attar
عطر itr/utur, perfume,aroma. [6]
aubergine
الباذنجان al-bādhinjān, from Persian bâdinjân ultimately from the Sanskrit vatin gana.
azimuth
السموت as-sumūt, the paths
azure
الزورد al-lazward, 'lapis lazuli' - from Persian.

B

barding (archaic term for horse armour)
bardaʿah, packsaddle -any of various pieces of defensive armor for a horse covering, from Persian.
benzoin
لبان جاوي labān jāwī, "frankincense of Java". Benzoin is an organic chemical solvent extracted from a resin of an Asian tree.
bezoar
bazahr, from Persian.
bonito
bainīth.
burnous/burnoose
برنوس burnūs, from Latin byrrhus
borax
بورق buraq, from Persian.

C

caliber
قالب qâlib, 'mould', derived from arabic.[4]
camphor
كافور kafur. [7]
candy
قند qandi, possibly a loanword.
carat
qirat, from Greek
carafe
غراف‎ gharrāfa, see decanter.
caraway
كراوية karāwiya
carmine
ultimately from Sanskrit krmi-ja. See 'kermes' below.
carob
خرّوب xarrūb, (1) locust; (2) carob bean
carrack
qarāqīr plural of qurqur
checkmate
شاه مات shah māt, from Persian 'The king is dead'[5]
chemistry
see alchemy in this list
cipher
صفر sifr, zero
civet
zaba'd [8]
coffee
قهوة qahwa, itself possibly from Kefa, Ethiopia, where the plant originated.
cotton
قُطْن qutun
crimson
الكرمزي qirmazi, related to the qirmiz, the insect that provided the dye.
curcuma
From Arabic word kurkum =saffron, turmeric.[9]
D

divan
ديوان dīwān, from Persian.
dragoman
ترجمان tarjumān, from Aramaic turgemānā, in turn from Akkadian.[6]
E

elixir
الإكسير al-'iksīr, (1) philosopher's stone; (2) medicinal potion. From Greek xērion, powder for drying wounds

F

fustic
الفسطيط أو الفستيق fosṭeeṭ, ultimately from Greek πιστακη pistakē, pistachio tree[6]

G

garble
γarbala, sift; ultimately from Latin cribellum, sieve
gauze
ّقز qazz, in turn from Persian kazh (كژ) "raw silk".
gazelle
غزال ghazāl
gerbil
See jerboa in this list; the word "gerbil" is a European created diminutive of "jerboa", but the words refer to distinct species.
ghoul
غول ghūl
giraffe
زرافة zarāfa[7]

H

harem
حريم harīm, forbidden thing or place
hashish
حشيش hashīsh, Cannabis
hazard
الزهر az-zahr, chance, name of the pieces used in the game of 'nard,' or 'tawola.' It can also represent a type of flower.
henna
حنة hinna

I-J

ifrit
عفريت Ifreet an ancient demon.
jar
جرة jarrah, large earthen vase
jasmine
from French. jasmin, , from Arabic yas(a)min ياسمين .[10]
jinn
Also (Genie) in Arabic is الجن al Jinn Another creation from fire which humans cannot physically see.
jerboa
جربوع jarbūa. See also gerbil in this list.

K

kermes
قرمز qirmiz perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit krmi-ja, worm-produced
kohl
الكحل al-kuhl, kohl. Powdered stibnite, used for millennia to decorate the eyes and as an eye medicine. (Stibnite is an ore of the element antimony.)

L

lacquer
lakk.
lilac
from Arabic lilak, from Pers. lilak, variant of nilak "bluish," from nil "indigo" [11]
lime
ليمه leemah "citrus fruit," a back-formation or a collective noun from ليمون laymun "lemon"[12]
loofah
from the Egyptian Arabic word lūfa لوفه.
lute
العود al-ʕūd, "the oud", a forerunner of the guitar.

M

macrame
miqrama, embroidered veil (via French)
mafia
Perhaps mahyas, "aggressive, boasting, bragging."[8]; but the OED suggests another Arabic derivation, from Sicilian marfusu ('scoundrel'), from Spanish marfuz ('traitor') from Arabic marfud ('outcast').
magazine
مخازين makhāzin, storehouses,
mascara
uncertain origin; possibly from مسخرة maskhara "buffoon" or from an unknown language. In modern Arabic maskhara means to ridicule
massage
uncertain whether ultimately from either Arabic مسح massa, to stroke, or from Latin massa, dough
mattress
مطرح matrah, (1) spot where something is thrown down; (2) mat, cushion
mocha
مخا al-muxā (or al-mukhā), city of Mocha, Yemen
mohair
مخير muxayyar, having the choice
monsoon
موسم mawsim, season
mummy
موميا mūmiyyā, embalmed corpse (ultimately from Persian).
muslin
derived from the name of the Iraqi city of موصل Mosul, where cotton fabric was manufactured

N

nadir
نظير naẓīr, parallel or counterpart
nucha (anatomical term for 'nape of the neck')
نخاع ، منخع , nape of the neck. Via Medieval Latin, from Arabic nuḫā', marrow, spinal cord.[9]
nunation
from the Arabic name of the 'n' sound: nuun نون . Medical term: overly frequent or abnormal use (as in stammering) of the sound of the letter n.

O

orange
From Arabic word نارنج naranj, from Sanskrit via Persian.

P

popinjay
ببفا babaγā Parrot.

Q

qat / khat
قات kat The plant Catha edulis.

R

racquet or 'racket'
راحة rāhah, palm of the hand
realgar
rahj al-ghar,[6] a mineral
ream (quantity of sheets of paper)
رزمة rizma, bale, bundle
roc
rukhkh, possibly from Persian.
S

safari
from Swahili safari, journey, in turn from Arabic safar سفر. [13]
safflower
أصفر asfar, yellow .
saffron
زعفران zaffarān (or zaffarān), species of crocus plant bearing orange stigmas and purple flowers.
sash
شاش shāsh, wrap of muslin. See muslin in this list.
sequin
صقع sikka, die, coin
sherbet, sorbet, shrub, syrup
شراب sharāb, a drink
soda
perhaps from سوادة suwwāda, سويد suwayd, or سويدة suwayda, a species of plant
sofa
suffa, stone ledge
sugar
سكّر sukkar, sugar, ultimately from Sanskrit [14]
sumac
summāq, from Aramaic.

T

tabby (fabric)
عتابي ʕattābī (9attābī), deriv. of (al-)ʕattābiyya, quarter of Baghdad where watered silk was first made, named after a prince, ʕattāb
tahini
طحين ṭaḥīn, flour, which derives from the Arabic verb for "grind"
talc
طلق ṭalq, from Persian.
tamarind
تمر هندي tamr-hindī, date of India
tare
tarḥa, a discard (something discarded)[6]
tariff
تعريفة taʕrīfa (or ta9rīfa), act of making known; notification
tazza
طشت ṭašt, round, shallow, drinking cup made of metal. Amer. Heritage Dict.

U-Z

zenith
سمت الرأس samt ar-ra's, zenith, vertex
zero
صفر sifr, cipher, zero.

Contents Top · 0-9 · A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

[edit] Words not proven to be Arabic loanwords

average
عوارية (بضاعة اصابها عطب في البحر) - متوسط of disputed origin; possibly from ʕawārīya, damaged merchandise, or from Italian avere or French avoir, property, from Latin habere, to have
monkey
barbican or Barbacan
Outer fortification of a city or castle, perhaps from Arabic or Persian ' باب خانه bab-khanah =gate-house".[15], [16]
caramel
possibly from Arabic, more likely from Latin cannamellis, burnt honey
date
دقل - بلح Possibly from Arabic daqal "date palm". [17]
drub
gala
perhaps from Arabic khil'a, fine garment given as a presentation. [18]
gibberish
حيان jabir; the name of the Arabic alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, whose name was Latinized as "Geber".[10]
Mulatto
disputed etymology either from Spanish or Arabic.
risk
possibly from Arabic rizq, but also argued to be from Greek [19].
satin
probably from Arabic zaytūnī, of Zaytun
scarlet
siqillat, fine cloth. ".[20]
talisman
a blend of the Arabic loan from Greek and the Greek itself [21]
tobacco
from Arabic tabbaq".[22]
toque
kind of round hat, possibly from Arabic taqa.
traffic
tafriq, distribution. This is one scholar's published suggestion.
قال رسول الله : صلى الله عليه وسلم { من سئل عن علم فكتمه ألجمه الله بلجام من نار يوم القيامة }

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List of Arabic loanwords in English - Arabic / العربية - Other languages - The Free Dictionary Language Forums

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia There are numerous Arabic loanwords in English, i.e., words of English acquired directly from Arabic or indirectly, by passing from Arabic into a third language (often Spanish) and then into English. But some of these loanwords from Arabic (a Semitic language) are not of Arabic origin: they are loanwords in Arabic itself.

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Some words are borrowed directly from Arabic; but most of these words have taken the scenic route, through Spanish, Italian, and/or French; or through Turkish, Persian, or Urdu; or through Hebrew or Latin. This produces a good deal of phonological deformation; as does the dialect variation within Arabic.

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List of English words of Arabic origin - Wikipedia

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To qualify for this list, a word must be reported in etymology dictionaries as having descended from Arabic. A handful of dictionaries have been used as the source for the list. Words associated with the Islamic religion are omitted; for Islamic words, see Glossary of Islam. Archaic and rare words are also omitted.

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Scattered across the nation, forts offer a glimpse of a time when tribes were constantly on alert for invading armies.

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This was so helpful! Make sure to check it out !😃

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Qatar facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Qatar

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Get information, facts, and pictures about Qatar at Encyclopedia.com. Make research projects and school reports about Qatar easy with credible articles from our FREE, online encyclopedia and dictionary.

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The distortion of history through selection & omission.  Does Trump not know Castro replaced the 'brutal dictator', Somosa, who just happened to be a US puppet & champion of the United Fruit Company - aka the CIA?  http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/barack-obama-donald-trump-fidel-castro-death-us-embargo-cuba-diplomatic-thaw-a7441251.html

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I thought this would be a might good website about trump...

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I thought this would be a might good website about trump...

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http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/onpolitics/2016/11/23/amazon-trump-trolls-megyn-kelly-book/94324354/

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I found this website about Obama
and I found it really useful.

http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/barack-obama

Thank you! Mrs S

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http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/barack-obama

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The new Apple book is selling for 300$! Take a look at this… (by Sara 7D) edit: I will add a reference it just doesn't work on here :(

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Burial of Former Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos

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Burial of Former Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos

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The burial of former Philippine President Feedinand Marcos today at the Heroes' Cemetary in Manila was a secret kept from the citizens of the nation.

It was a controversial - the current President, Rodrigo Duterte promised to bury him - amidst protest.

Marcos' presidency was a dark era in the Philippines' history in modern times. Marcos implemented Martial law in the 1970s, causing outrage - leading to the People Power Revolution in the late 70s and early 80s.

Between 1972 and 1979, the Philippines enjoyed its best economic development since 1945.

He was exiled to Honolulu, and died there. Wanting to return his body to the country, the Marcos family pleaded to the Aquino Administration - but was barred until the Presidency of Fidel Ramos.

The burial symbolised the end of the Philippines' authoritarian past... and the start to a new chapter in its history.

Another far right extremist in power, with popular support.... Mrs S

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Ex-Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos was buried with military honors Friday, 30 years after he was ousted in a People Power revolution.

The ceremony began with a 21-gun salute as soldiers in parade dress and ceremonial rifles stood to attention at the "Cemetery of Heroes" in Manila.

Despite growing opposition from a coalition composed of Philippine human rights victims of the Marcos dictatorship, the Philippine's Supreme Court ruled last week that Marcos could be buried at the cemetery.

Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte approved the burial of the former dictator, disregarding the opposition's rejection. Marcos body was flown secretly to Manila in an apparent effort to avoid protests.

Thousands of riot police and soldiers guarded the perimeter of the cemetery and there were no protesters.

The Marcos family fled the Philippines at the height of the army-backed People Power Revolution, which inspired other democracy movements in Asia.

Marcos died in exile in Hawaii in 1989 and his body was returned to his northern Philippine hometown of Batac in 1993. Since then, it has been displayed in a glass coffin and became a tourist attraction.

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голос америки

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Ex-Philippine Dictator Marcos Buried With Military Honors

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Ex-Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos was buried with military honors Friday, 30 years after he was ousted in a People Power revolution. The ceremony began with a 21-gun salute as soldiers in parade dress and ceremonial rifles stood to attention at the "Cemetery of Heroes" in Manila.

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On this day in History, Queen Elizabeth I came to the throne!

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17th November 1558: Queen Elizabeth I's reign begins

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On the 17th November 1558, Elizabeth I succeeded her half-sister Mary to become queen of England. The last of the Tudor dynasty, Elizabeth's reign is seen by many as a 'golden age' in English history.

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I wonder what Henry valued more his Wives or his hat's?
http://irisharchaeology.ie/2014/10/henry-viiis-cap-of-maintenance-waterford-city/

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Did Donald Trump announce that he will give up his presidential salary of $400,000 for $1 a year!

He did! Mrs S

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President-elect Donald Trump has announced he will give up his presidential salary of $400,000 (£319,500) and take just $1 a year.

He revealed his plan to receive nominal pay during an interview with 60 Minutes' Lesley Stahl on CBS News.

Though he was unaware of how much a president made, Mr Trump said he thought he was required to take $1.

After Ms Stahl told him it was $400,000, he said: "No, I'm not going to take the salary. I'm not taking it."

The president-elect is following through on a promise he made while on the campaign trail. He told a crowd last September that salary was "not a big deal" for him.

Have other leaders given up their annual salary?

Mr Trump is not the first US leader to extend the symbolic gesture of forgoing a salary. Herbert Hoover, who made his fortune in mining before taking office, and John F Kennedy, who inherited his wealth, both gave up their salaries and donated them to charity.

Former Mayor Michael Bloomberg, former California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney also gave up their executive pay for a buck.

Mark Zuckerberg is Facebook's lowest-paid employee and among many billionaire CEOs earning $1 in pay.

Google's Sergey Brin and Larry Page have been taking a $1 salary for about a decade while Oracle's Larry Ellison took the same cut for several years while he was CEO. Hewlett Packard Enterprise CEO Meg Whitman also uses the same strategy.

But it's worth noting these aforementioned business leaders received pay by other means, including equity stakes in their companies and other performance-based compensation.
Jose Mujica: The world's poorest president How world leaders react to Trump's upset
What do other international leaders make?

In addition to the $400,000, the US president also has a tax-free expense account worth $50,000, according to a statute.

By comparison, the Canadian Prime Minister took a salary of C$340,800 (£201,202) last year.

German Chancellor Angela Merkel made $242,000 (£193,976) while French President Francois Hollande earned $198,700 (£158,000), according to a CNN Money report in August. Mr Hollande took a 30% pay cut when he assumed office in 2012.

The UK prime minister Theresa May earns $186,119 (£143,462) annually, although in the wake of the Brexit vote it has dropped in dollar worth.

Former Prime Minister David Cameron faced sharp criticism for taking a 10% pay rise in 2015, but he said "the right thing to do is to be paid the rate for the job", adding that it "gives you the opportunity to do more in terms of charitable giving and things like that."

When did the concept become popular?

Though Apple founder Steve Jobs popularised the $1 salary concept in Silicon Valley after returning to the company's helm in 1997, business executives have sacrificed their salaries since WWI and WWII.

The "dollar-a-year men" consisted of prominent executives, bankers and manufacturers who volunteered to serve in government roles to help the war effort during WWI. Since US law prohibits unpaid work, these leaders accepted a token salary of only $1 a year.

The idea re-emerged during WWII, with executives hailing from such industry giants as Lockheed, Chrysler and Boeing stepping forward to serve their patriotic duty.

Will Donald Trump have other sources of income?

Yes, and some have already come under scrutiny. Mr Trump's financial arrangements have raised questions after he announced his three children - Donald Jr, Eric, and Ivanka - and Ivanka's husband Jared Kushner, were appointed to his transition committee.

Mr Trump is not required to sell his assets, which are estimated in the billions, and has said he would leave his business empire in a blind trust managed by his children.

However, the trust is arguably no longer blind, or under the control of an independent trustee, given that his children are involved his presidential transition.

So far, Mr Trump has refused to release his taxes, and it is unclear if his holdings in foreign countries will impact on US relations or shape his policy, underscoring a host of potential conflicts of interest.
Trump presidency: Your questions answered
Do you have more questions about a Donald Trump presidency?

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President-elect Donald Trump has announced he will give up his presidential salary of $400,000 (£319,500) and take just $1 a year. He revealed his plan to receive nominal pay during an interview with 60 Minutes' Lesley Stahl on CBS News.

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The moon has come closer to Earth than at any other time since 1948. Sky gazers around the world are congregating near landmarks, on beaches and atop tall buildings to take a look.
The "supermoon" reached its brightest in Asia on Monday evening.

The Moon was closest - only 221,524 miles (356,509km) away - at 11:21 GMT.

The moon orbits the Earth in an ellipse, not a circle, so it is sometimes closer to the Earth than it is at other times.

When the perigee - the closest approach - and the full moon coincide, it is known as a supermoon.

This supermoon was best seen in North America early on Monday, before dawn. The UK's best chance to see it will be on Monday evening.

Supermoons appear about 14% larger and 30% brighter when compared with the furthest point the Moon gets to within its orbit.

The moon will not be this close again until 25 November 2034 - when it will be even closer, within 221,485 miles.

Those hoping to get a good picture are advised to take a photo of the moon with a reference point, like a landmark, in frame.

If you're using a digital SLR - use a daylight white balance setting to capture moonlight, Nasa photographer Bill Ingalls advises.

Images from agencies and BBC

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The moon has come closer to Earth than at any other time since 1948. Sky gazers around the world are congregating near landmarks, on beaches and atop tall buildings to take a look. The "supermoon" reached its brightest in Asia on Monday evening. The Moon was closest - only 221,524 miles (356,509km) away - at 11:21 GMT.

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Archaeologists have done it- a new ancient Egyptian tomb discovered! Exciting news!

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Spanish archaeologists have discovered an ancient Egyptian mummy in "very good condition" near Luxor, according to Egypt's antiquities ministry.

The remains were found in a tomb probably dating from between 1075BC and 664BC on the west bank of the Nile, 435 miles (700km) south of Cairo, a statement said.

The mummy, bound with linen stuck together with plaster, was in a brightly coloured wooden sarcophagus buried near a temple from the era of the warrior king Thutmose III.

The tomb was likely to have belonged to a nobleman, Amenrenef, who would have been a servant of the royal household, the ministry said.

The archaeological team's head, Myriam Seco Alvarez, said the mummy was adorned with many colourful decorations recalling religious symbols from ancient Egypt, such as the goddesses Isis and Nephtys displaying their wings, and the four sons of Horus.

Evidence suggests that the practice of wrapping bodies to preserve them after death in Egypt dates back as far as 4500BC.

Luxor, a city of about 500,000 people, has many temples and tombs built by pharaohs. It is a key site for Egypt's tourist industry, which has been battered by political instability and jihadi violence since the 2011 revolution that toppled the longtime dictator Hosni Mubarak.
Topics

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Ancient Egyptian mummy discovered 'in very good condition'

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Spanish archaeologists have discovered an ancient Egyptian mummy in "very good condition" near Luxor, according to Egypt's antiquities ministry. The remains were found in a tomb probably dating from between 1075BC and 664BC on the west bank of the Nile, 435 miles (700km) south of Cairo, a statement said.

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earthquake in new zealand followed by a tsunami!!

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earthquake in new zealand followed by a tsunami!!

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The tsunami arrived in the north-eastern coast about two hours later. Officials said the first waves may not be the largest, with tsunami activity possible for several hours.

Residents were warned to head inland or for higher ground along the coast.

A gauge at Kaikoura, 181 km (112 miles) north of Christchurch, measured a wave of 2.5m (8ft 2ins), according to Weatherwatch.co.nz.

Smaller waves are said to be arriving in Wellington and other areas, the website said.

But the ministry of civil defence has said the highest waves, which could be as tall as 5m are expected between Malborough, the north-eastern tip of the South Island, and Banks Peninsula, just south of Christchurch.
Isabel 7D

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The holiday is held on or around President George Washington's birthday, which is on February 22nd. President Abraham Lincolns birthday is on the 12 of February.

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Even in the depths of their darkest fantasies, most people could never dream of taking another person’s life. Of course, serial killers are not most people. Here’s a look at some of history’s most famous serial killers and what happened to them in the end:
http://all-that-is-interesting.com/famous-serial-killers

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A poem on the Differences of a Dictatorship and Democracy:

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A poem on the Differences of a Dictatorship and Democracy:

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Democracy started in ancient Greece,
People started to feel the peace,
There is no leader to rule,
Multiple parties you can choose from,
You can have freedom of speech,
And you are treated equally,

Dictatorship has been around for 1000s of years,
There is only one party to choose from,
You cannot speak out of line,
Or you might get fined,
The media is censored to not spread 'rumours',
And when it comes to law in a dictatorship,
No one is treated equally,
So you can see which one is better,
I don't need to say,
Just don't judge this rhyme,
And have a lovely day xD

Clear opinion evident! Well done! Mrs S.

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Donald J Trump is poised to become the 45th President of the United States - now he's President-Elect whilst President Obama is now considered a 'lame duck'*.

Hillary Clinton lost by 52 votes to the winning number - 270.

The school should have some opinions on this - I took a poll amongst Secondary students in DBS on 7th November, where 73 students chose Clinton, whilst 13 chose Trump.

School today drove the students and teachers crazy - all people could talk about was the Election - watching the votes anticipatingly. Year 11s were talking about it in History, the winner disappointed people, with warnings of a possible WW3, assassination, cries...

Some people also said RIP America. Funny, but somewhat true. The Obama Era has ended, and the beginning of Trump's Repudiation Presidency.

The election was ironic, but we learn lessons from these circumstances - that the candidates should not have dark secrets brought with them, to interpret this as some form of change, and to see who's a bad person or a bad politician.

Luckily, the 22nd Amendment is set in place - this amendment to the US Constitution limited the amount of terms a President can run for from unlimited to two terms (this was signed after FDR's presidency of 4 terms - 16 years!!!)

Thank you America for your insufficient intelligence in your voting.

*The term lame duck is hiven to the incumbent President once his succesor is elected and to reflect on his limited time as the President - this doesn't mean he can no longer sign in new laws in December.

thank you for sharing your thoughts on this Andre!  Mrs Shelton

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fun facts about the tudors - the tudors wiki

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FUN FACTS about the Tudors - The Tudors Wiki

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http://www.mrbuddhistory.com/igcse.html
can you put this on our top tips padlet please!  Mrs S

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Telling time like Romans.

Brill! Mrs S

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useful insight into a surprising result!  Mrs S

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Donald Trump has defied all expectations from the very start of his presidential campaign more than a year ago.

Very few people thought he would actually run, then he did. They thought he wouldn't climb in the polls, then he did. They said he wouldn't win any primaries, then he did. They said he wouldn't win the Republican nomination, then he did.

Finally, they said there was no way he could compete for, let alone win, a general election.

Now he's President-elect Trump.

Here are five ways he pulled off what was unexpected by most and incomprehensible to many.

Trump's white wave

Toss-ups were tossed aside. One after another, Ohio, Florida and North Carolina went to Mr Trump.

That left Mrs Clinton's blue firewall, and the firewall was eventually breached.

The Democrat's last stand largely rested on her strength in the Midwest. Those were states that had gone Democrat for decades, based in part on the support of black and working-class white voters.

Those working-class white people, particularly ones without college education - men and women - deserted the party in droves. Rural voters turned out in high numbers, as the Americans who felt overlooked by the establishment and left behind by the coastal elite made their voices heard.

While places like Virginia and Colorado held fast, Wisconsin fell - and with it Mrs Clinton's presidential hopes.

When all is said and done, Mrs Clinton may end up winning the popular vote on the back of strong support in places like California and New York and closer-than-expected losses in solid-red states like Utah.

The Trump wave hit in the places it had to, however. And it hit hard.

Teflon Donald

Mr Trump insulted decorated war veteran John McCain.

He picked a fight with Fox News and its popular presenter, Megyn Kelly.

He doubled down when asked how he once mocked the weight of a Hispanic beauty pageant winner.

He offered a half-hearted apology when the secret video surfaced of his boasting about making unwanted sexual advances towards women.

He gaffed his way through the three presidential debates with clearly lightly practised performances.

None of it mattered. While he took dips in the polls following some of the more outrageous incidents, his approval was like a cork - eventually bouncing back to the surface.

Perhaps the various controversies came so hard and fast that none had time to draw blood. Maybe Mr Trump's personality and appeal was so strong, the scandals just bounced off. Whatever the reason, he was bulletproof.

The outsider

He ran against the Democrats. He also ran against the powers within his own party.

He beat them all.

Mr Trump built a throne of skulls out of his Republican primary opponents. Some, like Marco Rubio, Ted Cruz, Chris Christie and Ben Carson, eventually bent knee. The holdouts, like Jeb Bush and Ohio Governor John Kasich, are now on the outside of their party looking in.

And for the rest of the party insiders, from House Speaker Paul Ryan on down? Mr Trump didn't need their help - and, in fact, may have won because he was willing to take a stand against them.

Mr Trump's pox-on-them-all attitude is likely to have proved his independence and outsider status at a time when much of the American public reviled Washington (although not enough to keep them from re-electing most congressional incumbents running for re-election).

It was a mood some other national politicians sensed - Democrat Bernie Sanders, for instance, as well as Mr Cruz. No one, however, captured it more than Trump, and it won him the White House.

The Comey Factor

The polls clearly did a woeful job predicting the shape and preferences of the electorate, particularly in Midwestern states. In the final days of the campaign, however, the reality is that the polls were close enough that Mr Trump had a pathway to victory.

That pathway didn't look nearly as obvious about two weeks ago, before FBI director James Comey released his letter announcing that they were reopening their investigation into Hillary Clinton's private email server.

True, the polls were tightening a bit, but Mr Trump's sharpest rise in the standings came in the weeks between that first letter and Mr Comey's second, in which he said he had put the investigation back on the shelf.

It seems likely that during that period, Mr Trump was able to successfully consolidate his base, bringing wayward conservatives back into the fold and shredding Mrs Clinton's hopes of offering a compelling closing message to US voters.

Of course, Mr Comey's actions never would have been a factor if Mrs Clinton had decided to rely on State Department email servers for her work correspondence. That one is on her shoulders.

Trusted his instincts

Mr Trump ran the most unconventional of political campaigns, but it turned out he knew better than all the experts.

He spent more on hats than on pollsters. He travelled to states like Wisconsin and Michigan that pundits said were out of reach.

He held massive rallies instead of focusing on door-knocking and get-out-the-vote operations.

He had a disjointed, sometimes chaotic national political convention that was capped by an acceptance speech that was more doom-and-gloom than any in modern US political history.

He was vastly outspent by the Clinton campaign, just as he was during the Republican primaries. He turned consensus wisdom about how to win the presidency on its head.

All of these decisions - and many more - were roundly ridiculed in "knowledgeable" circles.

In the end, however, they worked. Mr Trump and his closest confidants - his children and a few chosen advisers - will have the last laugh. And they'll do it from the White House.

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Donald Trump has defied all expectations from the very start of his presidential campaign more than a year ago. Very few people thought he would actually run, then he did. They thought he wouldn't climb in the polls, then he did. They said he wouldn't win any primaries, then he did.

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https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj-xdfKiZvQAhWHWRoKHUN4ANcQFgggMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fsocialistreview.org.uk%2F340%2F21st-century-feminism&usg=AFQjCNG0r-R_jln9Toidp_dn4EQwyam18Q&bvm=bv.138169073,d.d2s

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If Hillary Clinton can win over the western states(especially California which is worth 55 electoral votes. If she can do that which she most likely will since the west has always been democratic,she will be pushed up to 268 electoral votes and will need to win over a final state to win rega

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Citation: C N Trueman "Women in 1900"
historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 17 Mar 2015. 16 Apr 2018.

Despite the activities of the Suffragettes and the support of the Labour Party and some members of the Liberal Party, women still had very few rights in 1900 and certainly no political rights. In fact, the activities of the Suffragettes lost women the support of many people, including women, who viewed what they did with alarm.

At the start of the Twentieth Century, women had a very stereotypical role in British society. If married, they stayed at home to look after the children while their husband worked and brought in a weekly wage. If single, they did work which usually involved some form of service such as working as a waitress, cooking etc. Many young women were simply expected to get married and have children. The term "spinster", though not a term of outright abuse, was still seen as having some form of stigma attached to it......that you were not good enough to get a husband etc.

A table of employment gives an example of where women worked in1900 :

The table clearly shows in which direction women were expected to go should they have work. Many poorly educated young ladies simply worked for a large household as a servant. From here they could train to work in a kitchen but it is highly unlikely that they would have become the head of a kitchen as this was still the 'territory' of the male.

Even "Teachers = 124,000" is somewhat misleading as female teachers nearly all worked in junior or nursery schools. What we would now call secondary schools were staffed by male teachers.

Towards the end of the C19th, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first lady to qualify to be a doctor (GP). She then faced huge obstacles making progress in her profession. Men would not go to her simply because she was female , whereas, women usually kept with the way it was done then - they continued seeing a male GP. It took years for Anderson to succeed.

For decades women's progress in British society was haunted by the words of Queen Victoria:

Coming from the most famous woman in the world at the time, men in power used these words to hinder the advance women had made. By 1900, women had been granted some improvements in their lifestyle via the law courts - it was only in 1891 that women were told that they could not be forced to live with a man if they did not want to - but because nearly all women were reliant on their husbands for a source of money, many women did live in miserable marriages. The myth that Victorian Britain was the time of great family values in that the family unit stayed together, is just that - a myth. Many wives could not leave their husbands even if they wanted to, simply because they did not have the financial independence that was needed to survive at the time. Also a divorced woman was shunned by society and treated as an outcast. With these obstacles, many women were forced to stay in unhappy marriages.

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Women in 1900 Despite the activities of the Suffragettes and the support of the Labour Party and some members of the Liberal Party, women still had very few rights in 1900 and certainly no political rights. In fact, the activities of the Suffragettes lost women the support of many people, including women, who viewed what ...

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this is the history  of palestine and palestine does not deserve that this is the real country not isreal

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5 minute history of Israel Palestine conflict.

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Here is a list of celebrities who are 'ready' for Clinton.

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Madonna is ready for Hillary

Madonna showed her support for Hillary Clinton by hosting her own surprise rally in Washington Square Park on Monday, Nov. 7, 2016. The singer put on a concert the night before Election Day to urge fans to vote.

"Join me with the first President to welcome in our first female President," Madonna wrote on Instagram before the event.

Beyoncé and Jay Z are ready for Hillary

Beyoncé and Jay Z headlined a concert for Clinton the weekend before the Nov. 8 election. "I want my daughter to grow up seeing a women lead our country and knowing that her possibilities are limitless," Beyoncé said at the concert.

"He cannot be my president," Jay Z said of Republican Donald Trump. "He cannot be our president. Once you divide us, you weaken us. We are stronger together."

Chance the Rapper and Big Sean were also part of the concert.

Queen Bey had also shown her support for Clinton at a New York City fundraiser in May 2015.

Clinton tweeted a photo of Beyoncé at the event and captioned it, "Say you'll Bey on Team #Hillary2016, too."

Lee Daniels, cast of 'Empire' are ready for Hillary

Producer Lee Daniels and stars of "Empire," including Taraji P. Henson, Bryshere Gray, Trai Byers, Jussie Smollett, Tasha Smith, Gabourey Sidibe and Grace Byers, appeared in a video denouncing Donald Trump and pledging to vote for Clinton in early October.

"The violence and nasty rhetoric against mankind is unacceptable," they say. "If Trump gets into office, it will only get worse."

"There's only one person in this race who said Black Lives Matter," they add, referring to Clinton.

'West Wing' cast is ready for Hillary

"West Wing" stars Richard Schiff, Bradley Whitford, Dulé Hill, Allison Janney, Joshua Malina, and Mary McCormack campaigned for Hillary Clinton in Ohio in September.

Meryl Streep is ready for Hillary

Actress Meryl Streep endorsed Clinton at the Democratic National Convention on July 26, 2016. In her speech, she asked the crowd, "What does it take to be the first female anything?"

"It takes grit, and it takes grace," she said, and she listed a number of women who have been the first in their fields.

"These women share something in common: capacity of mind, fullness of heart and a burning passion for their cause," she said. "They have forged new paths so that others can follow them, men and women, generation on generation. That's Hillary."

Lady Gaga is ready for Hillary

Lady Gaga shared a photo of herself in an American flag swim suit on Instagram with the caption, "#HILLARY2016 Nothing can keep a strong woman down. VOTE for the first female U.S. president in history. Shake it up America, this country needs a little rock n' roll." She has shown support for Clinton in the past, showing off her "Yaaas, Hillary!" T-shirt in a photo with the former Secretary of State in 2015.

Shailene Woodley is backing Bernie

Actress Shailene Woodley has canvassed for Sanders a number of times throughout the campaign.

"#newyork come to Broadway gates at Columbia university!!!! I'm here and feelin the bern! #BernieSanders #FeelTheBern," she tweeted on April 11.

Rosario Dawson is backing Bernie

Rosario Dawson has spoken at a number of rallies for Sanders, endorsing the candidate. She is also featured in a video ad for the candidate.

"We do not need incremental change. We need bold leadership, and that is what Bernie Sanders brings to the conversation," she says in one of the clips.

Spike Lee is backing Bernie

Spike Lee is the voice of a radio ad for Bernie Sanders. "Bernie takes no money from corporations. Nada. Which means he's not on the tape. And when Bernie gets into the White House, he will do the right thing," the "Chi-Raq" director says in the ad.

He has also introduced Sanders at some of the candidate's rallies.

Ja Rule is ready for Hillary

Ja Rule said on Fox Business Network in May 2015 that he'd vote for Hillary Clinton.

"I like Hillary, but you know, it's crazy because I also think Jeb is a good candidate as well," he said.

He continued, "I'm a Democrat, so I would vote Hillary."

Miley Cyrus is backing Bernie

Singer Miley Cyrus said she is feeling "the Bern," because Sanders "has been a bada in supporting the LGBT community" in an Instagram post.

Robert De Niro is ready for Hillary

Actor Robert De Niro told The Daily Beast in April 2015 that Hillary Clinton has "earned the right to be president."

"Hopefully it will be her, yes," he said. "I think that she's paid her dues. There are going to be no surprises, and she has earned the right to be president and the head of the country at this point. It's that simple. And she's a woman, which is very important because her take on things may be what we need right now."

America Ferrera is ready for Hillary

America Ferrera stumped for Clinton when she ran for president back in 2008.

"I believed in her then, I believe in her now," Ferrera tweeted in April 2015.

Speaking about immigrants in her DNC speech on July 26, 2016, Ferrera said "Hillary has spent the last 30 years proving what she sees in us. Not our color, gender, or economic status, but our capacity to grow into thriving adults able to contribute great things to this country."

T.I. is... not ready for Hillary

We don't know who T.I. is voting for, but we can tell you who won't get his vote. T.I. said in an October 2015 interview with D.J. Whoo Kid that America would be more likely to elect the Loch Ness Monster than a female president.

"Not to be sexist, but I can't vote for the leader of the free world to be a woman ... I just know that women make rash decisions emotionally. They make very permanent, cemented decisions, and then later, it's kind of like it didn't happen or they didn't mean for it to happen. And I sure would hate to just set off a nuke," he said.

He later apologized, writing on Twitter, "My comments about women running for president were unequivocally insensitive and wrong."

Sarah Silverman changes her mind to Hillary

Politicians aren't the only people who can flip flop on the issues.

Comedian Sarah Silverman threw her support behind Hillary Clinton at the Democratic National Convention on Monday, July 25.

The comedian had once been an outspoke supporter of Sen. Bernie Sanders.

"He says what he means & he means what he says & he's not for sale," she said on Twitter in June 2015.

Abbi Jacobson is ready for Hillary

Abbi Jacobson is totally team Hillary.

"HERE WE GO @HillaryClinton," she tweeted in April 2015 alongside a photo of herself donning a Clinton mask.

Vampire Weekend is backing Bernie

The indie-band Vampire Weekend has performed at multiple Sanders rallies across the country, including above at the University of Iowa on Jan. 30, 2016, and at the presidential contender's huge rally in Washington Square Park on April 13, 2016.

"I see a consistency in him that rare in most human beings, let alone politicians," the band's lead singer, Ezra Koenig, told CNN in January.

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Celebs who've backed Hillary Clinton, Bernie Sanders

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Madonna showed her support for Hillary Clinton by hosting her own surprise rally in Washington Square Park on Monday, Nov. 7, 2016. The singer put on a concert the night before Election Day to urge fans to vote. "Join me with the first President to welcome in our first female President," Madonna wrote on Instagram before the event.

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Mona Chalabi Preliminary exit polling data is out and some of it reinforces the information we already had. Many voters have a negative view of the candidates - one in five Clinton voters said they chiefly oppose the other candidate, and 27% of Trump supporters said the same.

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The Elections

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Donald Trump has begun choosing who will be part of his administration when he formally becomes US President in January.

He met Barack Obama at the White House and the two discussed his transition into power.

But he already appears to have backtracked on his promise to repeal Obamacare.

Police made dozens of arrests as protests against Trump's victory continued for three nights in cities across the US.

In Britain, Boris Johnson has urged European leaders to snap out of their "collective whinge-o-rama" over Trump's shock triumph.

Mexico exacted a measure of revenge, after their national team beat the USA 2-1 on home soil in the World cup qualifiers.

Read More

Key figures in Trump presidency

BREAKING: Explosion at NATO airbase in Afghanistan

Reports are emerging of an attack on the main US/NATO airbase in Afghanistan, Bagram Airfield.

There has been an explosion which has caused casualties.

There are reports of at least 3 killed.

Thousands protest in Philadelphia for third night running

Here's some footage from the anti-Trump protest in Philadelphia tonight.

There's thousands on the street for the third night running but it has been peaceful.

'Football is ours'

A welcome boost for Mexicans tonight.

They have just beaten the US in a crucial World Cup qualifier 2-1 with a last-minute header from their 37-year-old captain Rafael Marquez.

It's the first time the US have lost at home in a qualifier for 15 years and ends a run of four years in a row in which Mexico have lost this fixture 2-0.

The official Twitter account of the Mexican national team tweeted the winning goal with the message 'Elfutbolesnuestro' which means 'Football is Ours'

'Let's keep being good neighbours'

The city of Portland in Oregon has been one of the hotbeds of anti-Trump feeling this week.

But the protests have been mired by violence and vandalism.

Another protest is underway tonight.

Earlier, Mayor Charlie Hales tried to restore calm.

He said: "We had 4,000 peaceful protesters last night making their opinions known on the streets of our city.

"But we also had some anarchists, who hijacked that event and did terrible damage to our neighbours and friends.

"They spread violence and fear and detracted from the legitimate exercise of that First Amendment right.

"Let's keep being good neighbours."

Mexico and USA fans united by football

There have been no reports of any trouble at the Mexico vs USA game.

And in fact, fans have been demonstrating how they are united by sport.

American Outlaws, a group of US soccer fans, posted these images of them 'tailgating' with Mexico fans before the game.

Mexico lead USA in World Cup Qualifying

Incidentally, the Mexican football team are taking on the USA on their home turf in a crucial World Cup qualifier tonight.

What is always a grudge match has taken on extra significance given the events of this week.

The players, particularly on team USA, had tried to play it down but the security services have taken extra precautions.

Mexico are currently leading 1-0 in Columbus, Ohio, one of the crucial states won by Donald Trump.

'Love trumps hate!'

The protests against Donald Trump's election are continuing in the US tonight.

A crowd has gathered outside Trump Tower in New York where they are chanting "Love Trumps Hate!" which has become a popular slogan in the US in recent days.

There is a similar protest at the Trump Tower in Chicago and people are expected on the streets of LA again tonight.

Video 'shows mum kicking young son out for voting Trump in mock election'

This is a very disturbing video which has surfaced on social media in the US today and has been widely shared.

It purportedly shows a mum 'teaching her young son a lesson' after he told her voted for Donald Trump in a mock election at school because he'd seen him on TV.

The mum is heard saying: "Since you voted for Donald Trump, get your s*** and get out... We don't do Donald Trump here. Now get your suitcase. Bye"

The boy seems to be genuinely in tears as he's forced to leave his house with a suitcase.

MirrorOnline has been unable to verify if the video is completely genuine or any further details on the parties involved.

American media outlets have claimed the viral clip is from Texas and are calling for a child services investigation into the mother.

'He won't finish his first time' - Michael Moore

Political commentator Michael Moore, who predicted the Trump win four months ago, has become a popular voice in American in recent days.

He's been explaining to the shocked mainstream media why this has happened but has also been fiercely insistent that Trump will be opposed and will not last his first term in office.

He believes he will either resign or be impeached.

Moore said: "Here's what's gonna happen, this is why we're not gonna have to suffer through four years of Donald J. Trump, because he has no ideology except the ideology of Donald J. Trump.

"And when you have a narcissist like that, who's so narcissistic where it's all about him, he will, maybe unintentionally, break laws.

"He will break laws because he's only thinking about what's best for him."

Will anti-Trump protests lead to movement that will eventually kick him out?

As America takes in the tumultuous events of this week, some anti-Trump leaders are now wondering whether the anger at his election could actually be the best catalyst for his downfall.

The Reverend Al Sharpton, a civil rights leader from New York, said the protesters should borrow a page from the playbook that Republicans used to oppose Obama's policies.

That movement started organically, later developed as the Tea Party movement and eventually resulted in the election of Trump, said Sharpton, whose National Action Network plans to launch a new organising effort at its New York headquarters on Saturday.

"We are not going to be as ugly as them, but we are going to be just as persistent," Sharpton said. "This is not going away."

Sizable protests sprung up this week in about a dozen major U.S. cities, including Boston, Baltimore and San Francisco. Demonstrations in Portland, Oregon, and Berkeley, California, turned violent, with protesters setting fires and clashing with police.

Trump initially dismissed the crowds on Twitter, calling them "professional protesters, incited by the media," but later reversed course, saying he admired their "passion."

Something came out of the Obama meeting

When they shook hands yesterday it didn't look like Obama and Trump were going to see eye to eye with each other - let alone on any policy.

But it's emerged that something did indeed come out of that meeting at the White House - on the outgoing President's praised Obamacare bill.

Trump has said in an interview with the Wall St Journal he is open to leaving intact key parts of Obama's healthcare bill.

Despite pledging repeatedly to repeal the 2010 law - he told the paper he now favours keeping two main parts of the bill because "I like those very much".

One is a ban on insurers denying coverage for pre-existing conditions - the other allows young adults to be insured on their parents' policies.

Trump told the Journal his meeting had made him reconsider his calls for an all-out repeal of the Affordable Care Act - saying: "I told him I will look at his suggestions, and out of respect, I will do that. Either Obamacare will be amended, or repealed and replaced."

Protests not just in Oregon

It's morning on the West coast of the USA now and everyone is getting a chance to take stock of what happened last night protest wise - with the headlines so far centred on the 'riot' and arrests in Oregon.

In fact there were protests across the US by people who appear to either have genuinely not expected Trump to win the election or be worried about his inflammatory rhetoric during the campaign - or both.

A quick round-up - we can now say there were also protests with incidents reported overnight in: New York, Chicago, Oakland (California), Denver, Minneapolis, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Louisville (Kentucky), Baltimore (Maryland).

So that's in both red and blue states - and interestingly, no pro-Trump supporters out marching or campaigning in response.

Brits took to Trump better than EU

An interesting line from Sky News tonight - which cites a Foreign Office source as claiming that Brits are ahead of our European counterparts in reacting to Trump's election.

It is reporting that rest of Europe has been "churlish and sniffy" about his victory - in contrast with the UK's more considered approach.

The source explained that whereas the UK had been dealing "properly and professionally" with the President-elect's campaign team - that wasn't necessarily happening elsewhere on the continent.

The source told Sky News: "The US embassy has been brilliant in making sure the Foreign Office made contact with Trump's team during the campaign.

"The rest of Europe has been churlish and sniffy about Trump's victory. We haven't - that puts us in a much better place."

That probably better explains Boris Johnson's statement we reported on earlier (see below).

The 'special relationship' is blossoming then, it seems.

Anti-bullying ambassador arrested at Trump Tower

It's emerged an anti-bullying ambassador was arrested last night outside Trump Tower.

Shacara McLaurin, 23, from Brooklyn, New York, is understood to have been involved in an incident during which an elderly man was allegedly pushed to the ground in a fight - and hit his head on a sidewalk.

In the US Ms McLaurin is known as the face of Stomp Out Bullying - and she was one of a number of angry people outside the President-elect's New York City home for second night of protests since the election result but the only one arrested.

Trump commends protesters' 'passion'

The new US President Donald Trump has upset some Americans on his Twitter feed. Again.

Granted it's hard to tell if he was trying to be sincere, humorous or sarcastic when he praised protesters' "passion" after a new night of demonstrations - which of course included rioting in Portland, Oregon.

Trump tweeted: "Love the fact that the small groups of protesters last night have passion for our great country. We will all come together and be proud!"

He had previously called them "professional protesters" - but the tweet has not gone down well with online users telling him he needs to 'wake up!'

Trump must keep short temper in check

Donald Trump must keep his short temper out of global affairs because nuclear war is an increasing threat for the world, the former head of MI6 has said.

Sir John Sawers said the United States president-elect's "fierce" reactions when he perceives he has been insulted could have dangerous consequences unless he keeps a cooler head.

He said he feared a nuclear clash between the US and China or the US and Russia, which would cause "widespread devastation".

Sir John told BBC Radio 4's World At One: "We're getting back into a world which is quite dangerous, and I think that is the biggest threat.

"It's got worse over the last five or six years partly because, frankly, one of the failures of President Obama's administration is managing its relationships with Russia."

Mr Trump's biggest test will be forming good relationships with Russian president Vladimir Putin and particularly Chinese premier Xi Jinping, in order to deal with the potential North Korean nuclear threat.

The "worse case scenario" would be those relationships turning more confrontational, either through Moscow or Beijing misreading a situation or if the Trump administration "overreacts".

"I don't think Donald Trump quite yet knows what the pressures will be on him when he becomes president," Sir John said.

"We've seen that when he feels slighted, when he feels criticised, he reacts quite fiercely.

"If you translate that into global affairs it could have consequences which are dangerous for everyone."

Donald Trump returns to New York

It's entirely possible The Donald intends to live-tweet his presidency.

Despairing celeb? Move to Uganda

If you're an American despairing over the state of your country on account of its new leader, consider Uganda.

The African nation is offering an escape route - a get out of jail free card for those who care not for Trump's slapdash, divisive politics and the discourse he brings.

Uganda Community Farm is appealing to US citizens and celebs with an offer of free board and lodging. Simply, the chance to start again. The call comes after a host of A-list celebs said they would leave America if Trump was voted in. Katy Perry and Miley Cyrus included.
Here's the full story

More Biden memes

Since Donald Trump's shock election victory, Barack Obama has been duty bound to remain sober and statesmanlike.

He's promised a smooth transition of power, and wished Mr Trump success.

Vice President Joe Biden, on the other hand, has been standing right behind him, looking like half of America feels.

He's seen by many as America's cool uncle - and the President and Vice President's close friendship has been the subject of many memes throughout their 8 years.

But since Tuesday night's events, they've taken a slightly more petty turn. You can totally imagine meme Joe Biden leaving a fish behind a radiator in the White House.
Here's how the internet has tried to make sense of President Trump with Joe Biden memes.

Newsweek have recalled 125,000 Clinton covers

Newsweek magazine has recalled and will pulp 125,000 copies of their magazine with a souvenir Hillary Clinton cover, which read "Madam President."

The magazine says one of its partner companies printed up two special edition covers - one for each outcome of the election.

Tony Romando, chief exec of Topix Media, who created the covers, said: "Like everybody else, we got it wrong,"

The edition appeared on some shelves on Tuesday, but was withdrawn. It's thought only around 17 copies were sold.

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All the latest as protests against Donald Trump continue across the US

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Donald Trump has begun choosing who will be part of his administration when he formally becomes US President in January. He met Barack Obama at the White House and the two discussed his transition into power. But he already appears to have backtracked on his promise to repeal Obamacare.

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Rethinking about poverty

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Rethinking Poverty

Poverty the biggest problem in the world

More money needed to help poor

Direct transfers more efficient than subsidies

Anti-poverty programs often fail because of an inadequate understanding of poverty by policymakers. So argues Abhijit Banerjee, Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), who has worked in dozens of countries to better study the economics of poverty. In a recent podcast interview, Banerjee talked about this main theme in his book, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty.

Professor Banerjee also shared his views on policies to help the poor in a panel discussion on sustainable economic development in low-income developing countries , during the IMF-World Bank Spring Meetings in April 2016.

IMF News: Why do we know so little about the more than one billion poor people in the world?

Banerjee: Well, it is very expensive to collect data. To be honest, there are a billion poor people in the world, but how many of us would live next door to them? So, we don't see them. They are mostly invisible except in their most extreme manifestations-you see the person who is begging in the street, or the person who has made it out of poverty and can tell his own story: "I used to sell tea and now I'm X." But between those two extremes you often don't encounter most of these [poor] people; they are not in your life. So, it's not at all obvious that we have any way of intuitively understanding what's easy and what's difficult for people. I think we need data. We need to actually focus on the problem.

"It's not at all obvious that we have any way of intuitively understanding what's easy and what's difficult for people. I think we need data. We need to actually focus on the problem."
IMF News : In the book's Foreword you say that "poverty is the biggest problem in the world." How is poverty the biggest problem in the world?
Banerjee: Let's say that if you believe that your concept of welfare should be founded in the welfare of people as opposed to religiosity, beauty, or other things, and if you think that the living standards of people are the primary determinant of welfare, then I think it's obvious that this is where the biggest losses are.

IMF News : You also speak a lot about poverty traps. Do you think there are circumstances in which people or groups of people do, in fact, find themselves trapped in poverty?

Banerjee: There are two answers to that question. One is: do I believe it is true? Yes, I believe it's true. Do I have any very well-founded reason to believe it's true? Much harder question. I would say the evidence on these interventions-which help people today and many years later they are still richer-suggests that there might be a trap [for the poor], because if there wasn't one, you would think that [the people who were helped] would fall back [into poverty].

If it were the case that some people are doomed to be who they are and some people are just poor because they are unskilled or undisciplined or not hardworking enough, then you would imagine that you couldn't get them out of poverty by doing something today, because tomorrow they will still be lazy and will go back to where they belong. I think the evidence suggests that this is not true, that many people are in a situation where, if given an opportunity, they would be in a different place.

IMF News: So, if people are given more opportunities, the more successful they might be at pulling themselves out of poverty?

Banerjee: Sure. If you think you can identify a particular reason for a trap-which I think is not easy-but if you could, then it would be great because the interventions I talked about earlier are very broad-brushed. You can give the poor training, some money or assets, or other things, and the hope is that one of them will stick. And if you had a much better understanding of exactly what was sticking and you could identify, for instance, that for Joe it's money, but for Jane it's confidence, then you would give Jane confidence and Joe money and things would work better, and you would save resources. I'm less optimistic that we will get to that level of sophistication, but one shouldn't let the perfect be the enemy of the good.

IMF News: How important do you think money is when we're talking about aid and sustainable development?

Banerjee: Aid is a slightly tricky word here, because aid often is interpreted to mean foreign aid, like aid sent by advanced countries to poor countries. It is a very small part of social support even in the developing world. Most of the money spent for social support is spent by local governments and local charities. All of these are bigger than aid. So let's define it to mean money rather than aid. And money is very important.

I think the idea that you could help poor people without spending any money-that was the kind of promise of micro-credit, which is that it's essentially a matter of lubrication. I think that turns out to be mostly false. So, I would say lubrication is not a substitute for resources. Real resources count. Better quality education, more assets for poor people-those things are real money, and real money needs to be spent.

"Real resources count. Better quality education, more assets for poor people-those things are real money, and real money needs to be spent."

IMF News: And how effective are we at raising and distributing that money?

Banerjee: We are not very good at raising the money. We're not very good at distributing the money. That said, with the money we have, we often give it away to the wrong people. The first thing to fix would be to stop giving the subsidies to the rich, which is a very large part of the problem. If you did manage to take away the subsidies from the rich, I think you would have lots of money for the poor. However, it is very political; it is difficult to get subsidies away from the rich. This is a sad leftover from the 1970s and 1980s, when this was the politically preferred instrument of transferring resources, and those subsidies have become a real problem for many countries.

IMF News : You're talking about direct transfers rather than subsidies? Essentially, that this is a more efficient way of distributing money?

Banerjee: Absolutely, especially since power and water are often subsidized-they are extraordinarily distortionary, they have environmental consequences that are disastrous, and they are inequitable. People who have large power-using machines tend to benefit from power subsidies more than anyone else, so yes.

IMF News : What do you think that we really need to do in the longer term in order to improve the lives of so many people, and how likely do you think it is that the next generation of aid workers and philanthropists will get it right? What will it take?

Banerjee: I think there is a fast-growing body of evidence that is much more reliable than we ever had, and more categorical, on what are really stupid things to do and what actually works. I think that train has left the station and it's good because it is penetrating levels of policy. Now, how long will it take? It will take a while to penetrate down to the government bureaucrat who decides on a program. The bureaucrats have their own entirely unwarranted opinions on things and we struggle with that all the time. We work a lot with government bureaucrats, some of whom are wonderful and some who are desperately opinionated with no warrant. It is a battle. We have made a lot of progress, but I do feel that it's going to be a long battle.

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Poverty the biggest problem in the world More money needed to help poor Direct transfers more efficient than subsidies Anti-poverty programs often fail because of an inadequate understanding of poverty by policymakers. So argues Abhijit Banerjee, Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), who has worked in dozens of countries to better study the economics of poverty.

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http://www.wilderspin.net/School%20stuff/Tudors/Rich%20and%20poor/What%20was%20life%20like%20for%20poor%20people%20in%20Tudor%20Times.ppt

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http://www.localhistories.org/women.htmlhttp://www.localhistories.org/women.html

add the url using the circle with the plus sign!  Mrs S

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VOTE TRUMP just kidding
Phew! Mrs Shelton

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Mona Chalabi Preliminary exit polling data is out and some of it reinforces the information we already had. Many voters have a negative view of the candidates - one in five Clinton voters said they chiefly oppose the other candidate, and 27% of Trump supporters said the same.

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7 hours until the elections

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It took a while, but now we finally know which two candidates will fight it out in the race for the White House. Donald Trump will be the Republican candidate, something few would have predicted a little more than 12 months ago. And after the Democrats' convention in Philadelphia, we know Hillary Clinton will be their candidate.

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I think wikipedia has a lot of information about Julius Caesar.

Be very wary using Wikipedia please! Mrs  S

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Gaius Julius Caesar (, SEE-zər; Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊsˈjuːliʊsˈkae̯sar]; 12 July 100 BC - 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in the Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the private support of Cicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army. This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC.

After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 he was proclaimed "dictator for life" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius assassinated Caesar on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the last civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began.

Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. Later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. His cognomen was subsequently adopted as a synonym for " Emperor"; the title " Caesar" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such as Kaiser and Tsar. He has frequently appeared in literary and artistic works.

Early life and career

Gaius Julius Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia on 12 July 100 BC. The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome from Alba Longa during the seventh century BC after the third king of Rome, Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness. There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, but Caesar's mother lived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth.

Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to have had the cognomen Caesar was a praetor in 208 BC during the Second Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC. Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He married Aurelia, a member of the politically influential Aurelii Cottae, producing - along with Caesar - two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage and his sister's marriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influential Gaius Marius, he also served on the Saturninian land commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91-90 BC.

Life under Sulla and military service

Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination of Lucius Cornelius Cinna and instead chose retirement. During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named as flamen Dialis (a priest of Jupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forego a political career; the appointment - one of the highest non-political honours - indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar. In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly. After Sulla's victory in the civil war (82 BC), Cinna's acta were annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on the proscription lists, though scholars are mixed. Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among the Vestal Virgins were able to intercede on his behalf. They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw "in [Caesar] many Mariuses" is apocryphal.

Bust, from the imperial period, of a man - in this case Augustus - wearing the civic crown (Latin: corona civica). Caesar won the civic crown for his bravery at the Siege of Mytilene in 81 BC.

Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia, Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king, Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch. He then served at the Siege of Mytilene where he won the civic crown for saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown - the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions - whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff of Publius Servilius Vatia in Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately. He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consul Lepidus' revolt that year but this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age.

Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella in 77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecuting Gaius Antonius Hybrida (later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf. After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetorician Apollonius Molon. While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fifty talents and responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery per Velleius Paterculus. His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War over the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces.

Entrance to politics

While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into the pontifices in place of his deceased relative Gaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career. Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of the military tribunes for 71 BC. There is no evidence that Caesar served in war - even though the war on Spartacus was on-going - during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned. These advocacies were common and uncontroversial. The next year, 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus were consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles.

For his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve under Gaius Antistius Vetus in Hispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child, Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals. During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles - including Quintus Lutatius Catulus - who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common. Contra Plutarch, Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism. Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughter Pompeia.

Aedileship and election as pontifex maximus

For much of this period, Caesar was one of Pompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported the lex Gabinia in 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported the lex Manilia in 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commander Lucullus to Pompey.

Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served as curule aedile and staged lavish games that won him further attention and popular support. He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, over Jugurtha and the Cimbri. According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible - architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for - nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night. It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments - consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue of pietas - and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate.

In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post of pontifex maximus, who was the head of the College of Pontiffs and the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before the tribes, Caesar faced two influential senators: Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent. Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating; that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory. If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy.

Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribune Publius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting. Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial of Gaius Rabirius by one of the plebeian tribunes - Titus Labienus - for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with a senatus consultum ultimum some forty years earlier. The most famous event of the year was the Catilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy, the chance that he was a participant is extremely small.

Praetorship

Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy. Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property. Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of the lex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention by Cato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution.

During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuilt Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition. He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribune Metellus Nepos to transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of the comitia tributa in the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato and Quintus Minucius Thermus, the Senate passed a decree against Metellus - Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility - which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority. He also was engaged in the Bona Dea affair, where Publius Clodius Pulcher snuck into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately - claiming that his wife needed to be "above suspicion" - but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way.

Bronze bust of Cato, Caesar's principal opponent in the Catilinarian debate and also a personal enemy. Cato may have been responsible for the law requiring declarations of candidacy in person within the pomerium.

After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior pro consule. Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off. He campaigned against the Callaeci and Lusitani and seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts. Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailed imperator. When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside the pomerium (Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy. Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to support the exception. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.

First consulship and the Gallic wars

Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society. With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with one Lucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returned Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus instead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies.

First consulship

After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadingly termed the "First Triumvirate" in modern times. Caesar was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start. Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement and the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans.

Caesar's first act was to publish the minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill - crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism - to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains. Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people, there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement. Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereignty and triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy. The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused.

Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate. Caesar then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house. Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance. An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribune Publius Vatinius moved the lex Vatinia assigning the provinces of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul to Caesar for five years. Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar the silvae callesque ("woods and tracks") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as "mere 'forest tracks'". The Senate was also persuaded to assign to Caesar Transalpine Gaul as well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps.

Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian land and after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons. Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to "feign victimisation"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year. This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy. Later in the year, however, Caesar - with the support of his opponents - brought and passed the lex Julia de repetundis to crack down on provincial corruption. When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March.

Caesar in Gaul

The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's conquests

During the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote his Commentaries thereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC. Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome; the account is naturally partial to Caesar - his defeats are excused and victories highlighted - but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period.

Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls - they were no unified bloc - would be exploited in the coming years. The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migrating Helvetii from moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman ally. Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and - after raising two legions - defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte before forcing them to return to their original homes. He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including the Aedui, for aid against Ariovistus - king of the Suebi and a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship - and he defeated them at the Battle of Vosges. Wintering in northeastern Gaul near the Belgae in the winter of 58-57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at the Battle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against the Veneti in what is now Brittany. At this point, almost all of Gaul - except its central regions - fell under Roman subjugation.

Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar, painting by Lionel Royer in 1899. Musée Crozatier, Le Puy-en-Velay, France.

Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as a Roman frontier; displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built a bridge across the Rhine in a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power. Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an "island of mystery" and "a land of wonder". He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by the Eburones and Belgae starting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts. Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle. The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led by Vercingetorix of the Averni. Caesar was initially defeated at Gergovia before besieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance.

Politics, Gaul, and Rome

In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popular Publius Clodius Pulcher, who was plebeian tribune in 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies.

Politics in Rome falling into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting the Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving. Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by the lex Vatinia until 54 BC. His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally.

The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year. With a real threat to Caesar's command and acta brewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support. Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support of Appius Claudius Pulcher and his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command.

Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC. During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed - with some tribunician support - the lex Pompeia Licinia extending Caesar's command and the lex Trebonia giving them respective commands in Spain and Syria, though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome. The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics - though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul - and defeated the allies in the elections of that year.

The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55-54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar's Commentaries. The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirth c. late August 54 did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey. At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents. In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at the Battle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of the Parthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city, Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the "Law of the Ten Tribunes", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia.

From the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated. In 51 BC, the consul Marcellus proposed recalling Caesar, arguing that his provincia (here meaning "task") in Gaul - due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 - was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting the Bellovaci and regardless the proposal was vetoed. That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship. Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command.

As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively. In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate. It received overwhelming support - 370 to 22 - but was not passed when one of the consuls dissolved the meeting. That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort. At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners. A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence. On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued its senatus consultum ultimum.

There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose - when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure - between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position. Whether Caesar actually would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely. Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship - first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship - and a triumph. He feared that his opponents - then holding both consulships for 50 BC - would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won. This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments.

Italy, Spain, and Greece

Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC, in response to the Senate's "final decree", Caesar crossed the Rubicon - the river defining the northern boundary of Italy - with a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, " let the die be cast". Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome. Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust. Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference.

Pompey withdrew to Brundisium and was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit. Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks - during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications - and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces. He defeated two of Pompey's legates at the Battle of Ilerda before forcing surrender of the third; his legates moved into Sicily and into Africa, though the African expedition failed. Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesar dictator to conduct the elections; he, along with Publius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC. Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days, Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC.

Caesar besieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero and Marcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon.

Alexandrine war and Asia Minor

Cleopatra and Caesar, 1866 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme

This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii is probably a depiction of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as Cupid. Its owner Marcus Fabius Rufus most likely ordered its concealment behind a wall in reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Octavian in 30 BC.[165][166]

Pompey was killed when he arrived in Alexandria, the capital of Egypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city by Etesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Cleopatra, his sister, wife, and co-regent queen. In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship, after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome. While in Alexandria, he started an affair with Cleopatra and withstood a siege by Ptolemy and his other sister Arsinoe until March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies under Mithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at the Battle of the Nile and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, called Caesarion.

When Caesar landed at Antioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea, Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across the Black Sea in northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him at Zela and defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to write veni, vidi, vici ("I came, I saw, I conquered"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy.

Italy, Africa, and Spain

Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, as magister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular: Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africa and there Metellus Scipio was in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied with Juba of Numidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to the republican side.

Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violence before overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC - no elections had yet been held - and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC. Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach. After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded at Thapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting a battle; they then won it and massacred the republican forces without quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency. Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter. Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC.

Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed. According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay. The soldiers were each given 24,000 sesterces (a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge as magister equitum.

At a bloody battle at Munda on 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory; his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred. Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons, Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over. Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans. By this point he had started preparations for war on the Parthians to avenge Crassus' death at Carrhae in 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC.

Assassination

Dictatorships and honours

Prior to Caesar's assumption of the title dictator perpetuo in February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually. The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship: rei publicae constituendae. These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans.

Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours, including the title praefectus moribus ( lit. 'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with the censorial power to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace, usurping a power traditionally held by the comitia centuriata. These powers attached to Caesar personally. Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's image put onto Roman coinage - the first for a living Roman - with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamed Julius (now July). These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment.

The decisions on the normal operation of the state - justice, legislation, administration, and public works - were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic. Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life.

Legislation

Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he "had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform" and that "the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure".

The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of the traditional republican lunisolar calendar and its replacement with a solar calendar now called the Julian calendar. He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy - notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests - to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest. The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his men and the permanent courts jury pools were also altered to remove the tribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators.

He also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state. Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation. Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and to Cádiz. During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food. Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned - Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works - with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla.

The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of the Forum of Caesar and the Temple of Venus Genetrix therein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through the Corinthian Isthmus, were also planned.[citation needed ] Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome.

The collegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished. His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship on the last day of the year so any ally could be elected as suffect consul for a single day. Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills.

Conspiracy and death

Denarius (42 BC) of Cassius and Lentulus Spinther, depicting the crowned head of Liberty and on the reverse a sacrificial jug and lituus.[209]

An 1867 depiction of Caesar's death. The Death of Caesar by Jean-Léon Gérôme.

Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesar rex ( lit. 'king') - a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens - were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate. The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom. Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary. Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected a diadem from Antony at celebrations for the Lupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar - already wearing the dress of a monarch - sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure.

The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators. It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart. While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians. Among their leaders were Gaius Trebonius (consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well as Cassius and Brutus (both praetors in 44 BC). Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other Caesarians involved included Servius Sulpicius Galba, Lucius Minucius Basilus, Lucius Tullius Cimber, and Gaius Servilius Casca. Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC, likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43-41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support. Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse ( Latin: magistri equitum) was appreciated.

Brutus, who claimed descent from the Lucius Junius Brutus who had driven out the kings and the Gaius Servilius Ahala who had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy. By late autumn 45 BC, graffiti and some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources, excepting Nicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar. Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of the collegia restored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision. A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates. Whether there was a tradition of tyrannicide at Rome is unclear: Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given; he, however, made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide. The philosophical tradition of the Platonic Old Academy was also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny.

While some news of the conspiracy did leak out, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, the Ides of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign. News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure. They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road. That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC.

The Ides of March coin, minted in 42 BC, depicts Marcus Junius Brutus. The reverse depicts daggers and a pileus symbolising their use to win back freedom.

Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot. Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance - kai su teknon? ("you too, child?") - is variantly recorded. Between twenty-three and thirty-five wounds later, the dictator-for-life was dead.

Aftermath of the assassination

Marc Antony's Oration at Caesar's Funeral by George Edward Robertson (late 19th or early 20th century).

The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus - Caesar's lieutenant in the dictatorship - moved troops from the Tiber Island into the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate: Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.

Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. On the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum. Only its altar now remains. The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir one Gaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then at Apollonia, and adopted him in the will.

Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars. The first war was between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion) which resulted in Octavian - Caesar's heir - exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate. After purging their political enemies in a series of proscriptions, the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar - the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods - and marched on the east where a second war saw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides in battle, resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world. By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of a new Roman monarchy.

Personal life

Health and physical appearance

Based on remarks by Plutarch, Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC. Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm.

Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.

A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf". No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence.

Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations - headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility - and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in his Natural History that Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease.

Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes".

Name and family

The name Gaius Julius Caesar

Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.)

In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ ( Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German ([kaɪ̯zɐ]) or Dutch ([kɛizɛr]).

In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong [ae̯] first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel [ɛː]. Then, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like [ˈtʃeːsar] in Italian and [ˈtseːzar] in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, [ˈseːsar]) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived.

Caesar's cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse " Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became, from the late first millennium, in German and (through Old Church Slavic cěsarĭ) Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in the text corpora of Old High German ( keisar), Old Saxon ( kēsur), Old English ( cāsere), Old Norse ( keisari), Old Dutch ( keisere) and (through Greek) Gothic ( kaisar).

Wives

First marriage to Cornelia, from 84 BC until her death in 69 BC

Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal

Third marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until Caesar's death

Roman painting from the House of Giuseppe II, Pompeii, early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra VII, wearing her royal diadem, consuming poison in an act of suicide, while her son Caesarion, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her[261]

Children

Suspected children

Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide, Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children. Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and "on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology".

Grandchild from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.

Rumors of passive homosexuality

Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar." According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others - mainly Caesar's enemies - he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the " Queen of Bithynia", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion. This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents.

Catullus wrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, but later apologised.

Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus.

Literary works

Julii Caesaris quae exstant (1678)

A 1783 edition of The Gallic Wars

During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin - even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his " Anticato", a document attacking Cato in response to Cicero's eulogy. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.

The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years.

The Commentarii de Bello Civili (The Civil War), events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.

Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt:

These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings. As a model of clear and direct Latin style, The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students.

Historiography

The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind. Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read. The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition.

Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries, and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one afterwards.

Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of , a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government. Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism. The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.

Depictions

Battle record

Chronology

References

1. ^ Keppie, Lawrence (1998). "The approach of civil war". The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8061-3014-9.

2. ^ Badian 2009, p. 14; Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 31-32. The consul of 157 BC was Sextus Caesar; the consuls of 91 and 90 were Sextus Caesar and Lucius Caesar, respectively.

3. ^ Badian 2009, p. 15 dates the land commission to 103 per MRR 3.109; Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 33-34; Broughton 1952, p. 22, dating the proconsulship to 91 with praetorship in 92 BC and citing, among others, I, 705 and I, 706.

4. ^ Badian 2009, p. 16. Badian cites Suet. Iul., 1.2 arguing that Caesar was actually appointed; because a divorced man could not be flamen Dialis, the assertion that Caesar married one Cossutia then divorced her to marry Cornelia and become flamen in Plut. Caes., 5.3 is incorrect.

5. ^ Badian 2009, pp. 16-17, stating Caesar was placed on the lists. Cf, stating Caesar was only summoned for interrogation, Hinard, François (1985). Les proscriptions de la Rome républicaine (in French). Ecole française de Rome. p. 64. ISBN 978-2-7283-0094-5. OCLC 1006100534.

6. ^ Alexander 1990, p. 71 (Trial 140) noting also that Tac. Dial., 34.7 wrongly places the trial in 79 BC; Alexander 1990, pp. 71-72 (Trial 141).

7. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 107, citing Suet. Iul., 16. Dio reports a senatus consultum ultimum. Broughton 1952, p. 173, citing Dio, 37.41.

8. ^ Broughton 1952, pp. 173, 180. Most sources give a proconsular dignity. After the Sullan era, all magistrates were prorogued pro consule. Badian, Ernst; Lintott, Andrew (2016). "pro consule, pro praetore". Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5337. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5.

9. ^ Gruen 2009, p. 28; Broughton 1952, pp. 158, 173. Bibulus was Caesar's colleague both in the curule aedileship and the praetorship. They clashed politically in both magistracies. On credit for the aedilican games, see Suet. Iul., 10, Dio, 37.8.2, and Plut. Caes., 5.5.

10. ^ Gruen 2009, p. 33, noting that the lex Vatinia was "no means unprecedented... or even controversial".

11. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 175, citing Moreover, Caesar's eventual provinces of Trans- and Cisalpine Gaul had been assigned to the consuls of 60 and therefore would have been unavailable.

12. ^ Gruen 1995, p. 98. "It should no longer be necessary to refute the older notion that Clodius acted as agent or tool of the triumvirate". Clodius was an independent agent not beholden to the triumvirs or any putative popular party. Gruen, Erich S (1966). "P. Clodius: Instrument or Independent Agent?". Phoenix. 20 (2): 120-30. doi:10.2307/1086053. ISSN 0031-8299. JSTOR 1086053.

13. ^ Morstein-Marx, Robert (2007). "Caesar's alleged fear of prosecution and his "ratio absentis" in the approach to the civil war". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 56 (2): 159-78. doi:10.25162/historia-2007-0013. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 25598386. S2CID 159090397.

14. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 262-63, explaining:

Any prosecution was extremely unlikely to succeed.

No contemporary source expresses dissatisfaction with an inability to prosecute.

No timely charges could have been brought. The possibility of conviction for irregularities during his consulship in 59 was a fantasy when none of Caesar's actions in 59 were overturned. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 624.

Caesar proposed giving up his command - opening himself up to prosecution - in January 49 BC as part of peace negotiations, something he would not have proposed if he were worried about a sure-fire conviction.

See also Morstein-Marx 2021, Appendix 2, and, contra Morstein-Marx, Girardet, Klaus Martin (2020). Januar 49 v. Chr.: Vorgeschichte, Rechtslage, politische Aspekte (in German). Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH. doi:10.22028/d291-30177. ISBN 978-3-7749-4068-0.

15. ^ Wilson 2021, p. 322 n. 92 on favours for clients. Wilson 2021, p. 322 n. 94, noting Suet. Iul., 54.1-3 reporting on Caesar looting and extorting client states and Dio, 42.49-50, 43.24 on Caesar's forced loans to pay soldiers.

16. ^ Tempest 2017, p. 93; Meier 1995, p. 465 ("their dignity would have been spurious"); Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 547-48, 549-50 ("honores obtained as a personal favour rather than by a judgment of the People were in fact no 'honour' at all").

17. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 524-25 gives a number of examples:

Plut. Brut., 9.6: "If only you lived now, Brutus", on the Capitoline statue of Lucius Brutus.

Suet. Iul., 80.3: "If only you [Lucius Brutus] were alive".

App. BCiv., 2.112: "[Lucius Brutus,] your descendants are unworthy of you", challenging Marcus Brutus to act.

Suet. Iul., 80.3: "Brutus became the first consul, since he had expelled the kings; This man [Caesar] at last became king, since he had expelled the consuls", on a statue of Caesar.

Plut. Brut., 9.7; Plut. Caes., 62.7; App. BCiv., 2.112; Dio, 44.12.3: graffiti at Marcus Brutus' praetorian seat in the forum challenging him as asleep, corrupt, or not a true descendant of the Lucius Brutus who founded the republic.

18. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 528 (debts), 529 (lethal force, corn dole, collegia), 530 (juries, elections).

19. ^ Richardson, L (1992). "Iulius, Divus, Aedes". A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 213-14. ISBN 0-8018-4300-6.

20. ^ Mackay 2009, p. 334. Caesar's heir then took the style divi filius, meaning "son of the deified one".

21. ^ Ridley, Ronald T. (2000). "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 49 (2): 211-29. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4436576. Ridley cites:

22. ^ Bruschi, Fabrizio (2011). "Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to neurocysticercosis?". Trends in Parasitology. 27 (9): 373-74. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2011.06.001. PMID 21757405.

23. ^ McLachlan, Richard S (2010). "Julius Caesar's late onset epilepsy: a case of historic proportions". Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. 37 (5): 557-561. doi:10.1017/S0317167100010696. ISSN 0317-1671. PMID 21059498. S2CID 24082872.

24. ^ Gomez, J G; et al. (1995). "Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to a brain tumor?". Journal of the Florida Medical Association. 82 (3): 199-201. ISSN 0015-4148. PMID 7738524.

25. ^ Suet. Iul., 45. excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis.

26. ^ M. Philippa, F. Debrabandere, A. Quak, T. Schoonheim en N. van der Sijs (2003-2009) Etymologisch Woordenboek van het Nederlands, Amsterdam

27. ^ Tempest 2017, p. 102, noting the "almost universally accepted" treatment rejecting Caesar's parentage at Fluß, Max (1923). "Servilius 101" . Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (in German). Vol. II A, 2. Stuttgart: Butcher. cols. 1817-21 - via Wikisource.

28. ^ Syme, Ronald (1960). "Bastards in the Roman Aristocracy". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 104 (3): 326. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 985248. Chronology is against Caesar's paternity.

29. ^ Wiseman, T P (2009). "The publication of De bello Gallico". In Welch, Kathryn; Powell, Anton (eds.). Julius Caesar as artful reporter: the war commentaries as political instruments. Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-1-905125-28-9.

30. ^ Brown, Howard G. (29 June 2007). "Napoleon Bonaparte, Political Prodigy". History Compass. Wiley. 5 (4): 1382-98. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00451.x.

31. ^ Hartfield, James (2012). Unpatriotic History of the Second World War. John Hunt Publishing. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-78099-379-9. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019.

Primary sources

Own writings

Ancient historians' writings

Appian (1913) [2nd century AD]. Civil Wars. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by White, Horace. Cambridge - via LacusCurtius.

Cassius Dio (1914-1927) [c. AD 230]. Roman History. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Cary, Earnest - via LacusCurtius. Published in nine volumes.

Plutarch (1919). "The Life of Cato the Younger". Plutarch Lives: Sertorius and Eumenes; Phocion and Cato. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 8. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte - via LacusCurtius.

Suetonius (1913-1914). "Life of Augustus". Lives of the Twelve Caesars. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rolfe, J C. Cambridge - via LacusCurtius.

Suetonius (1913-1914). "Life of Caesar". Lives of the Twelve Caesars. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rolfe, J C. Cambridge - via LacusCurtius.

Velleius Paterculus (1924). Roman History. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Shipley, Frederick W - via LacusCurtius.

Secondary sources

Badian, Ernst (2012). "Iulius Caesar, C (2)". In Hornblower, Simon; et al. (eds.). The Oxford classical dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3394. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. OCLC 959667246.

Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon (1952). The magistrates of the Roman republic. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association.

Canfora, Luciano (2006). Julius Caesar: The People's Dictator. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1936-8. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021.

Crook, John; et al., eds. (1994). The last age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85073-8. OCLC 121060.

Rawson, Elizabeth (1994a). "Caesar: civil war and dictatorship". In , pp. 424-67.

Rawson, Elizabeth (1994b). "The aftermath of the Ides". In , pp. 468-90.

Wiseman, TP. "Caesar, Pompey, and Rome, 59-50 BC". In , pp. 368-423.

Badian, Ernst. "From the Iulii to Caesar". In Griffin (2009), pp. 11-22.

Gruen, Erich S. "Caesar as a politician". In Griffin (2009), pp. 23-36.

Ramsey, John T. "The proconsular years: politics at a distance". In Griffin (2009), pp. 37-56.

Paterson, Jeremy. "Caesar the man". In Griffin (2009), pp. 126-40.

Morstein-Marx, Robert (2021). Julius Caesar and the Roman People. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108943260. ISBN 978-1-108-83784-2. LCCN 2021024626. S2CID 242729962.

External links

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Gaius Julius Caesar (, SEE-zər ; Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊsˈjuːliʊsˈkae̯sar]; 12 July 100 BC - 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC.

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I forgot to add to my post that i think poor peoples life was not fair and really hard. I think all poor people should be treated like normal people, but back then you would be treated depending on if you are really poor or not

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This guy managed to trick a lot of people, including professional chess players, into thinking that the opponent they were playing was an actual automaton...

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This guy managed to trick a lot of people, including professional chess players, into thinking that the opponent they were playing was an actual automaton...

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love this story - conmen of the 18th C!  Mrs Shelton

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For much of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a chess-playing automaton known as the "Turk" drew huge crowds at exhibitions across Europe and the United States. The supposed robot was actually a hoax, but it was so ingeniously constructed that it managed to fool even the most intelligent observers for over 80 years. Before it was destroyed in the 1850s, it won worldwide fame and even squared off in chess matches against the likes of Benjamin Franklin and Napoleon Bonaparte.

In early 1826, one of Europe's most celebrated chess masters arrived in New York for his American debut. The event was widely touted in news articles and advertisements, and some 200 people later turned out for the first exhibition matches at Broadway's National Hotel. To their great delight, the chess master proceeded to trounce any audience member that dared challenge him. "Two accomplished chess players played jointly against him," the Commercial Advertiser wrote, "but were beaten with great ease." Before long, accounts of the mysterious chess master were filling the pages of all the major newspapers in New York. Match crowds grew so large that hundreds had to be turned away at the door. The response would've been unusual, if not for one key fact: the chess player wasn't human. It was an automaton-a mechanical robot that seemed capable of reasoning its way through one of the world's most intellectually demanding board games.

The chess automaton had passed through different owners over the previous decades, but it had always taken the form of a life-sized dummy seated behind a large wooden cabinet. The cabinet's interior was crammed with a series of gears, cranks and levers that resembled the innards of a clock. As for the dummy, it wore a turban, carried a pipe in one hand and was swathed in colorful robes. It was from this costume that the automaton got its name: the Turk.

The Turk had first appeared in 1769 in the court of Maria Theresa, the empress of Austria-Hungary. In a bid to impress the empress, an inventor and royal advisor named Wolfgang von Kempelen had vowed to build an automaton whose illusion and spectacle would surpass anything she had seen before. Intrigued, Maria Theresa granted him a leave of absence to work on his mystery project.

Kempelen resurfaced just six months later with the machine that would become known as the Turk. Its first performance took place in 1770 in front of Maria Theresa and a group of nobles, all of whom watched as Kempelen wheeled out his automaton chess player and its four-foot cabinet. In an act that would be repeated countless times over the years, the inventor began the show by unlocking the cabinet doors one at a time to display the machine's interior clockwork. He even used a candle to illuminate the inside of the mechanism so the audience could see there was nothing hidden inside. After soliciting the automaton's first opponent from the audience, Kempelen walked to the side of the cabinet and wound up a crank. Suddenly, the dummy came to life and slowly turned its mechanical head from one side to the other. It then reached across the board, grasped a pawn and made the game's first move.

The Turk beat all comers during its first exhibition, and it soon became something of a sensation in court. Audiences simply didn't know what to make of it. Some speculated that the automaton was somehow controlled by magnetism, while others argued that it was designed so that a dwarf or a child operator could hide inside. For every doubter, however, there were just as many others who considered it a technological marvel. As one observer wrote of Kempelen, "it seems impossible to attain a more perfect knowledge of mechanics than this gentleman has done."

Kempelen retired the Turk in 1774, but interest was later revived during the reign of Maria Theresa's successor, Joseph II. In 1783, on Joseph's orders, Kempelen took the automaton on a two-year tour of Europe. At its first stop in Paris, the machine matched wits against some of the world's top chess masters. It even beat Benjamin Franklin, who was then serving as the American ambassador to France. From there, the Turk continued its travels across England, Germany and the Netherlands. At each stop, it defeated most of its opponents and befuddled all the men of science who tried to explain it.

Kempelen died in 1804, but the Turk was later purchased by a German inventor and showman named Johann Maelzel, who toured with it for the rest of his life. Maelzel added a bit of flair to his exhibitions by installing a mechanical voice box that allowed the automaton to say "check!" whenever it endangered an opponent's king. He also started promoting its performances with advertisements and newspaper articles. Maelzel's biggest coup came in Vienna in 1809, when he arranged a match between the Turk and Napoleon Bonaparte. The French emperor reportedly attempted a few illegal moves during the game-which he lost-but each time, his mechanical adversary would simply shake its head and place the piece back where it had been.

It was Maelzel who later brought the Turk to the United States in 1826. After dazzling audiences in New York, he took it to Boston and Philadelphia before embarking on an extended tour of the South. In Richmond, Virginia, one of the Turk's performances was witnessed by a young Edgar Allan Poe, who later wrote an essay arguing that the machine was a sham orchestrated by a hidden human operator. "It is quite certain," he wrote, "that the operations of the automaton are regulated by mind, and by nothing else."

Poe certainly wasn't the first person to argue that the Turk was a fraud. Since its original appearances in the 1780s, skeptics had written several pamphlets and exposés that sought to debunk the claim that the machine was capable of playing chess on its own. Some, such as Poe and the British writer Robert Willis, maintained that a chess master hid inside the cabinet and controlled the game by wriggling into the Turk's mannequin body.

While the critics were right about the Turk being controlled by a human operator, none of them ever managed to fully explain how the hoax worked. In actuality, the machine's cogs and cranks were all non-functioning decoys that only extended only part of the way through the cabinet. This left a small space into which a human chess master could wedge himself. As Kempelen or Maelzel opened all the cabinet doors to exhibit the interior parts to the audience, the operator used a mechanical sliding seat to move out of view. Afterwards, he would settle into an open space in the main compartment, light a candle and follow the progress of the game outside by watching a series of dangling metal discs, which were attracted to magnets in the base of the chess pieces. To make his own moves, the operator used a series of levers that could move the Turk's arm and open and close its fingers.

Finding a person skilled enough to conduct all of these mechanical operations was certainly no easy task, but the even bigger problem was getting an operator who was an expert at chess. Kempelen and Maelzel both relied on skilled players whom they either enlisted during their travels or brought with them as phony members of their entourage. During the Turk's American tour, Maelzel used a European chess master named William Schlumberger, who posed as his personal secretary whenever he wasn't concealed inside the cabinet.

The Turk held its secrets tight for over 65 years, but the ruse finally started to unravel in 1838, when Maelzel died during an ocean voyage from Cuba to the United States. His chess automaton fell into the hands of one of his creditors, who eventually sold it to a syndicate of enthusiasts who were interested in unlocking the truth about its operation. Led by a doctor named John Kearsley Mitchell, the group eventually spent several months exhibiting the automaton in Philadelphia before donating it to the city's Chinese Museum.

The Turk had met kings and queens and fooled thousands of people during its illustrious career, but once consigned to the Chinese Museum, it was largely forgotten. It lay dormant until the night of July 5, 1854, when the museum caught fire. Dr. Mitchell's son, Silas, rushed to the site, yet by the time he arrived, the flames had already consumed the 85-year-old chess player. Silas Mitchell would go on to pen the first tell-all article exposing the Turk's secrets. In it, he wrote that as the automaton burned, he imagined he could hear its voice box saying "check!" over the sound of the blaze.

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How a Phony 18th Century Chess Robot Fooled the World

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For much of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a chess-playing automaton known as the "Turk" drew huge crowds at exhibitions across Europe and the United States. The supposed robot was actually a hoax, but it was so ingeniously constructed that it managed to fool even the most intelligent observers for over 80 years.

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Liverpool signing global partnership with Malaysia Airlines

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Liverpool signing global partnership with Malaysia Airlines

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As a Malaysian, I am really happy that Malaysia Airlines teamed up with Malaysia! if we're lucky enough, they might become their sponsors!!!!
This is a custom picture made by me, YOU CAN'T FIND IT ANYWHERE.

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This article provides information on how the Tudors spent their spare time

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Tudor Entertainment: What did the Tudors do for fun?

The modern world is filled with ready-made entertainment - television, computers, music centers, etc. Before the entertainment economy was developed, in the Tudor period people had to make their own form entertainment. Hours of work were long and without electric light or the benefit of being able to read, many people simply went to bed when it got dark. The time for entertainment was on a Sunday or Saint's day or when there was a great public event, such as a royal wedding or public execution.

Many of the forms of entertainment in the Tudor period echoed those of other pre-modern civilizations, such as the Romans. However, while there might be similarities in form (feast days and public theater), the function was markedly different. Roman spectacles included gladiatorial combat, forms of extreme violence that befit a society that worshipped a god of war. Tudor entertainment was filtered through a Christian framework that hewed to the liturgical calendar and included Saint's Days, feasts, Christmas, and Easter.

Tudor Entertainment: Sports

Sports were very popular in the Sixteenth Century. Some of the most popular are still played today:

Jousting

Pitching the Bar

Throwing the Sledgehammer

Leaping

Shin-kicking (with iron-tipped boots)

Sword fighting

Performing headstands

Fox Hunting

Hare Coursing

Dancing to bagpipes

Tudor Entertainment: Eating

Banquets were a popular form of entertainment for the rich, but the poorer folk would also hold feasts on special occasions. If there was a great public event such as a royal wedding then the monarch would pay for wine and food to be placed in the streets for the poor people to join in the celebrations. The diners would be entertained by mummers, jugglers, jesters or fire eaters.

Tudor Entertainment: The Theatre

The popularity of the theatre rose with both rich and poor alike, during the sixteenth century. This popularity was helped by the rise of great playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare as well as the building of the Globe theatre in London.

Tudor Entertainment: Execution

A public execution was an event not to be missed and people would queue through the night to get the best places. There was always a carnival atmosphere and a good trade was done by pie sellers, ale merchants and producers of execution memorabilia. Public executions always produced a carnival-like atmosphere with large crowds attracting peddlers, minstrels, jugglers and other street performers anxious to use this ready-made audience.

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Tudor Entertainment: Amusement in the Royal Courts - History

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The modern world is filled with ready-made entertainment - television, computers, music centers, etc. Before the entertainment economy was developed, in the Tudor period people had to make their own form entertainment. Hours of work were long and without electric light or the benefit of being able to read, many people simply went to bed when it got dark.

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Researchers from The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) may be one step closer to solving the mystery surrounding the disappearance of Amelia Earhart during her attempted around-the-world flight in 1937.

TIGHAR, which has spent more than 25 years investigating the ill-fated final voyage of Amelia Earhart, believes Earhart's plane did not crash in the Pacific Ocean, as many believe, but rather that she and her co-pilot Fred Noonan were able to make a landing on the remote, uninhabited island of Nikumaroro where the pair died as castaways.

Researchers from TIGHAR have previously recovered a number of artifacts on and around Nikumaroro, which lies some 350 miles southeast of Earhart's target destination on Howland Island, including aluminum metal sheets that match the dimensions and features of Earhart's plane as well as personal items such as a women's mirror, flight jacket buttons and an anti-freckle facial cream they believe Earhart was known to have used. In 2013 they released sonar images of an anomaly, 660 feet under water, that they believe to be the remains of Earhart's twin-engine Lockheed Electra.

This most recent discovery, however, actually dates back much further, to partial human remains discovered on Nikumaroro (then known as Gardner Island) in 1940. At the time, a British medical examiner identified the bones as those a male castaway, but TIGHAR began disputing those findings in the late 1990s, stating that they were "consistent with a female of Earhart's height and origin." The bones themselves were lost decades ago, but earlier this year, when forensic anthropologist Richard Jantz was re-examining the 1941 medical file on the bones, he noticed that the forearms were longer than normal, a trait common to women born in the late 19th century-as Earhart was, in 1897.

TIGHAR turned to a forensic imaging specialist, Jeff Glickman, who used historical photos of Earhart to estimate her measurements, focusing on the humerus (upper arm bone) and radius (lower arm bone). Glickman found that ratio of the humerus and radius bones in the photos was a nearly exact match as the remains found on Nikumaroro. "The match does not, of course, prove that the castaway was Amelia Earhart, but it is a significant new data point that tips the scales further in that direction," Gillespie said.

New Evidence Discovered

According to HISTORY's investigative special " Amelia Earhart: The Lost Evidence," retired federal agent Les Kinney scoured the National Archives for records that may have been overlooked in the search for the lost aviator.

Among thousands of documents he uncovered was a photograph stamped with official Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) markings reading "Marshall Islands, Jaluit Atoll, Jaluit Island, Jaluit Harbor." In the photo, a ship can be seen towing a barge with an airplane on the back; on a nearby dock are several people.

Kinney argues the photo must have been taken before 1943, as U.S. air forces conducted more than 30 bombing runs on Jaluit in 1943-44. He believes the plane on the barge is the Electra, and that two of the people on the dock are Earhart and Noonan.

As part of the program's investigation, Doug Carner, a digital forensic analyst, examined the photo and determined it was authentic and had not been manipulated, while Kent Gibson, another forensic analyst who specializes in facial recognition, said it was "very likely" the individuals in it are Earhart and Noonan. Both analysts identified the ship in the photo as the Japanese military vessel Koshu Maru, which is thought to be the ship that took Earhart and Noonan away after their crash landing.

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Skeleton May Help Solve Amelia Earhart Mystery

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Researchers from The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) may be one step closer to solving the mystery surrounding the disappearance of Amelia Earhart during her attempted around-the-world flight in 1937.

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The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for Black Americans to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn't end discrimination against Black people-they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans had had more than enough of prejudice and violence against them. They, along with many white Americans, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades.
WATCH: The Civil Rights Movement on HISTORY Vault
Jim Crow Laws

During Reconstruction, Black people took on leadership roles like never before. They held public office and sought legislative changes for equality and the right to vote.

In 1868, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution gave Black people equal protection under the law. In 1870, the 15th Amendment granted Black American men the right to vote. Still, many white Americans, especially those in the South, were unhappy that people they'd once enslaved were now on a more-or-less equal playing field.

To marginalize Black people, keep them separate from white people and erase the progress they'd made during Reconstruction, " Jim Crow " laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century. Black people couldn't use the same public facilities as white people, live in many of the same towns or go to the same schools. Interracial marriage was illegal, and most Black people couldn't vote because they were unable to pass voter literacy tests.
READ MORE: How Jim Crows Limited African American Progress
Jim Crow laws weren't adopted in northern states; however, Black people still experienced discrimination at their jobs or when they tried to buy a house or get an education. To make matters worse, laws were passed in some states to limit voting rights for Black Americans.

Moreover, southern segregation gained ground in 1896 when the U.S. Supreme Court declared in Plessy v. Ferguson that facilities for Black and white people could be "separate but equal."
READ MORE: When Did African Americans Get the Right to Vote?
World War II and Civil Rights

Prior to World War II, most Black people worked as low-wage farmers, factory workers, domestics or servants. By the early 1940s, war-related work was booming, but most Black Americans weren't given the better paying jobs. They were also discouraged from joining the military.

After thousands of Black people threatened to march on Washington to demand equal employment rights, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941. It opened national defense jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, color or national origin.

Black men and women served heroically in World War II, despite suffering segregation and discrimination during their deployment. The Tuskegee Airmen broke the racial barrier to become the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps and earned more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Yet many Black veterans were met with prejudice and scorn upon returning home. This was a stark contrast to why America had entered the war to begin with-to defend freedom and democracy in the world.

As the Cold War began, President Harry Truman initiated a civil rights agenda, and in 1948 issued Executive Order 9981 to end discrimination in the military. These events helped set the stage for grass-roots initiatives to enact racial equality legislation and incite the civil rights movement.
READ MORE: Why Harry Truman Ended Segregation in the US Military
Rosa Parks

On December 1, 1955, a 42-year-old woman named Rosa Parks found a seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus after work. Segregation laws at the time stated Black passengers must sit in designated seats at the back of the bus, and Parks had complied.

When a white man got on the bus and couldn't find a seat in the white section at the front of the bus, the bus driver instructed Parks and three other Black passengers to give up their seats. Parks refused and was arrested.

As word of her arrest ignited outrage and support, Parks unwittingly became the "mother of the modern day civil rights movement." Black community leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by Baptist minister Martin Luther King Jr., a role which would place him front and center in the fight for civil rights.

Parks' courage incited the MIA to stage a boycott of the Montgomery bus system. The Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days. On November 14, 1956 the Supreme Court ruled segregated seating was unconstitutional.

Little Rock Nine

In 1954, the civil rights movement gained momentum when the United States Supreme Court made segregation illegal in public schools in the case of Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas asked for volunteers from all-Black high schools to attend the formerly segregated school.

On September 3, 1957, nine Black students, known as the Little Rock Nine, arrived at Central High School to begin classes but were instead met by the Arkansas National Guard (on order of Governor Orval Faubus) and a screaming, threatening mob. The Little Rock Nine tried again a couple of weeks later and made it inside, but had to be removed for their safety when violence ensued.

Finally, President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened and ordered federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine to and from classes at Central High. Still, the students faced continual harassment and prejudice.

Their efforts, however, brought much-needed attention to the issue of desegregation and fueled protests on both sides of the issue.
READ MORE: Why Eisenhower Sent the 101st Airborne to Little Rock After Brown v. Board
Civil Rights Act of 1957

Even though all Americans had gained the right to vote, many southern states made it difficult for Black citizens. They often required prospective voters of color to take literacy tests that were confusing, misleading and nearly impossible to pass.

Wanting to show a commitment to the civil rights movement and minimize racial tensions in the South, the Eisenhower administration pressured Congress to consider new civil rights legislation.

On September 9, 1957, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, the first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. It allowed federal prosecution of anyone who tried to prevent someone from voting. It also created a commission to investigate voter fraud.

Woolworth's Lunch Counter

Despite making some gains, Black Americans still experienced blatant prejudice in their daily lives. On February 1, 1960, four college students took a stand against segregation in Greensboro, North Carolina when they refused to leave a Woolworth's lunch counter without being served.

Over the next several days, hundreds of people joined their cause in what became known as the Greensboro sit-ins. After some were arrested and charged with trespassing, protesters launched a boycott of all segregated lunch counters until the owners caved and the original four students were finally served at the Woolworth's lunch counter where they'd first stood their ground.

Their efforts spearheaded peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations in dozens of cities and helped launch the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to encourage all students to get involved in the civil rights movement. It also caught the eye of young college graduate Stokely Carmichael, who joined the SNCC during the Freedom Summer of 1964 to register Black voters in Mississippi. In 1966, Carmichael became the chair of the SNCC, giving his famous speech in which he originated the phrase "Black power."
READ MORE: How the Greensboro Four Sit-In Sparked a Movement
Freedom Riders

On May 4, 1961, 13 " Freedom Riders"-seven Black and six white activists-mounted a Greyhound bus in Washington, D.C., embarking on a bus tour of the American south to protest segregated bus terminals. They were testing the 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that declared the segregation of interstate transportation facilities unconstitutional.

Facing violence from both police officers and white protesters, the Freedom Rides drew international attention. On Mother's Day 1961, the bus reached Anniston, Alabama, where a mob mounted the bus and threw a bomb into it. The Freedom Riders escaped the burning bus, but were badly beaten. Photos of the bus engulfed in flames were widely circulated, and the group could not find a bus driver to take them further. U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (brother to President John F. Kennedy) negotiated with Alabama Governor John Patterson to find a suitable driver, and the Freedom Riders resumed their journey under police escort on May 20. But the officers left the group once they reached Montgomery, where a white mob brutally attacked the bus. Attorney General Kennedy responded to the riders-and a call from Martin Luther King Jr.-by sending federal marshals to Montgomery.

On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders reached Jackson, Mississippi. Though met with hundreds of supporters, the group was arrested for trespassing in a "whites-only" facility and sentenced to 30 days in jail. Attorneys for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP) brought the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court, who reversed the convictions. Hundreds of new Freedom Riders were drawn to the cause, and the rides continued.

In the fall of 1961, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals
HISTORY and Google Earth: Follow the Freedom Riders' Journey Against Segregation During the Civil Rights Era
March on Washington

Arguably one of the most famous events of the civil rights movement took place on August 28, 1963: the March on Washington. It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King Jr.

More than 200,000 people of all races congregated in Washington, D. C. for the peaceful march with the main purpose of forcing civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone. The highlight of the march was King's speech in which he continually stated, "I have a dream..."

King's " I Have a Dream" speech galvanized the national civil rights movement and became a slogan for equality and freedom.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964-legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy before his assassination -into law on July 2 of that year.

King and other civil rights activists witnessed the signing. The law guaranteed equal employment for all, limited the use of voter literacy tests and allowed federal authorities to ensure public facilities were integrated.
READ MORE: 8 Steps That Paved the Way to the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Bloody Sunday

On March 7, 1965, the civil rights movement in Alabama took an especially violent turn as 600 peaceful demonstrators participated in the Selma to Montgomery march to protest the killing of Black civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson by a white police officer and to encourage legislation to enforce the 15th amendment.

As the protesters neared the Edmund Pettus Bridge, they were blocked by Alabama state and local police sent by Alabama governor George C. Wallace, a vocal opponent of desegregation. Refusing to stand down, protesters moved forward and were viciously beaten and teargassed by police and dozens of protesters were hospitalized.

The entire incident was televised and became known as " Bloody Sunday." Some activists wanted to retaliate with violence, but King pushed for nonviolent protests and eventually gained federal protection for another march.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

When President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965, he took the Civil Rights Act of 1964 several steps further. The new law banned all voter literacy tests and provided federal examiners in certain voting jurisdictions.

It also allowed the attorney general to contest state and local poll taxes. As a result, poll taxes were later declared unconstitutional in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections in 1966.

Part of the Act was walked back decades later, in 2013, when a Supreme Court decision ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, holding that the constraints placed on certain states and federal review of states' voting procedures were outdated.

Civil Rights Leaders Assassinated

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders in the late 1960s. On February 21, 1965, former Nation of Islam leader and Organization of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally.

On April 4, 1968, civil rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room's balcony. Emotionally-charged looting and riots followed, putting even more pressure on the Johnson administration to push through additional civil rights laws.
READ MORE: Why People Rioted After Martin Luther King Jr.'s Assassination
Fair Housing Act of 1968

The Fair Housing Act became law on April 11, 1968, just days after King's assassination. It prevented housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin and religion. It was also the last legislation enacted during the civil rights era.

The civil rights movement was an empowering yet precarious time for Black Americans. The efforts of civil rights activists and countless protesters of all races brought about legislation to end segregation, Black voter suppression and discriminatory employment and housing practices.
READ MORE: Civil Rights Movement Timeline
Six Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement
10 Things You May Not Know About Martin Luther King Jr.

Sources

A Brief History of Jim Crow. Constitutional Rights Foundation.
Civil Rights Act of 1957. Civil Rights Digital Library.
Document for June 25th: Executive Order 8802: Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry. National Archives.
Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In. African American Odyssey.
Little Rock School Desegregation (1957). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Rosa Marie Parks Biography. Rosa and Raymond Parks.
Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday March 7, 1965). BlackPast.org.
The Civil Rights Movement (1919-1960s). National Humanities Center.
The Little Rock Nine. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior: Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site.
Turning Point: World War II. Virginia Historical Society.

Photo Galleries

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The civil rights movement was a struggle for justice and equality for African Americans that took place mainly in the 1950s and 1960s. Among its leaders were Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, the Little Rock Nine, Rosa Parks and many others.

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Great Depression: Causes, Definition & Dates | HISTORY

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The Great Depression was the worst economic downturn in world history. Learn about the Dust Bowl, New Deal, causes of the Great Depression, a Great Depression timeline more.

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Facts related to the Civil Rights Movement

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Facts related to the Civil Rights Movement

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The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for Black Americans to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn't end discrimination against Black people-they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans had had more than enough of prejudice and violence against them. They, along with many white Americans, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades.
WATCH: The Civil Rights Movement on HISTORY Vault
Jim Crow Laws

During Reconstruction, Black people took on leadership roles like never before. They held public office and sought legislative changes for equality and the right to vote.

In 1868, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution gave Black people equal protection under the law. In 1870, the 15th Amendment granted Black American men the right to vote. Still, many white Americans, especially those in the South, were unhappy that people they'd once enslaved were now on a more-or-less equal playing field.

To marginalize Black people, keep them separate from white people and erase the progress they'd made during Reconstruction, " Jim Crow " laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century. Black people couldn't use the same public facilities as white people, live in many of the same towns or go to the same schools. Interracial marriage was illegal, and most Black people couldn't vote because they were unable to pass voter literacy tests.
READ MORE: How Jim Crows Limited African American Progress
Jim Crow laws weren't adopted in northern states; however, Black people still experienced discrimination at their jobs or when they tried to buy a house or get an education. To make matters worse, laws were passed in some states to limit voting rights for Black Americans.

Moreover, southern segregation gained ground in 1896 when the U.S. Supreme Court declared in Plessy v. Ferguson that facilities for Black and white people could be "separate but equal."
READ MORE: When Did African Americans Get the Right to Vote?
World War II and Civil Rights

Prior to World War II, most Black people worked as low-wage farmers, factory workers, domestics or servants. By the early 1940s, war-related work was booming, but most Black Americans weren't given the better paying jobs. They were also discouraged from joining the military.

After thousands of Black people threatened to march on Washington to demand equal employment rights, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941. It opened national defense jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, color or national origin.

Black men and women served heroically in World War II, despite suffering segregation and discrimination during their deployment. The Tuskegee Airmen broke the racial barrier to become the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps and earned more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Yet many Black veterans were met with prejudice and scorn upon returning home. This was a stark contrast to why America had entered the war to begin with-to defend freedom and democracy in the world.

As the Cold War began, President Harry Truman initiated a civil rights agenda, and in 1948 issued Executive Order 9981 to end discrimination in the military. These events helped set the stage for grass-roots initiatives to enact racial equality legislation and incite the civil rights movement.
READ MORE: Why Harry Truman Ended Segregation in the US Military
Rosa Parks

On December 1, 1955, a 42-year-old woman named Rosa Parks found a seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus after work. Segregation laws at the time stated Black passengers must sit in designated seats at the back of the bus, and Parks had complied.

When a white man got on the bus and couldn't find a seat in the white section at the front of the bus, the bus driver instructed Parks and three other Black passengers to give up their seats. Parks refused and was arrested.

As word of her arrest ignited outrage and support, Parks unwittingly became the "mother of the modern day civil rights movement." Black community leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by Baptist minister Martin Luther King Jr., a role which would place him front and center in the fight for civil rights.

Parks' courage incited the MIA to stage a boycott of the Montgomery bus system. The Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days. On November 14, 1956 the Supreme Court ruled segregated seating was unconstitutional.

Little Rock Nine

In 1954, the civil rights movement gained momentum when the United States Supreme Court made segregation illegal in public schools in the case of Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas asked for volunteers from all-Black high schools to attend the formerly segregated school.

On September 3, 1957, nine Black students, known as the Little Rock Nine, arrived at Central High School to begin classes but were instead met by the Arkansas National Guard (on order of Governor Orval Faubus) and a screaming, threatening mob. The Little Rock Nine tried again a couple of weeks later and made it inside, but had to be removed for their safety when violence ensued.

Finally, President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened and ordered federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine to and from classes at Central High. Still, the students faced continual harassment and prejudice.

Their efforts, however, brought much-needed attention to the issue of desegregation and fueled protests on both sides of the issue.
READ MORE: Why Eisenhower Sent the 101st Airborne to Little Rock After Brown v. Board
Civil Rights Act of 1957

Even though all Americans had gained the right to vote, many southern states made it difficult for Black citizens. They often required prospective voters of color to take literacy tests that were confusing, misleading and nearly impossible to pass.

Wanting to show a commitment to the civil rights movement and minimize racial tensions in the South, the Eisenhower administration pressured Congress to consider new civil rights legislation.

On September 9, 1957, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, the first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. It allowed federal prosecution of anyone who tried to prevent someone from voting. It also created a commission to investigate voter fraud.

Woolworth's Lunch Counter

Despite making some gains, Black Americans still experienced blatant prejudice in their daily lives. On February 1, 1960, four college students took a stand against segregation in Greensboro, North Carolina when they refused to leave a Woolworth's lunch counter without being served.

Over the next several days, hundreds of people joined their cause in what became known as the Greensboro sit-ins. After some were arrested and charged with trespassing, protesters launched a boycott of all segregated lunch counters until the owners caved and the original four students were finally served at the Woolworth's lunch counter where they'd first stood their ground.

Their efforts spearheaded peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations in dozens of cities and helped launch the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to encourage all students to get involved in the civil rights movement. It also caught the eye of young college graduate Stokely Carmichael, who joined the SNCC during the Freedom Summer of 1964 to register Black voters in Mississippi. In 1966, Carmichael became the chair of the SNCC, giving his famous speech in which he originated the phrase "Black power."
READ MORE: How the Greensboro Four Sit-In Sparked a Movement
Freedom Riders

On May 4, 1961, 13 " Freedom Riders"-seven Black and six white activists-mounted a Greyhound bus in Washington, D.C., embarking on a bus tour of the American south to protest segregated bus terminals. They were testing the 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that declared the segregation of interstate transportation facilities unconstitutional.

Facing violence from both police officers and white protesters, the Freedom Rides drew international attention. On Mother's Day 1961, the bus reached Anniston, Alabama, where a mob mounted the bus and threw a bomb into it. The Freedom Riders escaped the burning bus, but were badly beaten. Photos of the bus engulfed in flames were widely circulated, and the group could not find a bus driver to take them further. U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (brother to President John F. Kennedy) negotiated with Alabama Governor John Patterson to find a suitable driver, and the Freedom Riders resumed their journey under police escort on May 20. But the officers left the group once they reached Montgomery, where a white mob brutally attacked the bus. Attorney General Kennedy responded to the riders-and a call from Martin Luther King Jr.-by sending federal marshals to Montgomery.

On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders reached Jackson, Mississippi. Though met with hundreds of supporters, the group was arrested for trespassing in a "whites-only" facility and sentenced to 30 days in jail. Attorneys for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP) brought the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court, who reversed the convictions. Hundreds of new Freedom Riders were drawn to the cause, and the rides continued.

In the fall of 1961, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals
HISTORY and Google Earth: Follow the Freedom Riders' Journey Against Segregation During the Civil Rights Era
March on Washington

Arguably one of the most famous events of the civil rights movement took place on August 28, 1963: the March on Washington. It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King Jr.

More than 200,000 people of all races congregated in Washington, D. C. for the peaceful march with the main purpose of forcing civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone. The highlight of the march was King's speech in which he continually stated, "I have a dream..."

King's " I Have a Dream" speech galvanized the national civil rights movement and became a slogan for equality and freedom.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964-legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy before his assassination -into law on July 2 of that year.

King and other civil rights activists witnessed the signing. The law guaranteed equal employment for all, limited the use of voter literacy tests and allowed federal authorities to ensure public facilities were integrated.
READ MORE: 8 Steps That Paved the Way to the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Bloody Sunday

On March 7, 1965, the civil rights movement in Alabama took an especially violent turn as 600 peaceful demonstrators participated in the Selma to Montgomery march to protest the killing of Black civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson by a white police officer and to encourage legislation to enforce the 15th amendment.

As the protesters neared the Edmund Pettus Bridge, they were blocked by Alabama state and local police sent by Alabama governor George C. Wallace, a vocal opponent of desegregation. Refusing to stand down, protesters moved forward and were viciously beaten and teargassed by police and dozens of protesters were hospitalized.

The entire incident was televised and became known as " Bloody Sunday." Some activists wanted to retaliate with violence, but King pushed for nonviolent protests and eventually gained federal protection for another march.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

When President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965, he took the Civil Rights Act of 1964 several steps further. The new law banned all voter literacy tests and provided federal examiners in certain voting jurisdictions.

It also allowed the attorney general to contest state and local poll taxes. As a result, poll taxes were later declared unconstitutional in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections in 1966.

Part of the Act was walked back decades later, in 2013, when a Supreme Court decision ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, holding that the constraints placed on certain states and federal review of states' voting procedures were outdated.

Civil Rights Leaders Assassinated

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders in the late 1960s. On February 21, 1965, former Nation of Islam leader and Organization of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally.

On April 4, 1968, civil rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room's balcony. Emotionally-charged looting and riots followed, putting even more pressure on the Johnson administration to push through additional civil rights laws.
READ MORE: Why People Rioted After Martin Luther King Jr.'s Assassination
Fair Housing Act of 1968

The Fair Housing Act became law on April 11, 1968, just days after King's assassination. It prevented housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin and religion. It was also the last legislation enacted during the civil rights era.

The civil rights movement was an empowering yet precarious time for Black Americans. The efforts of civil rights activists and countless protesters of all races brought about legislation to end segregation, Black voter suppression and discriminatory employment and housing practices.
READ MORE: Civil Rights Movement Timeline
Six Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement
10 Things You May Not Know About Martin Luther King Jr.

Sources

A Brief History of Jim Crow. Constitutional Rights Foundation.
Civil Rights Act of 1957. Civil Rights Digital Library.
Document for June 25th: Executive Order 8802: Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry. National Archives.
Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In. African American Odyssey.
Little Rock School Desegregation (1957). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Rosa Marie Parks Biography. Rosa and Raymond Parks.
Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday March 7, 1965). BlackPast.org.
The Civil Rights Movement (1919-1960s). National Humanities Center.
The Little Rock Nine. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior: Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site.
Turning Point: World War II. Virginia Historical Society.

Photo Galleries

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The civil rights movement was a struggle for justice and equality for African Americans that took place mainly in the 1950s and 1960s. Among its leaders were Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, the Little Rock Nine, Rosa Parks and many others.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
25 Strange Facts From History You Probably Didn't Learn In School

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Did you know Napoleon was once attacked by a pack of wild rabbits? These are 25 strange facts from history you probably didn't learn in school.

# data[].attributes.body
young girls were taught that they had to obey their parents instantly. As a father dominated a household, this basically meant that the girls grew up to instinctively obey men. Even uncles, older brothers and male family friends could expect instant obedience from girls. by naima

# data[].attributes.headline
So this is how the Americans faced German battleships.

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So this is how the Americans faced German battleships.

# data[].attributes.body
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa-class_battleship

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USS Iowa (BB-61) fires a full broadside on 15 August 1984 during a firepower demonstration after her recommissioning

Class overview

Name

Iowa-class battleship

Builders

Operators

United States Navy

Preceded by
South Dakota class

Succeeded by

Montana class (planned)

Cost

US$100 million per ship

Built

1940-1944

In commission

1943-1958

1968-1969

1982-1992

Planned

6

Completed

4

Cancelled

2

Retired

4

Preserved

4

General characteristics

Type
Battleship

Displacement

Length

860 ft (262.13 m) (pp)

887 ft 3 in (270.43 m) (oa)

Beam

108 ft 2 in (32.97 m)

Draft

37 ft 2 in (11.33 m) (full load)

37 ft 9 in (11.51 m) (maximum)

41 ft (12.50 m) aft, 39 ft (11.9 m) forward (New Jersey 1968)[2]

Installed power

Propulsion

4 × screws; 4 × geared steam turbines

Speed

33 knots (61.1 km/h; 38.0 mph) (up to 35.2 knots (65.2 km/h; 40.5 mph) at light load)

Range

14,890 nmi (27,580 km; 17,140 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph)

Complement

~2,700 (WWII, Korea)

~1,800 (1980s, Gulf War)

Sensors and
processing systems

World War II:

Mark 8 fire control radar

Mark 12/22 fire control radar

SC-2 radar (Iowa and Wisconsin)

SK/SK-2 radar

SG radar

SR radar

Korea, Vietnam:

Mark 13 fire control radar

Mark 25 fire control radar

AN/SPS-6

AN/SPS-8

AN/SPS-10

1980s, Gulf War:

Mark 13 fire control radar

Mark 25 fire control radar

AN/SPS-49

AN/SPS-67

Electronic warfare
& decoys

Armament

Armor

Belt: 12.1 in (307 mm)

Bulkheads:

Iowa/New Jersey: 11.3 in (287 mm)

Missouri/Wisconsin: 14.5 in (368 mm)

Barbettes: 11.6-17.3 in (295-439 mm)

Turrets: 9.5-19.5 in (241-495 mm)

Conning tower: 17.3 in (439 mm)

Decks: 1.5 in (38 mm), 6 in (152 mm), 0.63-1 in (16-25 mm)

Aircraft carried

World War II: 3 × floatplanes

Korea/Vietnam: 3 × helicopters

Cold War/Gulf War: 5 × UAVs

Aviation facilities

No Helicopter Hanger Built or installed, aircraft were stored on deck,

Helicopter Flight deck added.
Aft Floatplane Crane, removed for Helicopter flight deck modifications.

The Iowa class was a class of six fast battleships ordered by the United States Navy in 1939 and 1940. They were initially intended to intercept fast capital ships such as the Japanese Kongō class and also serve as the "fast wing" in a traditional battle line alongside slower battleships. The Iowa class was designed to meet the Second London Naval Treaty's "escalator clause" limit of 45,000-long-ton (45,700 t) standard displacement. Beginning in August 1942, four vessels, Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin, were completed; two more, Illinois and Kentucky, were laid down but canceled in 1945 and 1958, respectively, before completion, and both hulls were scrapped in 1958-1959.

The four Iowa-class ships were the last battleships commissioned in the US Navy. All older US battleships were decommissioned by 1947 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) by 1963. Between the mid-1940s and the early 1990s, the Iowa-class battleships fought in four major US wars. In the Pacific Theater of World War II, they served primarily as fast escorts for Essex-class aircraft carriers of the Fast Carrier Task Force and also shelled Japanese positions. During the Korean War, the battleships provided naval gunfire support (NGFS) for United Nations forces, and in 1968, New Jersey shelled Viet Cong and Vietnam People's Army forces in the Vietnam War. All four were reactivated and modernized at the direction of the United States Congress in 1981, and armed with missiles during the 1980s, as part of the 600-ship Navy initiative. During Operation Desert Storm in 1991, Missouri and Wisconsin fired missiles and 16-inch (406 mm) guns at Iraqi targets.

Costly to maintain, the battleships were decommissioned during the post- Cold War drawdown in the early 1990s. All four were initially removed from the Naval Vessel Register, but the United States Congress compelled the Navy to reinstate two of them on the grounds that existing NGFS would be inadequate for amphibious operations. This resulted in a lengthy debate over whether battleships should have a role in the modern navy. Ultimately, all four ships were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and released for donation to non-profit organizations. With the transfer of Iowa in 2012, all four are museum ships part of non-profit maritime museums across the US.

The vessels that eventually became the Iowa-class battleships were born from the US Navy's War Plan Orange, a Pacific war plan against Japan. War planners anticipated that the US fleet would engage and advance in the Central Pacific, with a long line of communication and logistics that would be vulnerable to high-speed Japanese cruisers and capital ships. The chief concern was that the US Navy's traditional 21-knot battle line of "Standard-type" battleships would be too slow to force these Japanese task forces into battle, while faster aircraft carriers and their cruiser escorts would be outmatched by the Japanese Kongō-class battlecruisers, which had been upgraded in the 1930s to fast battleships. As a result, the US Navy envisioned a fast detachment of the battle line that could bring the Japanese fleet into battle. Even during the development process of the preceding North Carolina-class and South Dakota-class battleships, designs that could achieve over 30 knots in order to counter the threat of fast "big gun" ships were seriously considered. At the same time, a special strike force consisting of fast battleships operating alongside carriers and destroyers was being envisaged; such a force could operate independently in advance areas and act as scouts. This concept eventually evolved into the Fast Carrier Task Force, though initially the carriers were believed to be subordinate to the battleship.

Another factor was the "escalator clause" of the Second London Naval Treaty, which reverted the gun caliber limit from 14 inches (356 mm) to 16 inches (406 mm). Japan had refused to sign the treaty and in particular refused to accept the 14-inch gun caliber limit or the 5:5:3 ratio of warship tonnage limits for Britain, the United States, and Japan, respectively. This resulted in the three treaty powers, the United States, Britain, and France, invoking the escalator clause after April 1937. Circulation of intelligence evidence in November 1937 of Japanese capital ships violating naval treaties caused the treaty powers to expand the escalator clause in June 1938, which amended the standard displacement limit of battleships from 35,000 long tons (35,600 t) to 45,000 long tons (45,700 t).

Work on what would eventually become the Iowa-class battleship began on the first studies in early 1938, at the direction of Admiral Thomas C. Hart, head of the General Board, following the planned invocation of the "escalator clause" that would permit maximum standard capital ship displacement of 45,000 long tons (45,700 t). Using the additional 10,000 long tons (10,200 t) over previous designs, the studies included schemes for 27-knot (50 km/h; 31 mph) "slow" battleships that increased armament and protection as well as "fast" battleships capable of 33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph) or more. One of the "slow" designs was an expanded South Dakota class carrying either twelve 16-inch/45 caliber Mark 6 guns or nine 18-inch (457 mm)/48 guns and with more armor and a power plant large enough to drive the larger ship through the water at the same 27-knot maximum speed as the South Dakotas. While the "fast" studies would result in the Iowa class, the "slow" design studies would eventually settle on twelve 16-inch guns and evolve into the design for the 60,500-long-ton (61,500 t) Montana class after all treaty restrictions were removed following the start of World War II. Priority was given to the "fast" design in order to counter and defeat Japan's 30-knot (56 km/h; 35 mph) Kongō-class battlecruisers, whose higher speed advantage over existing US battleships might let them "penetrate US cruisers, thereby making it 'open season' on US supply ships", and then overwhelm the Japanese battle line was therefore a major driving force in setting the design criteria for the new ships, as was the restricting width of the Panama Canal.

For "fast" battleships, one such design, pursued by the Design Division section of the Bureau of Construction and Repair, was a "cruiser-killer". Beginning on 17 January 1938, under Captain A.J. Chantry, the group drew up plans for ships with twelve 16-inch and twenty 5-inch (127 mm) guns, Panamax capability but otherwise unlimited displacement, a top speed of 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) and a range of 20,000 nautical miles (37,000 km; 23,000 mi) when traveling at the more economical speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Their plan fulfilled these requirements with a ship of 50,940 long tons (51,760 t) standard displacement, but Chantry believed that more could be done if the ship were to be this large; with a displacement greater than that of most battleships, its armor would have protected it only against the 8-inch (200 mm) weapons carried by heavy cruisers.

Three improved plans - "A", "B", and "C" - were designed at the end of January. An increase in draft, vast additions to the armor, and the substitution of twelve 6-inch (152 mm) guns in the secondary battery were common among the three designs. "A" was the largest, at 59,060 long tons (60,010 t) standard, and was the only one to still carry the twelve 16-inch guns in four triple turrets (3-gun turrets according to US Navy). It required 277,000 shp (207,000 kW) to make 32.5 knots (60.2 km/h; 37.4 mph). "B" was the smallest at 52,707 long tons (53,553 t) standard; like "A" it had a top speed of 32.5 knots, but "B" only required 225,000 shp (168,000 kW) to make this speed. It also carried only nine 16-inch guns, in three triple turrets. "C" was similar but added 75,000 shp (56,000 kW) (for a total of 300,000 shp (220,000 kW)) to meet the original requirement of 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph). The weight required for this and a longer belt - 512 feet (156 m), compared with 496 feet (151 m) for "B" - meant that the ship was 55,771 long tons (56,666 t) standard.

In March 1938, the General Board followed the recommendations of the Battleship Design Advisory Board, which was composed of the naval architect William Francis Gibbs, William Hovgaard (then president of New York Shipbuilding), John Metten, Joseph W. Powell, and the long-retired Admiral and former Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance Joseph Strauss. The board requested an entirely new design study, again focusing on increasing the size of the 35,000-long-ton (36,000 t) South Dakota class. The first plans made for this indicated that 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph) was possible on a standard displacement of about 37,600 long tons (38,200 t). 33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph) could be bought with 220,000 shp (160,000 kW) and a standard displacement of around 39,230 long tons (39,860 t), which was well below the London Treaty's "escalator clause" maximum limit of 45,000 long tons (45,700 t).

These designs were able to convince the General Board that a reasonably well-designed and balanced 33-knot "fast" battleship was possible within the terms of the "escalator clause". However, further studies revealed major problems with the estimates. The speed of the ships meant that more freeboard would be needed both fore and amidships, the latter requiring an additional foot of armored freeboard. Along with this came the associated weight in supporting these new strains: the structure of the ship had to be reinforced and the power plant enlarged to avoid a drop in speed. In all, about 2,400 long tons (2,440 t) had to be added, and the large margin the navy designers had previously thought they had - roughly 5,000 long tons (5,080 t) - was suddenly vanishing. The draft of the ships was also allowed to increase, which enabled the beam to narrow and thus reduced the required power (since a lower beam-to-draft ratio reduces wave-making resistance). This also allowed the ships to be shortened, which reduced weight.

With the additional displacement, the General Board was incredulous that a tonnage increase of 10,000 long tons (10,200 t) would allow only the addition of 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph) over the South Dakotas. Rather than retaining the 16-inch/45 caliber Mark 6 guns used in the South Dakotas, they ordered that the preliminary design would have to include the more powerful but significantly heavier 16-inch/50 caliber Mark 2 guns left over from the canceled Lexington-class battlecruisers and South Dakota-class battleships of the early 1920s.

The 16"/50 turret weighed some 400 long tons (406 t) more than the 16"/45 turret already in use and also had a larger barbette diameter of 39 feet 4 inches (11.99 m) compared to the latter's barbette diameter of 37 feet 3 inches (11.35 m), so the total weight gain was about 2,000 long tons (2,030 t). This put the ship at a total of 46,551 long tons (47,298 t) - well over the 45,000-long-ton (46,000 t) limit. An apparent savior appeared in a Bureau of Ordnance preliminary design for a turret that could carry the 50-caliber guns and also fit in the smaller barbette of the 45-caliber gun turret. Other weight savings were achieved by thinning some armor elements and substituting construction steel with armor-grade Special Treatment Steel (STS) in certain areas. The net savings reduced the preliminary design displacement to 44,560 long tons (45,280 t) standard, though the margin remained tight. This breakthrough was shown to the General Board as part of a series of designs on 2 June 1938.

However, the Bureau of Ordnance continued working on the turret with the larger barbette, while the Bureau of Construction and Repair used the smaller barbettes in the contract design of the new battleships. As the bureaus were independent of one another, they did not realize that the two plans could not go together until November 1938, when the contract design was in the final stages of refinement. By this time, the ships could not use the larger barbette, as it would require extensive alterations to the design and would result in substantial weight penalties. Reverting to the 45-caliber gun was also deemed unacceptable. The General Board was astounded; one member asked the head of the Bureau of Ordnance if it had occurred to him that Construction and Repair would have wanted to know what turret his subordinates were working on "as a matter of common sense". A complete scrapping of plans was avoided only when designers within the Bureau of Ordnance were able to design a new 50-caliber gun, the Mark 7, that was both lighter and smaller in outside diameter; this allowed it to be placed in a turret that would fit in the smaller barbette. The redesigned 3-gun turret, equipped as it was with the Mark 7 naval gun, provided an overall weight saving of nearly 850 long tons (864 t) to the overall design of the Iowa class. The contract design displacement subsequently stood at 45,155 long tons (45,880 t) standard and 56,088 long tons (56,988 t) full load.

In May 1938, the United States Congress passed the Second Vinson Act, which "mandated a 20% increase in strength of the United States Navy". The act was sponsored by Carl Vinson, a Democratic Congressman from Georgia who was Chairman of the House Naval Affairs and Armed Services Committee. The Second Vinson Act updated the provisions of the Vinson-Trammell Act of 1934 and the Naval Act of 1936, which had "authorized the construction of the first American battleships in 17 years", based on the provisions of the London Naval Treaty of 1930; this act was quickly signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and provided the funding to build the Iowa class. Each ship cost approximately US$100 million.

As 1938 drew to a close, the contract design of the Iowas was nearly complete, but it would continuously evolve as the New York Navy Yard, the lead shipyard, conducted the final detail design. These revisions included changing the design of the foremast, replacing the original 1.1-inch (27.9 mm)/75-caliber guns that were to be used for anti-aircraft (AA) work with 20 mm (0.79 in)/70 caliber Oerlikon cannons and 40 mm (1.57 in)/56 caliber Bofors guns, and moving the combat information center into the armored hull. Additionally, in November 1939, the New York Navy Yard greatly modified the internal subdivision of the machinery rooms, as tests had shown the underwater protection in these rooms to be inadequate. The longitudinal subdivision of these rooms was doubled, and the result of this was clearly beneficial: "The prospective effect of flooding was roughly halved and the number of uptakes and hence of openings in the third deck greatly reduced." Although the changes meant extra weight and increasing the beam by 1 foot (0.30 m) to 108 feet 2 inches (32.97 m), this was no longer a major issue; Britain and France had renounced the Second London Naval Treaty soon after the beginning of the Second World War. The design displacement was 45,873 long tons (46,609 t) standard, approximately 2% overweight, when Iowa and New Jersey were laid down in June and September 1940. By the time the Iowa s were completed and commissioned in 1943-44, the considerable increase in anti-aircraft armament - along with their associated splinter protection and crew accommodations - and additional electronics had increased standard displacement to some 47,825 long tons (48,592 t), while full load displacement became 57,540 long tons (58,460 t).

For half a century prior to laying [the Iowa class] down, the US Navy had consistently advocated armor and firepower at the expense of speed. Even in adopting fast battleships of the North Carolina class, it had preferred the slower of two alternative designs. Great and expensive improvements in machinery design had been used to minimize the increased power on the designs rather than make extraordinary powerful machinery (hence much higher speed) practical. Yet the four largest battleships the US Navy produced were not much more than 33-knot versions of the 27-knot, 35,000 tonners that had preceded them. The Iowas showed no advance at all in protection over the South Dakota s. The principal armament improvement was a more powerful 16-inch gun, 5 calibers longer. Ten thousand tons was a very great deal to pay for 6 knots.

Norman Friedman, U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History, p. 307.

USS Iowa in World War II configuration and wearing Measure 32 Design 1B camouflage pattern, c. 1944.

The Iowa-class battleships are 860 ft 0 in (262.13 m) long at the waterline and 887 ft 3 in (270.43 m) long overall with a beam of 108 ft 2 in (32.97 m). During World War II, the draft was 37 ft 2 in (11.33 m) at full load displacement of 57,540 long tons (58,460 t) and 34 ft in (10.60 m) at design combat displacement of 54,889 long tons (55,770 t). Like the two previous classes of American fast battleships, the Iowas have a double bottom hull that becomes a triple bottom under the armored citadel and armored skegs around the inboard shafts. The dimensions of the Iowas were strongly influenced by speed. When the Second Vinson Act was passed by the United States Congress in 1938, the US Navy moved quickly to develop a 45,000-ton-standard battleship that would pass through the 110 ft (34 m) wide Panama Canal. Drawing on a 1935 empirical formula for predicting a ship's maximum speed based on scale-model studies in flumes of various hull forms and propellers and a newly developed empirical theorem that related waterline length to maximum beam, the Navy drafted plans for a battleship class with a maximum beam of 108 ft 2 in (32.97 m) which, when multiplied by 7.96, produced a waterline length of 860 ft (262 m). The Navy also called for the class to have a lengthened forecastle and amidship, which would increase speed, and a bulbous bow.

The Iowas exhibit good stability, making them steady gun platforms. At design combat displacement, the ships' (GM) metacentric height was 9.26 ft (2.82 m). They also have excellent maneuverability in the open water for their size, while seakeeping is described as good, but not outstanding. In particular, the long fine bow and sudden widening of the hull just in front of the foremost turret contributed to the ships being rather wet for their size. This hull form also resulted in very intense spray formations, which led to some difficulty refueling escorting destroyers.

Main battery

The primary guns used on these battleships are the nine 16-inch (406 mm)/50-caliber Mark 7 naval guns, a compromise design developed to fit inside the barbettes. These guns fire high explosive- and armor-piercing shells and can fire a 16-inch shell approximately 23.4 nautical miles (43.3 km; 26.9 mi). The guns are housed in three 3-gun turrets: two forward of the battleship's superstructure and one aft, in a configuration known as "2-A-1". The guns are 66 feet (20 m) long (50 times their 16-inch bore, or 50 calibers from breechface to muzzle). About 43 feet (13 m) protrudes from the gun house. Each gun weighs about 239,000 pounds (108,000 kg) without the breech, or 267,900 pounds (121,500 kg) with the breech. They fired 2,700-pound (1,225 kg) armor-piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,500 ft/s (762 m/s), or 1,900-pound (862 kg) high-capacity projectiles at 2,690 ft/s (820 m/s), up to 24 miles (21 nmi; 39 km). At maximum range, the projectile spends almost minutes in flight. The maximum firing rate for each gun is two rounds per minute.

Each gun rests within an armored turret, but only the top of the turret protrudes above the main deck. The turret extends either four decks (Turrets 1 and 3) or five decks (Turret 2) down. The lower spaces contain rooms for handling the projectiles and storing the powder bags used to fire them. Each turret required a crew of between 85 and 110 men to operate. The original cost for each turret was US$1.4 million, but this figure does not take into account the cost of the guns themselves. The turrets are "three-gun", not "triple", because each barrel is individually sleeved and can be elevated and fired independently. The ship could fire any combination of its guns, including a broadside of all nine. The fire control was performed by the Mark 38 Gun Fire Control System (GFCS); the firing solutions were computed with the Mark 8 rangekeeper, an analog computer that automatically receives information from the director and Mark 8/13 fire control radar, stable vertical, ship pitometer log and gyrocompass, and anemometer. The GFCS uses remote power control ( RPC) for automatic gun laying.

The large-caliber guns were designed to fire two different conventional 16-inch shells: the 2,700-pound (1,225 kg) Mk 8 "Super-heavy" APC (Armor Piercing, Capped) shell for anti-ship and anti-structure work, and the 1,900-pound (862 kg) Mk 13 high-explosive round designed for use against unarmored targets and shore bombardment. When firing the same conventional shell, the 16-inch/45 caliber Mark 6 used by the fast battleships of the North Carolina and South Dakota classes had a slight advantage over the 16-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 gun when hitting deck armor - a shell from a 45 cal gun would be slower, meaning that it would have a steeper trajectory as it descended. At 35,000 yards (20 mi; 32 km), a shell from a 45 cal would strike a ship at an angle of 45.2 degrees, as opposed to 36 degrees with the 50 cal. The Mark 7 had a greater maximum range over the Mark 6: 23.64 miles (38.04 km) vs 22.829 miles (36.740 km).

In the 1950s, the W23, an adaptation of the W19 nuclear artillery shell was developed specifically for the 16-inch guns. The shell weighed 1,900 pounds (862 kg) had an estimated yield of 15 to 20 kilotons of TNT (63,000 to 84,000 GJ), and its introduction made the Iowa-class battleships' 16-inch guns the world's largest nuclear artillery and made these four battleships the only US Navy ships ever to have nuclear shells for naval guns. Although developed for exclusive use by the battleship's guns it is not known if any of the Iowa s actually carried these shells while in active service due to the United States Navy's policy of refusing to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weaponry aboard its ships. In 1991, the United States unilaterally withdrew all of its nuclear artillery shells from service, and the dismantling of the US nuclear artillery inventory is said to have been completed in 2004.

Secondary battery

A 5-inch gun mount emblazoned with the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor of the United States Marine Corps aboard the battleship New Jersey. In keeping with tradition, a 5-inch gun mount on each Iowa-class battleship was manned by the ship's Marine Detachment.

The Iowas carried twenty 5-inch (127 mm)/38 caliber Mark 12 guns in ten Mark 28 Mod 2 enclosed base ring mounts. Originally designed to be mounted upon destroyers built in the 1930s, these guns were so successful that they were added to many American ships during the Second World War, including every major ship type and many smaller warships constructed between 1934 and 1945. They were considered to be "highly reliable, robust and accurate" by the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance.

Each 5-inch/38 gun weighed almost 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) without the breech; the entire mount weighed 156,295 pounds (70,894 kg). It was 223.8 inches (5,680 mm) long overall, had a bore length of 190 inches (4,800 mm), and a rifling length of 157.2 inches (3,990 mm). The gun could fire shells at about 2,500-2,600 ft/s (760-790 m/s); about 4,600 could be fired before the barrel needed to be replaced. Minimum and maximum elevations were −15 and 85 degrees, respectively. The guns' elevation could be raised or lowered at about 15 degrees per second. The mounts closest to the bow and stern could aim from −150 to 150 degrees; the others were restricted to −80 to 80 degrees. They could be turned at about 25 degrees per second. The mounts were directed by four Mark 37 fire control systems primarily through remote power control (RPC).

The 5-inch/38 gun functioned as a dual-purpose gun (DP); that is, it was able to fire at both surface and air targets with a reasonable degree of success. However, this did not mean that it possessed inferior anti-air abilities. As proven during 1941 gunnery tests conducted aboard North Carolina the gun could consistently shoot down aircraft flying at 12,000-13,000 feet (2.3-2.5 mi; 3.7-4.0 km), twice the effective range of the earlier single-purpose 5-inch/25 caliber AA gun. As Japanese airplanes became faster, the gun lost some of its effectiveness in the anti-aircraft role; however, toward the end of the war, its usefulness as an anti-aircraft weapon increased again because of an upgrade to the Mark 37 Fire Control System, Mark 1A computer, and proximity-fused shells.

The 5-inch/38 gun would remain on the battleships for the ships' entire service life; however, the total number of guns and gun mounts was reduced from twenty guns in ten mounts to twelve guns in six mounts during the 1980s' modernization of the four Iowas. The removal of four of the gun mounts was required for the battleships to be outfitted with the armored box launchers needed to carry and fire Tomahawk missiles. At the time of the 1991 Persian Gulf War, these guns had been largely relegated to littoral defense for the battleships. Since each battleship carried a small detachment of Marines aboard, the Marines would man one of the 5-inch gun mounts.

Anti-air battery

At the time of their commissioning, all four of the Iowa-class battleships were equipped with 20 quad 40 mm mounts and 49 single 20 mm mounts. These guns were respectively augmented with the Mk 14 range sight and Mk 51 fire control system to improve accuracy.

The Oerlikon 20-millimeter (0.8 in) gun, one of the most heavily produced anti-aircraft guns of the Second World War, entered service in 1941 and replaced the 0.50-inch (12.7 mm) M2 Browning MG on a one-for-one basis. Between December 1941 and September 1944, 32% of all Japanese aircraft downed were credited to this weapon, with the high point being 48.3% for the second half of 1942; however, the 20 mm guns were found to be ineffective against the Japanese Kamikaze attacks used during the latter half of World War II and were subsequently phased out in favor of the heavier Bofors 40-millimeter (1.6 in) AA gun.

When the Iowa-class battleships were commissioned in 1943 and 1944, they carried twenty quad 40 mm AA gun mounts, which they used for defense against enemy aircraft. These heavy AA guns were also employed in the protection of Allied aircraft carriers operating in the Pacific Theater of World War II, and accounted for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945. Although successful in this role against WWII aircraft, the 40 mm guns were stripped from the battleships in the jet age - initially from New Jersey when reactivated in 1968 and later from Iowa, Missouri, and Wisconsin when they were reactivated for service in the 1980s.

The powerplant of the Iowas consists of eight Babcock & Wilcox boilers and four sets of double reduction cross-compound geared turbines, with each turbine set driving a single shaft. Specifically, the geared turbines on Iowa and Missouri were provided by General Electric, while the equivalent machinery on New Jersey and Wisconsin was provided by Westinghouse. The plant produced 212,000 shp (158,000 kW) and propelled the ship up to a maximum speed of 32.5 kn (60.2 km/h; 37.4 mph) at full load displacement and 33 kn (61 km/h; 38 mph) at normal displacement. The ships carried 8,841 long tons (8,983 t) of fuel oil which gave a range of 15,900 nmi (29,400 km; 18,300 mi) at 17 kn (31 km/h; 20 mph). Two semi-balanced rudders gave the ships a tactical turning diameter of 814 yards (744 m) at 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) and 760 yards (695 m) at 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph).

The machinery spaces were longitudinally divided into eight compartments with alternating fire and engine rooms to ensure adequate isolation of machinery components. Four fire rooms each contained two M-Type boilers operating at 600 pounds per square inch (4,137 kPa; 42 ) with a maximum superheater outlet temperature of 850 °F (454 °C). The double-expansion engines consist of a high-pressure (HP) turbine and a low-pressure (LP) turbine. The steam is first passed through the HP turbine which turns at up to 2,100 rpm. The steam, largely depleted at this point, is then passed through a large conduit to the LP turbine. By the time it reaches the LP turbine, it has no more than 50 psi (340 kPa) of pressure left. The LP turbine increases efficiency and power by extracting the last little bit of energy from the steam. After leaving the LP turbine, the exhaust steam passes into a condenser and is then returned as feed water to the boilers. Water lost in the process is replaced by three evaporators, which can make a total of 60,000 US gallons per day (3 liters per second) of fresh water. After the boilers have had their fill, the remaining fresh water is fed to the ship's potable water systems for drinking, showers, hand washing, cooking, etc. All of the urinals and all but one of the toilets on the Iowa class flush with salt water in order to conserve fresh water. The turbines, especially the HP turbine, can turn at 2,000 rpm; their shafts drive through reduction gearing that turns the propeller shafts at speeds up to 225 rpm, depending upon the desired speed of the ship. The Iowas were outfitted with four screws: the outboard pair consisting of four-bladed propellers 18.25 ft (5.56 m) in diameter and the inboard pair consisting of five-bladed propellers 17 ft (5.18 m) in diameter. The propeller designs were adopted after earlier testing had determined that propeller cavitation caused a drop in efficiency at speeds over 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph). The two inner shafts were housed in skegs to smooth the flow of water to the propellers and improve the structural strength of the stern.

Each of the four engine rooms has a pair of 1,250 kW Ship's Service Turbine Generators (SSTGs), providing the ship with a total non-emergency electrical power of 10,000 kW at 450 volts alternating current. Additionally, the vessels have a pair of 250 kW emergency diesel generators. To allow battle-damaged electrical circuits to be repaired or bypassed, the lower decks of the ship have a Casualty Power System whose large 3-wire cables and wall outlets called "biscuits" can be used to reroute power.

Electronics (1943-69)

The earliest search radars installed were the SK air-search radar and SG surface-search radar during World War II. They were located on the mainmast and forward fire-control tower of the battleships, respectively. As the war drew to a close, the United States introduced the SK-2 air-search radar and SG surface-search radar; the Iowa class was updated to make use of these systems between 1945 and 1952. At the same time, the ships' radar systems were augmented with the installation of the SP height finder on the main mast. In 1952, AN/SPS-10 surface-search radar and AN/SPS-6 air-search radar replaced the SK and SG radar systems, respectively. Two years later the SP height finder was replaced by the AN/SPS-8 height finder, which was installed on the main mast of the battleships.

In addition to these search and navigational radars, the Iowa class were also outfitted with a variety of fire control radars for their gun systems. Beginning with their commissioning, the battleships made use of a pair of Mk 38 gun fire control systems with Mark 8 fire control radar to direct the 16-inch guns and a quartet of Mk 37 gun fire control systems with Mark 12 fire control radar and Mark 22 height finding radar to direct the 5-inch gun batteries. These systems were upgraded over time with the Mark 13 replacing the Mark 8 and the Mark 25 replacing the Mark 12/22, but they remained the cornerstones of the combat radar systems on the Iowa class during their careers. The range estimation of these gunfire control systems provided a significant accuracy advantage over earlier ships with optical rangefinders; this was demonstrated off Truk Atoll on 16 February 1944, when the New Jersey engaged the Japanese destroyer Nowaki at a range of 35,700 yards (32.6 km; 17.6 nmi) and straddled her, setting the record for the longest-ranged straddle in history.

In World War II, the electronic countermeasures (ECM) included the SPT-1 and SPT-4 equipment; passive electronic support measures (ESM) were a pair of DBM radar direction finders and three intercept receiving antennas, while the active components were the TDY-1 jammers located on the sides of the fire control tower. The ships were also equipped with the identification, friend or foe (IFF) Mark III system, which was replaced by the IFF Mark X when the ships were overhauled in 1955. When the New Jersey was reactivated in 1968 for the Vietnam War, she was outfitted with the ULQ-6 ECM system.

A view of the door and 17.3-inch (439 mm) thick armored conning tower of the battleship New Jersey

Like all battleships, the Iowas carried heavy armor protection against shellfire and bombs with significant underwater protection against torpedoes. The Iowas' " all-or-nothing" armor scheme was largely modeled on that of the preceding South Dakota class, and designed to give a zone of immunity against fire from 16-inch/45-caliber guns between 18,000 and 30,000 yards (16,000 and 27,000 m; 10 and 17 mi) away. The protection system consists of Class A face-hardened Krupp cemented (K.C.) armor and Class B homogeneous Krupp-type armor; furthermore, special treatment steel (STS), a high-tensile structural steel with armor properties comparable to Class B, was extensively used in the hull plating to increase protection.

The citadel consisting of the magazines and engine rooms was protected by an STS outer hull plating 1.5 inches (38 mm) thick and a Class A armor belt 12.1 inches (307 mm) thick mounted on 0.875-inch (22.2 mm) STS backing plate; the armor belt is sloped at 19 degrees, equivalent to 17.3 in (439 mm) of vertical class B armor at 19,000 yards. The armor belt extends to the triple bottom, where the Class B lower portion tapers to 1.62 inches (41 mm). The ends of the armored citadel are closed by 11.3-inch (287 mm) vertical Class A transverse bulkheads for Iowa and New Jersey. The transverse bulkhead armor on Missouri and Wisconsin was increased to 14.5 inches (368 mm); this extra armor provided protection from raking fire directly ahead, which was considered more likely given the high speed of the Iowas. The deck armor consists of a 1.5-inch-thick (38 mm) STS weather deck, a combined 6-inch-thick (152 mm) Class B and STS main armor deck, and a 0.63-inch-thick (16 mm) STS splinter deck. Over the magazines, the splinter deck is replaced by a 1-inch (25 mm) STS third deck that separates the magazine from the main armored deck. The powder magazine rooms are separated from the turret platforms by a pair of 1.5-inch STS annular bulkheads under the barbettes for flashback protection. The installation of armor on the Iowa s also differed from those of earlier battleships in that the armor was installed while the ships were still "on the way" rather than after the ships had been launched.

The Iowa s had heavily protected main battery turrets, with 19.5-inch (495 mm) Class B and STS face, 9.5-inch (241 mm) Class A sides, 12-inch (305 mm) Class A rear, and 7.25-inch (184 mm) Class B roof. The turret barbettes' armor is Class A with 17.3 inches (439 mm) abeam and 11.6 inches (295 mm) facing the centerline, extending down to the main armor deck. The conning tower armor is Class B with 17.3 inches (439 mm) on all sides and 7.25 inches (184 mm) on the roof. The secondary battery turrets and handling spaces were protected by 2.5 inches (64 mm) of STS. The propulsion shafts and steering gear compartment behind the citadel had considerable protection, with 13.5-inch (343 mm) Class A side strake and 5.6-6.2-inch (142-157 mm) roof.

The armor's immunity zone shrank considerably against guns equivalent to their own 16-inch/50-caliber guns armed with the Mk 8 armor-piercing shell due to the weapon's increased muzzle velocity and improved shell penetration; increasing the armor would have increased weight and reduced speed, a compromise that the General Board was not willing to make.

The Iowas' torpedo defense was based on the South Dakotas' design, with modifications to address shortcomings discovered during caisson tests. The system is an internal "bulge" that consists of four longitudinal torpedo bulkheads behind the outer hull plating with a system depth of 17.9 feet (5.46 m) to absorb the energy of a torpedo warhead. The extension of the armor belt to the triple bottom, where it tapers to a thickness of 1.62 inches (41 mm), serves as one of the torpedo bulkheads and was hoped to add to protection; the belt's lower edge was welded to the triple bottom structure and the joint was reinforced with buttstraps due to the slight knuckle causing a structural discontinuity. The torpedo bulkheads were designed to elastically deform to absorb energy and the two outer compartments were liquid loaded in order to disrupt the gas bubble and slow fragments. The outer hull was intended to detonate a torpedo, with the outer two liquid compartments absorbing the shock and slowing any splinters or debris while the lower armored belt and the empty compartment behind it absorb any remaining energy. However, the Navy discovered in caisson tests in 1939 that the initial design for this torpedo defense system was actually less effective than the previous design used on the North Carolinas due to the rigidity of the lower armor belt causing the explosion to significantly displace the final holding bulkhead inwards despite remaining watertight. To mitigate the effects, the third deck and triple bottom structure behind the lower armor belt were reinforced and the placement of brackets was changed. Iowas' system was also improved over the South Dakotas' through closer spacing of the transverse bulkheads, greater thickness of the lower belt at the triple bottom joint, and increased total volume of the "bulge". The system was further modified for the last two ships of the class, Illinois and Kentucky, by eliminating knuckles along certain bulkheads; this was estimated to improve the strength of the system by as much as 20%.

Based on costly lessons in the Pacific theater, concerns were raised about the ability of the armor on these battleships to withstand aerial bombing, particularly high-altitude bombing using armor-piercing bombs. Developments such as the Norden bombsight further fueled these concerns. While the design of the Iowa s was too far along to adequately address this issue, experience in the Pacific theater eventually demonstrated that high-altitude unguided bombing was ineffective against maneuvering warships.

Aircraft (1943-69)

When they were commissioned during World War II, the Iowa-class battleships came equipped with two aircraft catapults designed to launch floatplanes. Initially, the Iowas carried the Vought OS2U Kingfisher and Curtiss SC Seahawk, both of which were employed to spot for the battleship's main gun batteries - and, in a secondary capacity, perform search-and-rescue missions.

By the time of the Korean War, helicopters had replaced floatplanes and the Sikorsky HO3S-1 helicopter was employed. New Jersey made use of the Gyrodyne QH-50 DASH drone for her Vietnam War deployment in 1968-69.

The Iowa class were the only battleships with the speed required for post-war operations based around fast aircraft carrier task forces. There were several proposals in the early Cold War to convert the class to take into account changes in technology and doctrine. These included plans to equip the class with nuclear missiles, add aircraft capability, and - in the case of Illinois and Kentucky - a proposal to rebuild both as aircraft carriers instead of battleships.

Initially, the Iowa class was to consist of only four battleships with hull numbers BB-61 to BB-64: Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin. However, changing priorities during World War II resulted in the battleship hull numbers BB-65 Montana and BB-66 Ohio being reordered as Illinois and Kentucky, respectively; Montana and Ohio were reassigned to hull numbers BB-67 and BB-68. At the time these two battleships were to be built a proposal was put forth to have them constructed as aircraft carriers rather than fast battleships. The plan called for the ships to be rebuilt to include a flight deck and an armament suite similar to that placed aboard the Essex-class aircraft carriers that were at the time under construction in the United States. Ultimately, nothing came of the design proposal to rebuild these two ships as aircraft carriers and they were cleared for construction as fast battleships to conform to the Iowa-class design, though they differed from the earlier four that were built. Eventually, the Cleveland-class light cruisers were selected for the aircraft-carrier conversion. Nine of these light cruisers would be rebuilt as Independence-class light aircraft carriers.

After the surrender of the Empire of Japan, construction on Illinois and Kentucky stopped. Illinois was eventually scrapped, but Kentucky's construction had advanced enough that several plans were proposed to complete Kentucky as a guided missile battleship (BBG) by removing the aft turret and installing a missile system. A similar conversion had already been performed on the battleship Mississippi (BB-41/AG-128) to test the RIM-2 Terrier missile after World War II. One such proposal came from Rear Admiral W.K. Mendenhall, Chairman of the Ship Characteristics Board (SCB); Mendenhall proposed a plan that called for $15-30 million to be spent to allow Kentucky to be completed as a guided-missile battleship (BBG) carrying eight SSM-N-8 Regulus II guided missiles with a range of 1,000 nautical miles (1,900 km; 1,200 mi). He also suggested Terrier or RIM-8 Talos launchers to supplement the AA guns and proposed nuclear (instead of conventional) shells for the 16-inch guns. This never materialized, and Kentucky was ultimately sold for scrap in 1958, although her bow was used to repair her sister Wisconsin after a collision on 6 May 1956, earning her the nickname WisKy.

In 1954, the Long Range Objectives Group of the United States Navy suggested converting the Iowa-class ships to BBGs. In 1958, the Bureau of Ships offered a proposal based on this idea. This replaced the 5- and 16-inch gun batteries with "two Talos twin missile systems, two RIM-24 Tartar twin missile systems, an RUR-5 ASROC antisubmarine missile launcher, and a Regulus II installation with four missiles", as well as flagship facilities, sonar, helicopters, and fire-control systems for the Talos and Tartar missiles. In addition to these upgrades, 8,600 long tons (8,700 t) of additional fuel oil was also suggested to serve in part as ballast for the battleships and for use in refueling destroyers and cruisers. Due to the estimated cost of the overhaul ($178-193 million) this proposal was rejected as too expensive; instead, the SCB suggested a design with one Talos, one Tartar, one ASROC, and two Regulus launchers and changes to the superstructure, at a cost of up to $85 million. This design was later revised to accommodate the Polaris Fleet Ballistic Missile, which in turn resulted in a study of two schemes by the SCB. In the end, none of these proposed conversions for the battleships were ever authorized. Interest in converting the Iowas into guided-missile battleships began to deteriorate in 1960 because the hulls were considered too old and the conversion costs too high. Nonetheless, additional conversion proposals - including one to install the AN/SPY-1 Aegis Combat System radar on the battleships - were suggested in 1962, 1974, and 1977, but as before, these proposals failed to gain the needed authorization. This was due, in part, to the possibility that sensitive electronics within 200 ft (61 m) of any 16-inch gun muzzle may be damaged from overpressure.

In 1980, Ronald Reagan was elected president on a promise to build up the US military as a response to the increasing military power of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Navy was commissioning the class of missile cruisers, the largest type of surface combatant since World War II. As part of Reagan's 600-ship Navy policy and as a counter to the Kirov class, the US Navy began reactivating the four Iowa-class units and modernizing them for service.

Iowa at the head of Battle Group Alpha, centered around the aircraft carrier Midway with escorts and supply ships, in 1987

The Navy considered several proposals that would have removed the aft 16-inch turret. Martin Marietta proposed to replace the turret with servicing facilities for 12 AV-8B Harrier STOVL jump jets. Charles Myers, a former Navy test pilot turned Pentagon consultant, proposed replacing the turret with vertical launch systems for missiles and a flight deck for Marine helicopters. In July 1981, the US Naval Institute's Proceedings published a proposal by naval architect Gene Anderson for a canted flight deck with steam catapult and arrestor wires for F/A-18 Hornet fighters. Plans for these conversions were dropped in 1984.

Each battleship was overhauled to burn navy distillate fuel and modernized to carry electronic warfare suites, close-in weapon systems (CIWS) for self-defense, and missiles. The obsolete electronics and anti-aircraft armament were removed to make room for more modern systems. The Navy spent about $1.7 billion, from 1981 through 1988, to modernize and reactivate the four Iowa-class battleships, roughly the same as building four Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates.

After modernization, the full load displacement was relatively unchanged at 57,500 long tons (58,400 t).

The modernized battleships operated as centerpieces of their own battle group (termed as a Battleship Battle Group or Surface Action Group), consisting of one Ticonderoga-class cruiser, one Kidd-class destroyer or Arleigh Burke-class destroyer, one Spruance-class destroyer, three Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates and one support ship, such as a fleet oiler.

During their modernization in the 1980s, each Iowa was equipped with four of the US Navy's Phalanx CIWS mounts, two of which sat just behind the bridge and two which were next to the ship's aft funnel. Iowa, New Jersey, and Missouri were equipped with the Block 0 version of the Phalanx, while Wisconsin received the first operational Block 1 version in 1988. The Phalanx system is intended to serve as a last line of defense against enemy missiles and aircraft, and when activated can engage a target with a 20 mm M61 Vulcan 6-barreled Gatling cannon at a distance of approximately 4,000 yards (3.7 km; 2.0 nmi).

As part of their modernization in the 1980s, each of the Iowas received a complement of eight quad-cell Armored Box Launchers and four "shock hardened" Mk 141 quad-cell launchers. The former was used by the battleships to carry and fire the BGM-109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missiles (TLAMs) for use against enemy targets on land, while the latter system enabled the ships to carry a complement of RGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missiles for use against enemy ships. With an estimated range of 675 to 1,500 nautical miles (1,250 to 2,778 km; 777 to 1,726 mi) for the Tomahawks and 64.5 to 85.5 nautical miles (119.5 to 158.3 km; 74.2 to 98.4 mi) for the Harpoons, these two missile systems displaced the 16-inch guns and their maximum range of 42,345 yards (38.7 km; 20.9 nmi) to become the longest-ranged weapons on the battleships during the 1980s; the ships' complement of 32 Tomahawk missiles was the largest until the Mk 41 VLS-equipped Ticonderoga-class cruisers entered service. It has been alleged by members of the environmental group Greenpeace that the battleships carried the TLAM-A (also cited, incorrectly, as the TLAM-N) - a Tomahawk missile with a variable yield W80 nuclear warhead - during their 1980s service with the United States Navy, but owing to the United States Navy's policy of refusing to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weaponry aboard its ships, these claims can not be conclusively proved. Between 2010 and 2013, the US withdrew the BGM-109A, leaving only conventional munitions packages for its Tomahawk missile inventory, though the Iowas had been withdrawn from service at that point.

Owing to the original 1938 design of the battleships, the Tomahawk missiles could not be fitted to the Iowa class unless the battleships were rebuilt in such a way as to accommodate the missile mounts that would be needed to store and launch the Tomahawks. This realization prompted the removal of the anti-aircraft guns previously installed on the Iowas and the removal of four of each of the battleships' ten 5-inch/38 DP mounts. The mid and aft end of the battleships were then rebuilt to accommodate the missile launchers. At one point, the NATO Sea Sparrow was to be installed on the reactivated battleships; however, it was determined that the system could not withstand the overpressure effects of firing the main battery. To supplement the anti-aircraft capabilities of the Iowas, five FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missile firing positions were installed. These secured the shoulder-launched weapons and their rounds for ready use by the crew.

During their modernization under the 600-ship Navy program, the Iowa-class battleships' radar systems were again upgraded. The foremast was of a new tripod design that was considerably reinforced to allow the AN/SPS-6 air-search radar system to be replaced with the AN/SPS-49 radar set (which also augmented the existing navigation capabilities on the battleships), and the AN/SPS-8 surface-search radar set was replaced by the AN/SPS-67 search radar. The new mast also incorporates a Tactical Air Navigation System ( TACAN) antenna. The aft mast was changed to be placed in front of the aft funnel and mounts a circular SATCOM antenna while another one was mounted on the fire control mast.

By the Korean War, jet engines had replaced propellers on aircraft, which severely limited the ability of the 20 mm and 40 mm AA batteries and their gun systems to track and shoot down enemy planes. Consequently, the AA guns and their associated fire-control systems were removed when reactivated. New Jersey received this treatment in 1967, and the others followed in their 1980s modernizations. In the 1980s, each ship also received a quartet of Phalanx CIWS mounts which made use of a radar system to locate incoming enemy projectiles and destroy them with a 20 mm Gatling gun before they could strike the ship.

The RQ-2 Pioneer UAV was used aboard the Iowa-class ships for gunnery spotting

With the added missile capacity of the battleships in the 1980s came additional fire-support systems to launch and guide the ordnance. To fire the Harpoon anti-ship missiles, the battleships were equipped with the SWG-1 fire-control system, and to fire the Tomahawk missiles the battleships used either the SWG-2 or SWG-3 fire-control system. In addition to these offensive-weapon systems, the battleships were outfitted with the AN/SLQ-25 Nixie to be used as a lure against enemy torpedoes; an SLQ-32 electronic warfare system that can detect, jam, and deceive an opponent's radar; and a Mark 36 SRBOC system to fire chaff rockets intended to confuse enemy missiles.

Aside from the electronics added for weaponry control, all four battleships were outfitted with a communications suite used by both cruisers and guided missile cruisers in service at the time. This communication suite included the OE-82 antenna for satellite communications but did not include the Naval Tactical Data System.

Aircraft (1982-1992)

Crewmen recover an RQ-2 Pioneer unmanned aerial vehicle aboard Iowa

During the 1980s these battleships made use of the RQ-2 Pioneer, an unmanned aerial vehicle employed in spotting for the guns. Launched from the fantail using a rocket-assist booster that was discarded shortly after takeoff, the Pioneer carried a video camera in a pod under the belly of the aircraft which transmitted live video to the ship so operators could observe enemy actions or fall of shot during naval gunnery. To land the UAV a large net was deployed at the back of the ship; the aircraft was flown into it. Missouri and Wisconsin both used the Pioneer UAVs successfully during Operation Desert Storm, and in one particularly memorable incident, a Pioneer UAV operated by Wisconsin received the surrender of Iraqi troops during combat operations. This particular Pioneer was later donated to the Smithsonian Institution and is now on public display. During Operation Desert Storm these Pioneers were operated by detachments of VC-6. In addition to the Pioneer UAVs, the recommissioned Iowas could support six types of helicopters: the Sikorsky HO3S-1, UH-1 Iroquois, SH-2 Seasprites, CH-46 Sea Knight, CH-53 Sea Stallion, and LAMPS III SH-60B Seahawk.

Following the 1991 Gulf War and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United States Navy began to decommission and mothball many of the ships it had brought out of its reserve fleet in the drive to attain a 600-ship Navy. At the height of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's 600-ship Navy plan, nearly 600 ships of all types were active within the Navy. This included fifteen aircraft carriers, four battleships, and over 100 submarines, along with various other types of ships the overall plan specified. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 the Navy sought to return to its traditional, 313-ship composition. While reducing the fleet created under the 600-ship Navy program, the decision was made to deactivate the four recommissioned Iowa-class battleships and return them to the reserve fleet.

New Jersey fires a nine gun salvo of 16-inch shells into an enemy troop concentration near Kaesong, Korea

In 1995, the decommissioned battleships were removed from the Naval Vessel Register after it was determined by ranking US Navy officials that there was no place for a battleship in the modern navy. In response to the striking of the battleships from the Naval Vessel Register a movement began to reinstate the battleships, on the grounds that these vessels had superior firepower over the 5-inch guns found on the Spruance, Kidd and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers and Ticonderoga-class cruisers. Citing concern over the lack of available gunfire to support amphibious operations, Congress required the Navy to reinstate two battleships to the Naval Vessel Register and maintain them with the mothball fleet, until the Navy could certify it had gunfire support within the current fleet that would meet or exceed the battleship's capability.

The debate over battleships in the modern navy continued until 2006, when the two reinstated battleships were stricken after naval officials submitted a two-part plan that called for the near-term goal of increasing the range of the guns in use on the Arleigh Burke-class destroyers with new Extended Range Guided Munition (ERGM) ammunition intended to allow a 5-inch projectile fired from these guns to travel an estimated 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi) inland. The long-term goal called for the replacement of the two battleships with 32 vessels of the Zumwalt class of guided-missile destroyers. Cost overruns caused the class to be reduced to three ships. These ships are outfitted with an Advanced Gun System (AGS) that was to fire specially developed 6-inch Long Range Land Attack Projectiles for shore bombardment. LRLAP procurement was canceled in 2017 and the AGS is unusable. The long-term goal for the Zumwalt class is to have the ships mount railguns or free-electron lasers.

Missouri enters Pearl Harbor to become a museum ship

The Iowa class became culturally symbolic in the United States in many different ways, to the point where certain elements of the American public - such as the United States Naval Fire Support Association - were unwilling to part with the battleships, despite their apparent obsolescence in the face of modern naval combat doctrine that places great emphasis on air supremacy and missile firepower. Although all were officially stricken from the Naval Vessel Register they were spared scrapping and were donated for use as museum ships.

Their service records added to their fame, ranging from their work as carrier escorts in World War II to their shore bombardment duties in North Korea, North Vietnam, and the Middle East, as well as their service in the Cold War against the expanded Soviet Navy. Their reputation combined with the stories told concerning the firepower of these battleships' 16-inch guns were such that when they were brought out of retirement in the 1980s in response to increased Soviet Naval activity - and in particular, in response to the commissioning of the Kirov-class battlecruisers - the United States Navy was inundated with requests from former sailors pleading for a recall to active duty so they could serve aboard one of the battleships.

In part because of the service length and record of the class, members have made numerous appearances in television shows, video games, movies, and other media, including appearances of the Kentucky and Illinois in the anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion, the History Channel documentary series Battle 360: USS Enterprise, the Discovery Channel documentary The Top 10 Fighting Ships (where the Iowa class was rated Number 1), the book turned movie A Glimpse of Hell, the 1989 music video for the song by Cher " If I Could Turn Back Time", the 1992 film Under Siege, the 2012 film Battleship, among other appearances. Japanese rock band Vamps performed the finale of their 2009 US tour on board Missouri on 19 September 2009.

The four Iowa-class ships operating as Battleship Division 2 off the Virginia Capes in 1954; from front to back is Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri and New Jersey

When brought into service during the final years of World War II, the Iowa-class battleships were assigned to operate in the Pacific Theatre of World War II. By this point in the war, aircraft carriers had displaced battleships as the primary striking arm of both the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy. As a result of this shift in tactics, US fast battleships of all classes were relegated to the secondary role of carrier escorts and assigned to the Fast Carrier Task Force to provide anti-aircraft screening for Allied aircraft carriers and perform shore bombardment. Three were recalled to service in the 1950s with the outbreak of the Korean War, and they provided naval artillery support for U.N. forces for the entire duration of the war before being returned to mothballs in 1955 after hostilities ceased. In 1968, to help alleviate US air losses over North Vietnam, New Jersey was summoned to Vietnam, but she was decommissioned a year after arriving. All four returned in the 1980s during the drive for a 600-ship Navy to counter the new Soviet Kirov-class battlecruisers, only to be retired after the collapse of the Soviet Union on the grounds that they were too expensive to maintain.

Iowa was ordered 1 July 1939, laid down 27 June 1940, launched 27 August 1942, and commissioned 22 February 1943. She conducted a shakedown cruise in Chesapeake Bay before sailing to Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland, to be ready in case the German battleship Tirpitz entered the Atlantic. Transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944, Iowa made her combat debut in February and participated in the campaign for the Marshall Islands. The ship later escorted US aircraft carriers conducting air raids in the Marianas campaign, and then was present at the Battle of Leyte Gulf. During the Korean War, Iowa bombarded enemy targets at Songjin, Hŭngnam and Kojo, North Korea. Iowa returned to the US for operational and training exercises before being decommissioned on 24 February 1958. Reactivated in the early 1980s, Iowa operated in the Atlantic Fleet, cruising in North American and European waters for most of the decade and participating in joint military exercises with European ships. On 19 April 1989, 47 sailors were killed following an explosion in her No. 2 turret. In 1990, Iowa was decommissioned for the last time and placed in the mothball fleet. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006. Iowa was anchored as part of the National Defense Reserve Fleet in Suisun Bay, California until October 2011, when she was towed from her mooring to Richmond, California for renovation as a museum ship. She was towed from Richmond in the San Francisco Bay on 26 May 2012, to San Pedro at the Los Angeles Waterfront to serve as a museum ship run by Pacific Battleship Center and opened to the public on 7 July 2012.

New Jersey was ordered 4 July 1939, laid down 16 September 1940, launched 7 December 1942, and commissioned 23 May 1943. New Jersey completed fitting out and trained her initial crew in the Western Atlantic and Caribbean before transferring to the Pacific Theatre in advance of the planned assault on the Marshall Islands, where she screened the US fleet of aircraft carriers from enemy air raids. At the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the ship protected carriers with her anti-aircraft guns. New Jersey then bombarded Iwo Jima and Okinawa. During the Korean War, the ship pounded targets at Wonsan, Yangyang, and Kansong. Following the Armistice, New Jersey conducted training and operation cruises until she was decommissioned on 21 August 1957. Recalled to duty in 1968, New Jersey reported to the gunline off the Vietnamese coast and shelled North Vietnamese targets before departing the line in December 1968. She was decommissioned the following year. Reactivated in 1982 under the 600-ship Navy program, New Jersey was sent to Lebanon to protect US interests and US Marines, firing her main guns at Druze and Syrian positions in the Beqaa Valley east of Beirut. Decommissioned for the last time 8 February 1991, New Jersey was briefly retained on the Naval Vessel Register before being donated to the Home Port Alliance of Camden, New Jersey for use as a museum ship in October 2001.

Missouri was the last of the four Iowas to be completed. She was ordered 12 June 1940, laid down 6 January 1941, launched 29 January 1944, and commissioned 11 June 1944. Missouri conducted her trials off New York with shakedown and battle practice in the Chesapeake Bay before transferring to the Pacific Fleet, where she screened US aircraft carriers involved in offensive operations against the Japanese before reporting to Okinawa to shell the island in advance of the planned landings. Following the bombardment of Okinawa, Missouri turned her attention to the Japanese homeland islands of Honshu and Hokkaido, performing shore bombardment and screening US carriers involved in combat operations. She became a symbol of the US Navy's victory in the Pacific when representatives of the Empire of Japan boarded the battleship to sign the documents of unconditional surrender to the Allied powers in September 1945. After World War II, Missouri conducted largely uneventful training and operational cruises until suffering a grounding accident. In 1950, she was dispatched to Korea in response to the outbreak of the Korean War. Missouri served two tours of duty in Korea providing shore bombardment. She was decommissioned in 1956. She spent many years at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Washington. Reactivated in 1984, as part of the 600-ship Navy plan, Missouri was sent on operational cruises until being assigned to Operation Earnest Will in 1988. In 1991, Missouri participated in Operation Desert Storm, firing 28 Tomahawk Missiles and 759 16-inch shells at Iraqi targets along the coast. Decommissioned for the last time in 1992, Missouri was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, for use as a museum ship in 1999.

Wisconsin was ordered 12 June 1940, laid down 25 January 1942, launched 7 December 1943, and commissioned 16 April 1944. After trials and initial training in the Chesapeake Bay, she transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944 and was assigned to protect the US fleet of aircraft carriers involved in operations in the Philippines until summoned to Iwo Jima to bombard the island in advance of the Marine landings. Afterward, she proceeded to Okinawa, bombarding the island in advance of the Allied amphibious assault. In mid-1945 Wisconsin turned her attention to bombarding the Japanese home islands until the surrender of Japan in August. Reactivated in 1950, for the Korean War, Wisconsin served two tours of duty, assisting South Korean and UN forces by providing call fire support and shelling targets. In 1956, the bow of the uncompleted Kentucky was removed and grafted on Wisconsin, which had collided with the destroyer USS Eaton. Decommissioned in 1958, Wisconsin was placed in the reserve fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard until reactivated in 1986 as part of the 600-ship Navy plan. In 1991, Wisconsin participated in Operation Desert Storm, firing 24 Tomahawk Missiles at Iraqi targets and expending 319 16-inch shells at Iraqi troop formations along the coast. Decommissioned for the last time 30 September 1991, Wisconsin was placed in the reserve fleet until stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006, so she could be transferred for use as a museum ship. Wisconsin is currently berthed at the Nauticus maritime museum in Norfolk, Virginia.

Illinois under construction on the slipway at Philadelphia, just prior to her cancellation

Hull numbers BB-65 and BB-66 were originally intended as the first and second ships of the Montana-class of battleships; however, the passage of an emergency war building program on 19 July 1940 resulted in both hulls being reordered as Iowa-class units to save time on construction. The war ended before either could be completed, and work was eventually stopped. Initially, proposals were made to convert the hulls into aircraft carriers similar to the Essex class, but the effort was dropped.

Illinois was ordered on 9 September 1940 and initially laid down on 6 December 1942. However, work was suspended pending a decision on whether to convert the hull to an aircraft carrier. Upon determination the result would cost more and be less capable than building from scratch, construction resumed, but it was canceled for good approximately one-quarter complete on 11 August 1945. She was sold for scrap and broken up on the slipway in September 1958.

The hull of Kentucky is floated out of drydock to allow it to be used for repairs to Missouri

Kentucky was ordered on 9 September 1940 and laid down on 7 March 1942. Work on the ship was suspended in June 1942, and the hull floated out to make room for the construction of LSTs. The interruption lasted for two and a half years while a parallel aircraft carrier debate played out as with Illinois, reaching the same conclusion. Work resumed in December 1944, with completion projected for mid-1946. Further suggestions were made to convert Kentucky into a specialist anti-aircraft ship, and work was again suspended. With the hull approximately three-quarters completed, she was floated on 20 January 1950, to clear a dry dock for repairs to Missouri, which had run aground. During this period, plans were proposed to convert Kentucky into a guided missile battleship, which saw her reclassified from BB-66 to BBG-1. When these failed construction of any sort, work never resumed and the ship was used as a parts hulk; in 1956, her bow was removed and shipped in one piece across Hampton Roads and grafted onto Wisconsin, which had collided with the destroyer Eaton. In 1958, the engines installed on Kentucky were salvaged and installed on the Sacramento-class fast combat support ships Sacramento and Camden. Ultimately, what remained of the hulk was sold for scrap on 31 October 1958.

1. ^ Standard displacement, also known as "Washington displacement", is a specific term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. It is the displacement of the ship complete, fully manned, engined, and equipped ready for sea, including all armament and ammunition, equipment, outfit, provisions and fresh water for crew, miscellaneous stores, and implements of every description that are intended to be carried in war, but without fuel or reserve boiler feed water on board.

2. ^ Also considered was the 16-inch/56 caliber gun, but this was dropped in March 1938 due to the weapon's weight.

3. The ^ belt armor was increased from 8.1 inches (206 mm) to 12.6 inches (320 mm); the deck armor from 2.3 inches (58 mm) to 5 inches (127 mm); the splinter armor to 3.9 inches (99 mm); the turret armor from 9 inches (229 mm) on the front, 6 inches (152 mm) on the side, and 5 inches on the rear to 18 inches (457 mm), 10 inches (254 mm) and 8 inches (203 mm), respectively.

4. Individual ship's dimensions vary slightly from design values. ^ Iowa is 859 ft in (261.969 m) waterline length, 887 ft in (270.427 m) overall length, and 108 ft in (32.971 m) beam. New Jersey is 859 ft in (262.084 m) waterline length, 887 ft in (270.526 m) overall length, and 108 ft in (32.953 m) beam.

5. These mathematical formulas still stand today, and they have been used to design hulls for US ships and to predict the speed of those hulls for the ships when commissioned, including ^ nuclear-powered ships like the US fleet of Nimitz-class supercarriers.

6. The actual range of the Iowa-class battleship's 16"/50 caliber guns varies from source to source. The most commonly cited distance for the 16"/50 caliber gun is approximately 20 miles; however, this number does not necessarily take into consideration the age of the gun barrel, the gun barrel's elevation, the projectile variant (armor piercing or high explosive), or the powder charges required to launch the artillery shell, all of which affect the range that a shell fired from a 16"/50 caliber gun can attain. The longest confirmed shot fired against an enemy naval unit using a 16"/50 caliber gun appears to have occurred during the raid against Imperial Japanese Navy units at Truk Atoll, when Iowa straddled a destroyer at 35,700 yards, while the longest shot ever fired by a 16"/50 caliber gun in a non-combat situation is alleged to have occurred during an unauthorized naval gunnery experiment conducted 20 January 1989 off the coast of Vieques, Puerto Rico by Iowa's Master Chief Fire Controlman, Stephen Skelley, and Gunnery Officer, Lieutenant Commander Kenneth Michael Costigan, who claimed that one of the 16-inch shells traveled 23.4 nautical miles (40 km). In addition, the standard 20-mile range does not take into account experimental artillery shells that were under consideration for use with the 16"/50 caliber gun in the 1980s, some of which are alleged to have been capable of traveling distances in excess of the often cited 20-mile gun range. One example is the Improved HC shell, which is said to have been test fired from Iowa at Dahlgren sometime after her 1980s recommissioning and is alleged to have achieved a range of over 51,000 yards.

7. "Military members and civilian employees of the Department of the Navy shall not reveal, report to reveal, or cause to be revealed any information, rumor, or speculation with respect to the presence or absence of nuclear weapons or components aboard any specific ship, station or aircraft, either on their own initiative or in response, direct or indirect, to any inquiry. [...] The Operations Coordinating Board (part of President Eisenhower's National Security Council) established the US policy in 1958 of neither confirming nor denying (NCND) the presence or absence of nuclear weapons at any general or specific location, including aboard any US military station, ship, vehicle, or aircraft."

8. In early 1945, the United States Navy determined that these 40 mm guns were also inadequate for defense against Japanese kamikaze attacks in the Pacific Theater, and subsequently began to replace the Bofors guns with a ^ 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber gun capable of using variable time (VT) charges.

9. "As part of their modernizations, the ^ Iowa-class vessels lost their AA batteries in favor of Phalanx Close-In Weapon Systems and several of their 5-inch/38cal guns to make room for the launchers for the TLAMs and Harpoons."

10. The empirical formula permitted a theoretical maximum speed of 34.9 kn (64.6 km/h; 40.2 mph). However, the actual maximum speed of the ^ Iowa-class battleships was never verified during World War II as the ships never ran a measured mile at full power; 31 kn (57.4 km/h; 35.7 mph) was considered the operating speed when bottom fouling and sea state were taken into account. During 1985 sea trials, Iowa achieved 31.0 kn (57.4 km/h; 35.7 mph) at 186,260 shp (138,890 kW) and nearly full load displacement of 55,960 long tons (56,860 t). When lightly loaded, New Jersey achieved 35.2 kn (65.2 km/h; 40.5 mph) in shallow waters during machinery trials in 1968.

11. ^ "As stated in our testimony, there is current pressure to greatly reduce the defense budget, which led to the decision to retire two battleships. Because the battleships are costly to maintain (about $58 million to operate annually, according to the Navy) and difficult to man, and because of the unanswered safety and missions-related questions, the two remaining battleships seem to be top candidates for decommissioning as the United States looks for ways to scale back its forces. If the Navy also decommissions the remaining two battleships, the Navy's entire $33 million request for 16-inch ammunition could be denied, and the $4.4 million request for 5-inch/38 caliber gun ammunition could reduced by $3.6 million."

12. The expected performance of the current rail gun design is a ^ muzzle velocity over 5,800 m/s (19,000 ft/s), accurate enough to hit a 5 m (16 ft) target over 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) away while firing at 10 shots per minute.

13. Praise for the service of these battleships includes comments from shore parties observing the battleships' bombardments during their wartime services, such as those received by ^ New Jersey in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. When reactivated in the 1980s Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union Sergey Gorshkov stated that the battleships "...are in fact the most to be feared in [America's] entire naval arsenal..." and that the Soviet's weaponry "...would bounce off or be of little effect..." against the Iowa-class battleships.

14. ^ Missouri had not been mothballed prior to the outbreak of the Korean War due to an executive order issued by then President Harry S. Truman.

15. A Government Accountability Office report on the operating cost for each individual ^ Iowa-class battleship in 1991 reported that it cost the United States Navy $58 million to operate each individual battleship.

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USS Iowa (BB-61) fires a full broadside on 15 August 1984 during a firepower demonstration after her recommissioning Class overview Name Iowa-class battleship Builders Operators United States Navy Preceded by South Dakota class Succeeded by Montana class (planned) Cost US$100 million per ship Built 1940-1944 In commission 1943-1958 1968-1969 1982-1992

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Deserving and the undeserving Poor by Hassan -8M

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Deserving and the undeserving Poor by Hassan -8M

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Undeserving poor is:People who are bad and does not want to work nd still begging for money even though they have job oppurtunities but they dont like them
Deserving poor is:
people who are poor but have good qualities and are not responsible for having little money and they have no job oppurtunities and in need

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http://www.mrbuddhistory.com/uploads/1/4/9/6/14967012/a8_civil_rights_in_usa_revision_notes_igcse.pdf

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Interesting news on Alexander II and his mistress

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Interesting news on Alexander II and his mistress

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She was given a house in St Petersburg and he arranged establishments for her close to his summer residences and, later, apartments in the Winter Palace itself. Despite this proximity, the lovers wrote to each other several times a day. They were divided by court protocol and ceremony and these notes bridged the gap.

The Tsar's 3,050 autographed letters, comprising more than 12,000 intimate pages, begin in 1867. The archive also contains 1,435 letters from Catherine to Alexander. While Alexander's hand is well formed and legible, Catherine's writing explodes across the page in exaggerated and almost illegible loops.

Both write mainly in French but drop regularly into little Russian asides and endearments. They often refer to their physical relationship in Russian. In February 1880, as attempts on Alexander's life became more frequent, their love saved the Tsar's life. Nihilists blew up the dining room in the Winter Palace where Alexander was to dine, but he had dallied with Catherine an extra five minutes and was saved.

Alexander's wife died on May 22, 1880. Only 40 days later he married Catherine in secret and legitimised her three children, giving them princely status and the surname of Yurievsky. Catherine became Princess Catherine Yurievsky. Nine months later, in 1881, yet another assassination attempt on the Tsar succeeded.

Alexander had instructed his heir, Alexander III, to look after the family and Catherine enjoyed a princely allowance until the 1917 Revolution. Shunned by Russian society, she settled in France, where she died, in debt, in 1922. She had already been forced to sell most of the jewels Alexander had lavished on her.

But the love letters that documented the passion of 14 years had survived. After his father's death, Alexander III is said to have searched everywhere for the letters to suppress them. However Catherine had sent them out of Russia to a bank vault in London. A year before she died she retrieved them to begin a memoir of her lover with the help of her secretary, Nicolai Markoff.

She appears to have given the letters to him. The archive contains a notarised document recording that he passed possession of them in 1948 to his former secretary, Eugenie Seydoux, who appears to have looked after Markoff in his old age. Christie's did not reveal the name of the vendor when it sold the archive to the Rothschilds.

It seems probable, however, that they were sold by Mlle Seydoux's heirs. The archive contains photographs of Alexander dedicated to Catherine, a voluminous list of the jewels he gave her and two draft wills. It also includes the unfinished typescript of Catherine's memoir of her lover and husband.

She wrote: "All his work brought him so much trouble. Matters were not always settled as he desired. He always confided his troubles to me and found some relief in having a person who understood him completely and wanted to share his thoughts."

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3,000 letters that spell out a Tsar's love

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She was given a house in St Petersburg and he arranged establishments for her close to his summer residences and, later, apartments in the Winter Palace itself. Despite this proximity, the lovers wrote to each other several times a day. They were divided by court protocol and ceremony and these notes bridged the gap.

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By Tim Lambert

SOCIETY IN TUDOR ENGLAND

In 16th century England most of the population lived in small villages and made their living from farming. However, towns grew larger and more important. During the 16th century trade and industry grew rapidly and England became a more and more commercial country. Mining of coal, tin, and lead flourished. So did the iron industry. During this period England became richer and richer.

As England grew more and more prosperous life for the well off became more and more comfortable. Upper class and middle class people benefited from the growing wealth of the country. However, for the poor in Tudor England life did not improve. For them, life was hard and rough.

Meanwhile in the 15th century the population of England may have been around 2 and a half million. It rose steadily during the 16th century. By 1525 it had risen to around 3 million and by 1600 it was about 4 million.

Tudor society was divided into four broad groups. At the top were the nobility who owned huge amounts of land. Below them were the gentry and rich merchants. Gentlemen owned large amounts of land and they were usually educated and had a family coat of arms. Most important gentlemen never did any manual work. Below the gentry were yeomen and craftsmen. Yeomen owned their own land. They could be as wealthy as gentlemen but they worked alongside their men. Yeomen and craftsmen were often able to read and write. Below the yeomen were the tenant farmers who leased their land from the rich. There were also wage laborers. They were often illiterate and very poor.

In Tudor Times the parish became the basis of local government. The most important person was an appointed magistrate called the Justice of the Peace. Meanwhile in Tudor Times kings and queens grew stronger. During the Middle Ages the barons held castles, which were difficult to capture so it was easy for them to rebel. Cannons changed all that.
The history of English society
THE POOR IN TUDOR ENGLAND

In the 16th century jobs were not always easy to find. In Tudor Times there were thousands of people without jobs wandering around looking for work. There were also disabled beggars. There were also people who pretended to be mad or disabled in order to beg. Tudor governments tolerated disabled beggars. However, they did not tolerate able-bodied people without jobs wandering from place to place. They thought such 'sturdy vagabonds' without a fixed place in society were a threat to law and order.

Since the 14th century there had been laws against vagabonds but in 1530 a new law was passed. The old and disabled poor were to be given licenses to beg. However, anyone roaming without a job was tied to a cart in the nearest market town and whipped till they were bloody. They were then forced to return to the parish where they had been born or where they had lived for the last 3 years.

A law of 1547 said vagabonds could be made slaves for 2 years. This terrible law was abolished in 1550. Once again flogging was made the punishment for vagrancy.

PUNISHMENTS IN THE 16TH CENTURY

In Tudor Times prison was seldom used as a punishment. Instead, people were held in prison until trial then the prisoner was given a physical punishment. Tudor punishments were simple but harsh like flogging. Minor crimes were also punished by the pillory or the stocks. The pillory was a wooden frame on a pole with holes through which a person's head and hands were placed. The frame was then locked. The stocks was a wooden frame with holes through which a person's feet.

More serious crimes were punished by death. Beheading was reserved for the wealthy. Ordinary people were usually hanged.

HOUSES IN TUDOR ENGLAND

In the Middle Ages rich people's houses were designed for defense rather than comfort. In the 16th century, life was safer so houses no longer had to be easy to defend. Rich Tudor people built grand houses e.g. Cardinal Wolsey built Hampton Court Palace. Later the Countess of Shrewsbury built Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire.

Middle class Tudors built sturdy 'half-timbered' houses. They were made with a timber frame filled in with wattle and daub (wickerwork and plaster). In the late 16th century some people built or rebuilt their houses with a wooden frame filled in with bricks. Roofs were usually thatched though some well off people had tiles. (In London all houses had tiles because of the fear of fire).

In Tudor Times furniture was more plentiful than in the Middle Ages but it was still basic. In a wealthy home, it was usually made of oak and was heavy and massive. Tudor furniture was expected to last for generations. You expected to pass it on to your children and even your grandchildren. Comfortable beds became more and more common in the 16th century. In a middle class Tudor home, a mattress was often stuffed with flock (a kind of rough wool).

Chairs were more common than in the Middle Ages but they were still expensive. Even in an upper class home children and servants sat on stools. The poor had to make do with stools and benches.

In the 15th century only a small minority of people could afford glass windows. In the 16th century, they became much more common. However, they were still expensive. If you moved house you took your glass windows with you! Windows were made of small pieces of glass held together by strips of lead. They were called lattice windows. However the poor still had to make do with strips of linen soaked in linseed oil.

Chimneys were also a luxury in Tudor Times, although they became more common. Furthermore, in the Middle Ages, a rich person's house was dominated by the great hall. It extended all the way up to the roof of the building. In the 16th century, many people installed another story in their house over the great hall. So well off Tudor people's houses became divided into more rooms.

In rich people's houses the walls of rooms were lined with oak paneling to keep out drafts. People slept in four-poster beds hung with curtains to reduce drafts. Wealthy people hung tapestries or painted cloths on their walls.

In Tudor England carpets were a luxury only the rich could afford. They were usually too expensive to put on the floor! Instead, they were often hung on the wall or over tables. People covered their floors with rushes or reeds, which they strewed with sweet smelling herbs.

In the 16th century wealthy people lit their homes with beeswax candles. However, they were expensive. Other people made used candles made from tallow (animal fat) which gave off an unpleasant smell and the poor made do with rushlights (rushes dipped in animal fat).

Rich Tudors had clocks in their homes. Most people relied on pocket sundials to tell the time. Rich people were also fond of gardens. Many had mazes, fountains, and topiary (hedges cut into shapes). Less well off people used their gardens to grow vegetables and herbs.

However poor people lived in simple huts with one or two rooms (occasionally three). Floors were of hard earth and furniture was very basic such as benches, stools, a table, and wooden chests. The poor slept on mattresses stuffed with straw or thistledown. The mattresses lay on ropes strung across a wooden frame.

In the 16th century toilets were basic. In 1596 Sir John Harrington invented a flushing lavatory with a cistern. However, the idea failed to catch on. People continued to use chamber pots or cesspits, which were cleaned by men called gong farmers. (In Tudor Times a toilet was called a jakes). For toilet paper, rich people used rags while poor people sometimes used a plant called woolly mullein.
The history of homes

Tudor House Museum in Southampton

FOOD IN TUDOR ENGLAND

In the 16th century rich people ate vast amounts of meat. However, they did not eat many vegetables. On certain days by law people had to eat fish instead of meat. At first, this was for religious reasons but later in the 16th century, it was to support the fishing industry. If you lived near the sea or a river you could eat fresh fish like herring or mackerel. Otherwise, you might have to rely on dried or salted fish.

Poor people lived on a dreary diet in the 16th century. In the morning they had bread and cheese and onions. They only had one cooked meal a day. They mixed grain with water and added vegetables and (if they could afford it) strips of meat.

All classes ate bread but it varied in quality. Rich peoples bread was made from fine white flour. Poor people ate coarse bread of barley or rye.

The Tudors were also fond of sweet foods (if they could afford them). However, in the 16th century sugar was very expensive so most people used honey to sweeten their food.

In the 16th century new foods were introduced from the Americas. Turkeys were introduced into England about 1525. Potatoes were brought to England in the 1580s but at first, few English people ate them.

People drank ale or beer or, if they were rich, wine. The Tudors also drank cider and perry.

Rich people liked to show off their gold and silver plate. The middle classes would have dishes and bowls made of pewter. The poor made do with wooden plates and bowls. There were no forks. People ate with knives and their fingers or with spoons. Rich people had silver or pewter spoons. The poor used wooden ones.

In the 16th century ordinary people made much of their own food. A farmer's wife cured bacon and salted meat to preserve it. She baked bread and brewed beer. She also made pickles and conserves and preserved vegetables. Many farms kept bees for honey.
The history of food The history of drinks
TOWNS IN TUDOR ENGLAND

Only a small part of the population of 16th century England lived in towns. Nevertheless, peasants brought things to weekly markets to sell. All kinds of manufactured goods like shoes and pottery were on sale in towns.

In 1500 London probably had a population of between 60,000 and 70,000. By 1600 its population was over 250,000. Other Tudor towns were much smaller. Bristol probably had a population of about 14,000 in 1500. By 1600 it had grown to about 20,000. The next largest town, Norwich had about 10,000 inhabitants in 1500. In 1600 it still had less than 20,000. The largest town in the north of England was York. In 1500 it had a population of about 10,000. By 1600 it had only risen to about 12,000. The next largest town was probably Exeter with a population of about 9,000 in 1600. Most of the towns in Tudor England were much smaller with populations of between 2,500 and 4,000. In the 16th century, anything with more than 1,000 inhabitants was considered a town.

In most Tudor towns tradesmen of one kind tended to live and work in the same street e.g. in many towns butchers and slaughterhouses gathered together in a street called the Shambles.

Tudor towns were dirty, smelly and crowded. There were no sewers and no drains. Rubbish such as rotting vegetables, offal, and dirty water were thrown in the streets. In some towns, every man was supposed to clean the street in front of his house once a week but it is unlikely many people bothering! Rats and other vermin were common.

People usually obtained their water from wells or from water carriers who carried water in containers on their shoulders. Some towns had conduits which brought in water from the countryside and which the public could use. Furthermore, in some Tudor towns, the principal streets were paved but most town streets were not.

In Tudor towns streets were also very narrow. Upper stories of buildings jutted out over lower stories. These were called jetties. At night the streets were dark and dangerous. Quite apart from the danger of being robbed it was easy to have an accident in dark, unpaved streets. In London, you could hire a link boy with a lamp to light your way. However many people avoided going out after dark.

Given the dirty condition of Tudor towns it is not surprising that outbreaks of plague were common. When the plague struck it might kill 10%, 15% or even more of the population of a town. However, towns always recovered. There were always plenty of poor people in the countryside willing to come to towns in search of work.
The history of English towns
16TH CENTURY LONDON

London grew enormously in the 16th century. In 1500 the town was encompassed by its walls but by 1600 rich men had built houses along the Strand joining London to Westminster. In the Middle Ages, the church owned about 1/4 of the land in London. When Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries it released a great deal of land for new buildings.

Along the walls of Tudor London were several gates, Aldgate, Bishopsgate, Moorgate, Cripplegate, Aldersgate, Newgate and Ludgate. Two of the gates were used as prisons, Ludgate and Newgate. Furthermore, the body parts of traitors who had been hung drawn and quartered were displayed over the gates as a warning.

Over the River Thames was London Bridge, which had buildings along its length. (Many of them had shops on the ground floor). South of the Thames was the large suburb of Southwark. The River Thames was a major transport route as Tudor London was the largest port in England. Sailing ships sailed to quays just before London Bridge and there were also smaller boats owned by watermen for transporting people along the Thames. Tudor monarchs and other rich people had their own barges. There were also many fishermen in London and The Thames teemed with fish like salmon, trout, perch, flounder and beam. However, The Thames sometimes froze over and fairs were held on it.

At night the streets of London were dark and dangerous. At 9 pm in summer and at dusk in winter church bells rang the curfew and the city gates were locked.

TRANSPORT IN TUDOR ENGLAND

In Tudor England roads were just dirt tracks. Men were supposed, by law, to spend a number of days repairing the local roads but it is unlikely they did much good! People traveled by horse. You could either ride your own or you could hire a horse. From the mid-16th century some rich people rode in carriages. They must have been very uncomfortable because they did not have springs and roads were very bumpy.

In Tudor Times you would be lucky if you could travel 50 or 60 kilometers a day. It normally took a week to travel from London to Plymouth. However rich Tudor people deliberately traveled slowly. They felt it was undignified to hurry and they took their time.

Goods were sometimes transported by pack horse (horses with bags on their sides). Also carriers with covered wagons carried goods and sometimes passengers. However when possible people preferred to transport goods by water. All around England there was a 'coastal trade'. Goods from one part of the country, such as coal, were taken by sea to other parts.
The history of transport
GAMES IN TUDOR ENGLAND

Although the days of armored knights were over rich people still enjoyed tournaments in the 16th century. The contestants dressed in armor and rode horses. They fought with wooden lances and swords.

Rich people also enjoyed hunting. They went hunting deer with bows and arrows. After it was killed the deer was eaten. The rich also went hawking. Falcons were trained to kill other birds.

Rich people also liked wrestling and 'casting the bar', which was like shot-putting but with an iron bar. They also played billiards. Rich people also played board games like chess and backgammon (a backgammon set was found on the wreck of the Mary Rose. It is the same as a modern one). They also played tennis with a leather ball stuffed with hair. They also played bowls and skittles. Playing cards were also popular.

All classes gambled in 16th century England. Poor people gambled with dice. They also played games like shuffleboard (shove ha'penny) and nine men's morris. The Tudors also played drafts and fox and geese.

Music and dancing were also very popular. The printing press made books much cheaper so reading was a popular pastime for well off people.

Ordinary people played a rough version of football. There were no rules and the 'pitch' was often a large area including woods and even streams! It was a very rough game. Injuries like broken limbs were common.

Cruel 'sports' like cockfighting were also popular in the 16th century. So was bear baiting. A bear was chained to a post and dogs were trained to attack it.

THE THEATRE IN TUDOR ENGLAND

16th century people liked plays, both comedies and tragedies. In the 16th century groups of professional actors became common. However, Tudor governments were suspicious of actors. They were regarded as layabouts who did no useful work. From 1572 actors had to hold a license from a noble. Without protection from some powerful man, actors were likely to be arrested as vagrants!

In the early 16th century actors performed in market squares or in courtyards. However, in the late 16th century plays became more and more popular and it eventually became worthwhile making purpose-built theaters in large towns. In 1576 a man named James Burbage built the first theater. Others followed. Those who could afford the best seats were sheltered from the weather. However, the poor customers stood in the open air. They were called groundlings. Rich people sat on the stage!

There were no female actors in the 16th century. Boys played women's parts. Plays were usually held during the day because of the difficulty of lighting a stage.

Meanwhile Tudor children played with wooden dolls. (They were called Bartholomew babies because they were sold at St Bartholomew's fair in London). They also played cup and ball (a wooden ball with a wooden cup on the end of the handle. You had to swing the handle and try and catch the ball in the cup).
The history of games
EDUCATION IN TUDOR ENGLAND

Boys usually went to a kind of nursery school called a 'petty school' first then moved onto grammar school when they were about seven. The school day began at 6 am in summer and 7 am in winter (people went to bed early and got up early in those days). Lunch was from 11 am to 1 pm. School finished at about 5 pm. Boys went to school 6 days a week and there were few holidays.

Many Tudor children learned to read and write with something called a hornbook. It was not a book in the modern sense. Instead, it was a wooden board with a handle. Fixed to the board was a sheet of paper with the alphabet and the Lord's prayer (the Our Father) written on it. The paper was usually protected by a thin slice of animal horn.

Discipline in Tudor schools was harsh. The teacher often had a stick with birch twigs attached to it for hitting boys.

When they were about 15 or 16 the brightest boys might go to one of England's two universities, Oxford and Cambridge. Of course, many boys did not go to school at all. If they were lucky they might get a 7-year apprenticeship and learn a trade. Some craftsmen could read and write but few laborers could.

As for girls, in a rich family a tutor usually taught them at home. In a middle class family their mother might teach them. Upper class and middle class women were educated. However, lower class girls were not.

Tudor children who did not go to school were expected to work. They helped their parents by doing tasks such as scaring birds when seeds were sown They also helped to weave wool and did other household tasks.

In the 16th century children from rich families usually had their marriages arranged for them. Children from poorer families had more choice over whom to marry. Yet girls usually married young. Many were married when they were only 15 or 16. Boys often married between the ages of 18 and 21.
The history of education
CLOTHES IN THE 16TH CENTURY

For rich people fashion was important. For the poor clothes had to be tough and practical. All classes wore wool. However, it varied in quality. The rich wore fine quality wool. The poor wore coarse wool.

Linen was used to make shirts. Only the rich could afford silk. Rich people also embroidered their clothes with silk, gold or silver thread. Rich women wore silk stockings.

Men wore short trouser-like garments called breeches. They also wore tight fitting jackets called doublets. Another jacket called a jerkin was worn over the doublet. Over the jerkin, rich men wore a gown, or later in the 16th century a cloak or cape.

However instead of a doublet many workingmen wore a loose tunic. It was easier to work in. Some workingmen wore a leather jerkin called a buff-jerkin. Men also wore stockings or woolen socks, which were called hose.

Tudor women wore a kind of petticoat called a smock or shift or chemise made of linen or wool and a wool dress over it. A woman's dress was made of two parts, a bodice, and a skirt. Sleeves were held on with laces and could be detached. Workingwomen wore a linen apron.

In Elizabethan England many women wore a frame made of whale bone or wood under their dress called a farthingale. If they could not afford a farthingale women wore a padded roll around their waist called a bum roll.

Tudor women did not wear knickers. However men sometimes wore linen shorts.

In the 16th century everyone wore hats. Poor women often wore a linen cap called a coif. After 1572 by law all men except nobles had to wear a woolen cap on Sundays.

In the 16th century buttons were usually for decoration. Clothes were often held together with laces or pins. Furs in Tudor Times included cat, rabbit, beaver, bear, badger and polecat.

People used mostly vegetable dyes such as madder for red, woad for blue or walnut for brown. The most expensive dyes were bright red, purple and indigo. Poor people often wore brown, yellow or blue.

Some Tudor women wore wigs. Both Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots wore them. When Mary was beheaded her wig came off.

In the 16th century laws called sumptuary laws laid down what each class could and could not wear. Complicated laws said that only people with a certain amount of wealth could wear certain expensive materials such as velvet and silk. These laws, of course, made no difference to poor people since they could not afford costly material anyway! However, the laws were supposed to keep the classes separate. You were supposed to be able to tell which class somebody belonged to by his or her clothes. However many people simply ignored the sumptuary laws.
The history of clothes
16TH CENTURY MEDICINE

In the 16th century many people died in epidemics of sweating sickness (possibly influenza). Many others died of smallpox. Queen Elizabeth I almost died of it). Even if you survived smallpox it could leave you disfigured with pox marks or blind. Syphilis was also rampant. Dysentery was also a killer.

Tudor doctors were very expensive and they could do little about illness partly because they did not know what caused disease. They had little idea of how the human body worked. Doctors thought the body was made up of four fluids or 'humors'. They were blood, phlegm, choler or yellow bile and melancholy or black bile. In a healthy person all four humors were balanced but if you had too much of one you fell ill.

If you had too much blood you would be bled either with leeches or by cutting a vein. Too much of other humors would be treated either by eating the right diet or by purging (taking medicines to cause vomiting).

Doctors also thought infectious disease, like plague, was caused by poisonous 'vapors', which drifted through the air and were absorbed through the skin.

One of the main ways of diagnosing sickness was uroscopy (examining urine) by its appearance, its smell or even by its taste!

Astrology also played a part in Tudor medicine. Most doctors believed that different zodiac signs ruled different parts of the body.

Since doctors were so expensive many people went to see a wise woman if they were ill. The wise women would have knowledge of different herbs and their properties and might be able to help.

The average lifespan in the 16th century was shorter than today. Average life expectancy at birth was only 35. (So only half of all people born lived to be 35). However many Tudor people died while they were still children. Out of all people born between one third and one half died before the age of about 16. However if you could survive to your mid-teens you would probably live to your 50s or early 60s. Even in the 16th century some people did live to their 70s or 80s.
The history of medicine
16TH CENTURY WEAPONS

In the 16th century warfare was transformed by guns. Early guns were lit by a slow match (string was soaked in saltpeter and when it was lit it smoldered). The slow match was touched to the gunpowder to ignite it. However, in the early 16th century, the wheellock was invented. A metal wheel spun against a piece or iron pyrites generating sparks that ignited the gunpowder. As a result, most cavalry stopped using lances. Instead, they carried two or three pistols each, ready to fire, and sabers.

Meanwhile in the early 16th century the traditional English weapon was the longbow but handguns were increasingly used. The longbow slowly went out of use in Tudor times. However, muskets took a long time to reload and during that time the infantry needed protection from cavalry. They were protected by men with pikes (a weapon like a long spear).

Tudor forts and walled towns often had bastions. They were triangular sections of the wall that jutted out from the rest of the wall. They provided flanking fire. In other words, guns on the bastion could fire at approaching soldiers from the sides.
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Last revised 2019

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By Tim Lambert In 16th century England most of the population lived in small villages and made their living from farming. However, towns grew larger and more important. During the 16th century trade and industry grew rapidly and England became a more and more commercial country. Mining of coal, tin, and lead flourished.

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During the 16th century, England began to increase its mining of coal and metals, which allowed it to expand its trading routes farther throughout Europe and into Asia. This resulted in a significant increase in wealth for those who owned mines or businesses that traded or sold products. For the first time, the noble, upper middle class were able to afford and produce a higher quality of life.

Most of the population lived in smaller settlements and villages, with the homes of the wealthy and powerful acting as focal points. These homes were able to be built upon, adding new architectural features and functional renovations. The rich were also able to afford better quality food in great quantities. Banquets and feasts for celebrations were a common occurrence during this time.

The poor, however, struggled to find jobs outside of farming or dangerous mining, and were paid minuscule wages in comparison to the value of the goods they handled.
Learn more about Renaissance & Reformation

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What Was Life Like in the 16th Century in England?

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During the 16th century, England began to increase its mining of coal and metals, which allowed it to expand its trading routes farther throughout Europe and into Asia. This resulted in a significant increase in wealth for those who owned mines or businesses that traded or sold products.

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would you like to live in the Tudor times?

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There were only about 4 million people living in Tudor England and the towns were not very big, London was the largest. Tudor England was an agricultural society where most of the population lived in small villages and made their living from farming.

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All you need to one about there houses and all the other
By:youssef khallafala 8s

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What 19th-Century American Cartoonists Thought of Russia

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What 19th-Century American Cartoonists Thought of Russia

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Way before there was Cracked or Mad magazine, there was Puck, a weekly political satire publication out of St. Louis, Missouri. The founder of Puck, Joseph Ferdinand Keppler, published it in English and German, and each issue included several full-color illustrations: on the cover, on the background and on a double-page centerfold. Puck's images were full of pawky humor that illustrated the political aspects and world line-up before the First World War. By 1884, its success was notable, with a circulation of at least 125,000 copies.

The name Puck was borrowed from the trickster character in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, and incarnations of the same character have appeared in tales and myths all over the world: in old Norse, Swedish, Icelandic, Frisian, Welsh, Cornish, Irish and other cultures. In 1871, with the first issue of Puck, the spirit of mischief came to the United States.

Some of Puck's 19th century caricatures depicted Tsar Nicholas II, the last emperor of the Russian Empire. His reign ended in the economic and military collapse of one of the foremost great powers of the world.

For most of the 19th century U.S.-Russian relationships were quite rosy due to a largely untold alliance between President Abraham Lincoln and Russian Tsar Alexander II, and that relationship is believed to have been the key to the North winning the U.S. Civil War. However, in the late 19th century, the United States, previously viewed as an agricultural superpower, started to equip itself for a different role, changing the dynamic for good.

Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War was largely contributed to Wall Street financiers, who loaned Japan the capital to buy U.S.-built warships. The defeat dealt a painful blow to the political prestige of Russian Empire. In 1914, a political controversy with Germany and Austria-Hungary over the independence of the Serbian kingdom dragged Russia into WWI. Like all riches to rags story, Russia's changing status made great material for political humor and commentary in publications such as Puck.

The first of many tragic events that hit Nicholas II's reign was the 1896 Khodynka Tragedy, when the festivities following Nicholas II's coronation led to a human stampede and death of 1,389 spectators. In 1905, a bloody wave of anti-Jewish pogroms reached its peak in Odessa, modern Ukraine, where almost 2,500 Jews were killed and many more wounded. In the same year, an unarmed demonstration that aimed to present a petition to the Tsar was suppressed violently, with hundreds of victims. Due to these events, the last emperor earned the nickname "Nicholas the Bloody".

Nicholas, his wife Alexandra, and their five children Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexei were killed by the Bolsheviks on 17 July 1918. The family was canonized in 1981 as new martyrs by the Russian Orthodox Church.

The U.S. perception of the political agenda of the late Russian Empire and other major world powers represents itself in Puck magazine's lithographs. The whole collection is available to view now on Picryl.
A voice from the past / Frank A. Nankivell. 1904 Stop your cruel oppression of the Jews / Flohri. 1903 Kishineff must be paid for - with interest / Keppler. 1904 When? / Keppler. 1904

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Puck Magazine Archives: See the Golden Age of Political Caricature

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Way before there was Cracked or Mad magazine, there was Puck, a weekly political satire publication out of St. Louis, Missouri. The founder of Puck, Joseph Ferdinand Keppler, published it in English and German, and each issue included several full-color illustrations: on the cover, on the background and on a double-page centerfold.

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Life for women during the Tudor period, 1485 to 1603, was not easy. In those days, women had no legal rights. Tudor law was not kind to women. The law was used to limit women. They didn't have rights to inherit property. The law actually considered them the property of either their husband or father. There were even laws that prohibited them from holding jobs and laws that defined what color clothes they could wear.

Tudor women were taught from birth that they would always be inferior to men. Perversely, they were perceived to be evil temptresses with natural tendencies to corrupt men. It wasn't just that women were the weaker sex but all women were to be blamed for mankind's fall from Heaven. Tudor girls did not have easy childhoods. Poor girls began doing household chores as soon as they were strong enough. They had very little freedom. From birth, they were taught to obey their parents above all. The highest level of obedience was to be expected from all girls.

Most marriages in Tudor England were arranged. Fathers would pay a dowry for someone to marry their daughter's free them of the financial responsibility. Women were considered financial burdens on their parents because they could not get jobs. In most cases, women had little say in the selection of their husbands. They were taught that their sole purpose in life was to marry, obey their husband, and populate the earth. Female singles were deemed to be worthless to the society.

Very few Tudor women were educated and most never learned to read and write. It was rare for poor girls to attend school. When they did, they learned subjects like art and music, while boys learned math and Latin. They often learned things like cooking and sewing so that they could serve their husbands and children better.

Childbearing was dangerous for Tudor women. If there were complications with the birth, there was very little that could be done. It's not uncommon that women died during childbirth. Tudor women also suffered a high number of miscarriages and stillbirths. Yet, it was rare for someone to have only one child.

Women always wore dresses. Rich women wore gowns with layers and trains of satin or silk. They were shaped like geometric shapes rather than the shape of the body so there was always a lot of padding underneath it. Poor women wore simpler dresses with half-sleeves.

The Tudor Society

Tudor society was based on a hierarchical system. Basically the higher up you were in the system, the richer you were. It was extremely difficult to move up to the 'next level'. If you were born poor, it was highly unlikely you could become rich although some clergymen certainly achieved it. A few merchants and businessmen, who became very rich through their dealings, were able to buy enough property not to have to carry on working. The Landed Gentry never quite accepted them as one of their own

The Tudor home-makers

Some Tudor women worked spinning cloth. Women were also tailoresses, milliners, dyers, shoemakers and embroiderers. There were also washerwomen. Some women worked in food preparation such as brewers, bakers or confectioners. Women also sold foodstuffs in the streets. A very common job for women in the 16th century was domestic servant. Other women were midwives and apothecaries. However most Tudor women were housewives and they were kept very busy. Most men could not run a farm or a business without their wife's help.

In the 16th century most households in the countryside were largely self-sufficient. A housewife (assisted by her servants if she had any) had to bake her family's bread and brew their beer (it was not safe to drink water). She was also responsible for curing bacon, salting meat and making pickles, jellies and preserves (all of which were essential in an age before fridges and freezers). Very often in the countryside the housewife also made the families candles and their soap. The Tudor housewife also spun wool and linen. A farmer's wife also milked cows, fed animals and grew herbs and vegetables. She often kept bees. She also took goods to market to sell. On top of that she had to cook, wash the families clothes and clean the house.

The Tudor housewife was also supposed to have some knowledge of medicine and be able to treat her family's illnesses. If she could not they would go to a wise woman. Only the wealthy could afford a doctor. Poor and middle class wives were kept very busy but rich women were not idle either. In a big house they had to organise and supervise the servants. Also if her husband was away the woman usually ran the estate. Very often a merchant's wife did his accounts and if was travelling she looked after the business. Often when a merchant wrote his will he left his business to his wife - because she would be able to run it.

Famous Tudor women

Famous Tudor Women were governed by the rules of society and their roles were subservient to the male members of their families. Tudor woman were raised to believe that they were inferior to men and that men knew better! Disobedience was seen as a crime against their religion. The Church firmly believed this and quoted the Bible in order to ensure the continued adherence to this principle. The Scottish protestant leader John Knox wrote:

"Women in her greatest perfection was made to serve and obey man."

The fabric of Tudor society was built with this belief and Tudor women could not be heirs to their father's titles. All titles would pass from father to son or brother to brother, depending on the circumstances.

Who were these Tudor women?

This project aims to create a historical profile of all the well-known and no so well known Tudor women who lived in Tudor times.

References and sources;

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Life for women during the Tudor period, 1485 to 1603, was not easy. In those days, women had no legal rights. Tudor law was not kind to women. The law was used to limit women. They didn't have rights to inherit property. The law actually considered them the property of either their husband or father.

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Henry the 8th 6 wives. ivorce beheaded survived.

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Henry the 8th 6 wives. ivorce beheaded survived.

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What have you learnt from this article?

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'My, you ought to seen old Henry the Eight when he was in bloom. He was a blossom. He used to marry a new wife every day, and chop off her head next morning. And he would do it just as indifferent as if he was ordering up eggs. 'Fetch up Nell Gwynn,' he says. They fetch her up. Next morning, 'Chop off her head!' And they chop it off. 'Fetch up Jane Shore,' he says; and up she comes. Next morning, 'Chop off her head' - and they chop it off. 'Ring up Fair Rosamun.' Fair Rosamun answers the bell. Next morning, 'Chop off her head.' And he made every one of them tell him a tale every night; and he kept that up till he had hogged a thousand and one tales that way, and then he put them all in a book, and called it Domesday Book - which was a good name and stated the case. You don't know kings, Jim, but I know them; and this old rip of ourn is one of the cleanest I've struck in history. Well, Henry he takes a notion he wants to get up some trouble with this country. How does he go at it - give notice? - give the country a show? No. All of a sudden he heaves all the tea in Boston Harbor overboard, and whacks out a declaration of independence, and dares them to come on. That was his style - he never give anybody a chance. He had suspicions of his father, the Duke of Wellington. Well, what did he do? - ask him to show up? No - drownded him in a butt of mamsey, like a cat. Spose people left money laying around where he was - what did he do? He collared it. Spose he contracted to do a thing; and you paid him, and didn't set down there and see that he done it - what did he do? He always done the other thing. Spose he opened his mouth - what then? If he didn't shut it up powerful quick, he'd lose a lie, every time. That's the kind of a bug Henry was....
All I say is, kings is kings, and you got to make allowances. Take them all around, they're a mighty ornery lot. It's the way they're raised.'

I have no fear but when you heard that our Prince, now Henry the Eighth, whom we may call our Octavius, had succeeded to his father's throne, all your melancholy left you at once. What may you not promise yourself from a Prince with whose extraordinary and almost Divine character you are acquainted? When you know what a hero he now shows himself, how wisely he behaves, what a lover he is of justice and goodness, what affection he bears to the learned I will venture to swear that you will need no wings to make you fly to behold this new and auspicious star. If you could see how all the world here is rejoicing in the possession of so great a Prince, how his life is all their desire, you could not contain your tears for joy. The heavens laugh, the earth exults, all things are full of milk, of honey, of nectar! Avarice is expelled the country. Liberality scatters wealth with bounteous hand. Our King does not desire gold or gems or precious metals, but virtue, glory, immortality. Lord Mountjoy to Erasmus, 1509

A brief discussion of his personality and historical importance
How can one adequately describe Henry's personality? Imagine yourself as Henry VIII, the second son suddenly yanked into the spotlight by your older brother's death. Sheltered and smothered by a father suddenly aware that he has just one heir left; handsome and intelligent and, by turns, both recklessly indulged and then denied. Any of us would have emerged as a mass of contradictions and frustrations. So Henry VIII, crowned king at the prime of his life, just eighteen years old and physically magnificent with more enthusiasm and energy than most of his contemporaries, became a conflicted and confused man. But it is a shame to let the last twenty years of his life color the interpretation of his entire life. One should not see him as simply an ogre king who beheaded two wives, divorced two others, and rejected another in one of the most humiliating ways possible.

His personality was quite amazing; his intelligence, learning, and curiosity impressed even the world-weary ambassadors who littered his court. His thirst for knowledge was insatiable, though it never became the near-mania that haunted Philip II. Henry VIII didn't spend his declining years surrounded by slips of paper detailing the most minute occurrences in his realm. But he did spend his entire reign reading dispatches, scribbling notations, meeting with diplomats and politicians. Very little occurred in England that escaped his attention; indeed, very little occurred in Europe that escaped Henry VIII. He prided himself on this and well he should; the Spanish ambassador reported that Henry knew of the fall of Cadiz before the Holy Roman Emperor.

He was usually genial company. He loved music and wrote his own. He enjoyed dancing and entertainment. He held countless banquets and tournaments. He enjoyed all physical activities and excelled at most of them. Hunting, archery, tennis, jousting - the king made his court into an endless round of competition and celebration. When he grew older, these former pleasures became torments; like most former athletes, Henry became fat as he aged and the once-loved pastimes became bitter reminders of the ravages of time. And he ruled over a country where almost half the population was 18 years old or younger! Youth was everywhere, staring the old king in his face. We can imagine the effects. Quite naturally, he sought reassurances - from women, his courtiers, his council. Affairs could distract him, but love affairs were never his grand passion. Despite his licentious reputation, Henry VIII was really a 16th century sexual prude; among his European contemporaries, he philandered the least. State affairs indulged his taste for war and glory; family affairs gnawed at his conscience and pride. But Henry VIII did not want distractions. He wanted a grand mission, a defining statement. In the end, he got his wish, though in the most improbable way possible.

He began life as a second son, destined for the church. It was the dream of Henry VII for his eldest son, Arthur, to be king and for his second son, Henry, to be the highest churchman in England. And so, for the first ten years of his life, Henry was a student of theology. And for the next thirty years of his life, he remained a dutiful son of the church. It is ironic, then, that his most significant historical achievement was the destruction of the Roman Catholic faith in England. The impact of the Henrician reformation forever altered the course of English history. Henry VIII, who had indulged in endless diplomatic squabbles and foreign wars, left no grand achievement beyond his own borders. Vast amounts of money were spent on these foreign entanglements - and many lives lost - but, in the end, nothing changed in the European balance of power. England, constantly pulled between the two great continental powers of France and the Holy Roman Empire, nearly bankrupted itself in an attempt to become respected and feared.

Why did Henry ultimately fail in those tasks normally reserved for monarchs? Ultimately, he was a victim of his times. The 16th century was a confusing mess of changing loyalties, betrayals, near-constant fighting, and most importantly, a rising skepticism of that great institution of the fading medieval world, the Roman Catholic church. With the advent of the printing press a century before, literacy and intellectual debate grew rapidly. The High Renaissance in Italy occurred during the first 20 years of Henry VIII's reign. It was a time of unparalleled scientific experiment, intellectual fervor, and spirited debate. In such a time, traditional views of kingship were bound to change for both the ruler and those he ruled.
(As evidence of this confusion, one need only remember that Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor crowned by the Pope, led the brutal sack of Rome in 1527. Charles, supposedly the anointed defender of the papacy, actually ordered his imperial army to loot, pillage, and kill their way through Rome and the Vatican. The pope ended up fleeing to relative safety in his nightshirt.)
While reading any biography of Henry VIII, one must remember the flavor of his times and judge him, if at all, by sixteenth-century standards. It's always amusing to read descriptions of Henry as the lustful tyrant torn between bedding and beheading innocent women; in truth, he blushed at dirty jokes and was more faithful than many 20th century husbands. He was married to Katharine of Aragon for over twenty years and had just a handful of mistresses. He waited years to physically consummate his relationship with Anne Boleyn, and despite being in the prime of his life, remained faithful to her until marriage. Was this sexual prudery a result of his early church training? Perhaps. Whatever the case, it was a hallmark of his life. Henry VIII was always an incurable romantic.
His personal and political decisions were always grandiose, melodramatic, and played for great effect. He loved pomp and pageantry, even as he loathed to deal with the consequences of his actions. Like his father, he was caught in the transition from medieval England to renaissance England. And like his father, he was well-versed in English history and desperate to continue the Tudor dynasty, to secure his claims to Ireland, Scotland, and France, to raise England to the status of its continental neighbors, and to expand his God-given right to rule all Englishmen. When reading about Henry's political and dynastic ambitions, one is always struck by the wide scope of his desires. Though most came to naught in the end, he actually planned invasions of France, plotted to join Charles V's invasion of Italy, and intended to seize the Scottish throne. The word 'ambitious' hardly does Great Harry justice.

His political ambitions failed and he bequeathed a woeful mess to his nine-year-old heir, Edward VI. His greatest achievement was a dubious one, and one for which he was often eager to distance himself - the Henrician reformation, the end of Roman Catholicism in England and the birth of the Anglican church. The king, for all his contradictions and failures, helped destroy the greatest institution in medieval Europe. Once Germany and England fell to the new heresy, its spread across Europe was inevitable and invincible.
In the biography of Henry at this site, I hope to capture both the king's personality and assess his importance to history. Henry VIII's reign was as tumultuous as the king himself. If nothing else, it makes for entertaining reading.

Henry Tudor, duke of York: 1491-1502

The second Henry Tudor was born on 28 June 1491 at Greenwich Palace in London. He was the third child of the first Tudor monarch, Henry VII, and his wife, Elizabeth Plantagenet, daughter of the Yorkist king, Edward IV. At the time of her second son's birth, Queen Elizabeth was just 25 years old; her husband was 34, and had been king for almost six years. Those six years had been difficult ones. Henry's marriage to Elizabeth had helped amass Yorkist support for his rule, but the English people were hardly enthusiastic about Henry, even as they had been noticeably ambivalent about his predecessor, Elizabeth's uncle, Richard III. Elizabeth was popular with the common people; her young life had all the romance and tragedy necessary for sympathetic gossip and she was a classical fair beauty, possessing all the female virtues necessary for a queen. She was quiet, demure, and charming; she was also content to allow her formidable mother-in-law, Margaret Beaufort, assume a position of unprecedented influence over the king.
Elizabeth's emotional attachment to her husband has been much-debated. In truth, she had known all her life that she would never marry a man of her own choice.

In the end, her mother, Elizabeth Woodville, conspired with Margaret Beaufort for Elizabeth to marry Henry Tudor, exiled son of Henry VI's half-brother. Henry was, by all accounts, grateful for the match. He appreciated its political implications. He also respected his new queen and was faithful to his marriage vows, an unusual trait in a king. Upon her marriage, Elizabeth entered a semi-retirement - she was queen and her duty was to produce as many heirs as possible. Nine months after her marriage, she gave birth to her first child at St Swithin's Priory in Winchester, a prince named Arthur. Henry and Elizabeth had wed on 18 January 1486 at Westminster Abbey in London; Prince Arthur was born 20 September 1486. Three years later, Elizabeth gave birth to their second child, a princess called Margaret after Henry VII's mother. She was born on 28 November 1489 at Westminster Palace in London. For the new king, the birth of a healthy second child, and his wife's rapid recovery, were good omens. Even as he attempted to enforce his rule in the always troublesome northern England which had been Richard III's base of support, Henry VII could rest assured that his dynasty was becoming secure. But it was only on 28 June 1491, when another healthy prince was born, this time at Greenwich Palace, that Henry VII could breathe a sigh of relief. This second son was a necessary insurance policy for the new Tudor dynasty. Childhood mortality was high and diseases such as small pox, the sweating sickness, and the plague were rife throughout England. A king needed as many healthy heirs as possible, and the birth of a second son was an occasion for celebration.
On 27 February 1490, Prince Arthur was titled prince of Wales at Westminster Palace in London; this was the real beginning of a tradition that continues to this day. And in 1494, Arthur's baby brother was titled duke of York, the traditional title of the king's brother. At this early age, all we know of Prince Henry was that he was considered a handsome and precocious toddler, but one would expect such descriptions of the king's son. He did not share his brother's fair coloring or slight build. Prince Henry was a sturdy, strawberry-blond boy noted for his energy and temper. Just a year after his birth, his mother bore another daughter; this child was called Elizabeth and she died three years later. It was the first in a series of tragedies for the young queen. She and Henry VII were considered good and affectionate parents, but they never lost sight of the political importance of their children. Together they decided that Prince Henry, like most second sons, was destined for the church, and his early schooling was planned accordingly. This strong emphasis upon theology and its esoteric debates remained with Henry for the rest of his life and made him feel uniquely qualified to interpret religious law during the 1520s.

Heir apparent: 1502-1509

Henry's position as the second son lasted only until 2 April 1502, just a few months before his eleventh birthday. It was on that day that his brother Arthur died at Ludlow Castle, the government seat of the prince of Wales. The insecurity of the Tudor succession was suddenly unavoidable. Elizabeth of York, despite repeated pregnancies, had not borne another healthy son; after Henry's birth, there was just one more male child - a son called Edmund, born in 1499 and dead just a year later. The queen did become pregnant shortly after Arthur's death but this eighth pregnancy proved to be her last. The child, called Katherine, was born and died on 2 February 1503. Elizabeth contracted an infection and died a few days later, on 11 February, her thirty-seventh birthday. So in the short space of a year, Henry lost both his older brother and mother. But the effects of these losses was felt even more keenly by Henry VII. His reign had proved to be neither peaceful or happy. He was beset by worries - constant diplomatic maneuvering, subjects who mocked him as a cold-hearted, tax-hungry miser, and now he had lost his son and wife.
Arthur's death was more than a personal tragedy; it was a political tragedy as well. The young prince had been married to Princess Katharine of Aragon on 14 November 1501 at St.Paul's Cathedral, London. The daughter of the 'Catholic Kings' of Spain, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, Katharine's marriage to the Tudor heir had marked the high point of Henry VII's foreign diplomacy. His grip on the English throne had long been considered both illegitimate and untenable by most European powers, except in cases where it suited their interests to pretend otherwise. But a bond of marriage between the house of Tudor and the ruling dynasty of Spain gave Henry's rule a stamp of approval. He was now allied with one of the most powerful ruling families in Europe. Prince Henry met his sister-in-law and future wife on this momentous occasion, heading the procession that led her to the cathedral. Later, he officially introduced her to the citizens of London.
With Arthur's death, his teenage wife was trapped in England while Henry VII squabbled with her father over the remaining payments on her dowry. Henry VII was perhaps even then mulling over the idea of not letting the all-important Spanish alliance go to waste. Soon enough he was openly proposing that Katharine marry young Prince Henry, now the heir apparent and five years her junior. What did young Prince Henry know of these plans? Probably very little. After Arthur's death, Henry VII became somewhat paranoid and tried desperately to protect his only son from any injury or illness. People who wished to visit the young prince had to receive permission from Henry VII, and this remained the case well into the boy's adolescence. Such strict rules may have irked the heir but they did not interfere with his continuing education. While his older brother was in Wales learning the intricacies of government, Henry received a primarily classical education, mastering Latin and French and becoming an excellent and exuberant athlete. Contemporary sources make it clear that he was a happy child, fond of sports and spectacle, and equally proud of his intellectual accomplishments. In short, he possessed all the personality and charm his father noticeably lacked. Both his physical appearance and character were similar to those of his Plantagenet grandfather Edward IV. This fact was much remarked upon by those Englishmen who had lived through the last years of the Wars of the Roses.
Luckily for Prince Henry, his father spent the last years of his reign establishing good relationships with other monarchs and avoiding expensive war; also, his fondness for extorting money from an unwilling populace never wavered. He left his son a king's greatest gift - a healthy treasury. Ironically, one of Henry VIII's first acts as king was to execute his father's most productive, and hence most notorious, tax collectors. But Henry VII never really decided whether he wanted to marry Prince Henry to Katharine of Aragon. He kept the young princess in England for seven years while he toyed with the idea. Her living conditions steadily deteriorated; she was miserably unhappy, many of her Spanish attendants were sent home, she lacked money for even basic necessities. Food and adequate clothing were constant concerns. She struggled to bear her hardships with the serene and regal dignity that was ingrained in her character as a princess of Spain, and such calm in the face of deprivation impressed young Prince Henry. It is certainly true that even years later, in the midst of an acrimonious separation, he never lost his respect for Katharine. This respect was always tinged with a bit of fear. He was keenly aware of her great ancestry and extensive education, her self-deprecating wit and complete mastery of all feminine tasks. Even as queen of England, she took particular pride in sewing and mending Henry's shirts.

They had little contact during the later years of Henry VII's reign, only meeting occasionally at events. Henry was formally promised in marriage to Katharine on 23 June 1503; the treaty stated that he would marry Katharine on his fifteenth birthday, 28 June 1505, and that her parents send over 100,000 crowns worth of plate and jewels in addition to the dowry she had given when married to Prince Arthur. Henry VII was a stickler on the dowry issue, refusing to allow the marriage to be solemnized, much less celebrated and consummated, until the money arrived. But the Spaniards were as loathe to part with money as Henry. So 1505 came and went with no marriage though Prince Henry referred in letters to Katharine as his 'most dear and well-beloved consort, the princess my wife'. But his father was still king, and his father refused to allow the marriage. To strengthen his bargaining power with the Spaniards, he had Prince Henry make a formal protest to Richard Fox, the bishop of Winchester, disowning the marriage contract. Both parties prevaricated - until 1509, when Henry VII suddenly died at the age of 52, and his headstrong son, chafing at his father's authority, was free to make his own decisions. To the surprise of all, including the Spaniards, he promptly announced he would marry Katharine and crown her queen of England.

After years of being shut away from the world, he was now king. All of the boundless energy and enthusiasm of his character was unleashed. Perhaps out of chivalry, or adolescent affection, or, as he later claimed, out of respect for his father's wishes, he wed his late brother's wife. In light of future events, it is worth noting that the dowry had not been the only sticking-point in the marriage plans - there was the not insignificant fact that Katharine had been married to Henry's brother, and her marriage to Henry would be regarded as incestuous and unacceptable to the church. As Henry VIII would later argue, Leviticus clearly stated that a man was forbidden to marry his brother's widow. For her part, Katharine claimed, and her duenna, Dona Elvira, agreed, that her marriage to Arthur had never been consummated. The young prince of Wales had been suffering from consumption for months, even before the wedding, and their wedding night had passed uneventfully. If this was true, and it seems to have been (until it was in Henry VIII's interests for it not to be), there was no barrier to her union with Henry. Both the English and Spanish courts sought the requisite papal dispensation. It was granted and the path to marriage was clear.

His Majesty is the handsomest potentate I ever set eyes on; above the usual height, with an extremely fine calf to his leg, his complexion very fair and bright, auburn hair combed straight and short, in the French fashion, and a round face so very beautiful that it would become a pretty woman, his throat being rather long and thick.... He will enter his twenty-fifth year the month after next. He speaks French, English and Latin, and a little Italian, plays well on the lute and harpsichord, sings from book at sight, draws the bow with greater strength than any man in England and jousts marvelously.... a most accomplished Prince. the Venetian diplomat Pasqualigo in a dispatch, 1515

1509-1526: Katharine of Aragon, Cardinal Wolsey and Princess Mary

Henry was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 23 June 1509. He had married Katharine on 11 June at Grey Friars Church in Greenwich and she shared his coronation. It was a splendid event and continued throughout midsummer with much celebration and spectacle. There is an account of the coronation at the Primary Sources section. It was soon clear that the young king, who turned 18 just a few days after his coronation, had little interest in the day-to-day business of government. While it is true that Henry was a vocal participant at council meetings, the early years of his reign were devoted more to enjoyment than the drudgery of administration. He was content to allow trusted nobles and ecclesiastics to rule in his name - William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey and later 2d duke of Norfolk, Bishop Richard Foxe, and, beginning around 1514, Thomas Wolsey.

As mentioned earlier, one of the first acts of Henry's reign was a particularly brutal one, especially designed to benefit his popularity. He ordered the executions of his father's most productive and hated tax collectors, Edmund Dudley and Sir Richard Empson. It was a bloody beginning for his reign and a taste of things to come. Certainly it pleased the English people for most tax collectors were hated, and Dudley and Empson had been particularly ruthless. But their efficiency had the complete support of King Henry VII, whose orders they followed. A problem had emerged for the new king - how could he execute the tax collectors when their only crime was to obey their king? He resorted, for the first but not the last time, to judicial murder, charging the men with 'constructive treason'. It was a wholly fictitious charge which no one fully understood, even those at the trial. This cold-blooded act pleased the people and demonstrated Henry's desire for popular approval. But it also revealed a ruthlessness to his character that grew more pronounced as the years passed. Many historians argue that Henry grew tyrannical only after Katharine of Aragon failed to provide an heir but the evidence proves otherwise. If someone could not be legally executed, the king simply invented a new charge. For example, in 1513, before leaving for war in France, he executed Edmund de la Pole, his Plantagenet cousin held prisoner in the Tower since Henry VII's reign. A benign spirit, locked away for most of his life, Edmund was no threat to anyone. But Henry executed him to remind his subjects that, though he would be in France, any challenge to his authority would be met with grave displeasure.

His marriage to Katharine was very happy, at least during these early years. She had a more reserved character than her husband and blushed at his ribald jests, but she entered into the spirit of frivolity which pervaded their court. There was dancing and music, for Henry was a splendid dancer and musician; he composed songs and wrote poetry, most of which has survived and is quite lovely. He also enjoyed hunting, sometimes tiring ten horses during a single hunt, and jousting; by all accounts, he was the greatest athlete at the court. And he was a dedicated and affectionate husband. Everything he built was decorated with an intertwined H and K, and Katharine's pomegranates were carved next to Tudor roses. He called himself the 'Knight of the Loyal Heart' and bowed before his queen after each grueling tournament. He also involved Katharine in the seemingly endless visits of foreign dignitaries, inviting the ambassadors to her apartments and openly seeking her advice and opinion. It was clear that they loved and respected one another, and those early years made his eventual disinterest all the more painful for the queen to bear.
Katharine bore their first child on 31 January 1510, just six months after their coronation. It was a girl, born too early to survive.

The next birth, on 1 January 1511, was a far happier occasion. It was a boy, called Henry after his father and titled duke of Cornwall. The delighted father planned celebrations to rival his coronation. The boy was apparently healthy yet died about two months later. The cause was unknown, but it was an age of high infant mortality. The young parents were devastated. Henry consoled himself by waging war against France, courtesy of his father-in-law Ferdinand of Aragon, and Katharine's fierce piety led her to kneel for hours on cold stone floors in prayer. But Henry's attempts to gain glory on the battlefield were misplaced. In June 1512, the marquess of Dorset sailed out of Southampton, bound for Gascony with 12,000 troops. They reached the port of Fuentarrabia, where they were to join the Spanish and attack Bayonne. But the Spanish troops never arrived. Ferdinand, without consulting his son-in-law, attacked and seized Navarre instead and then declared the 'Holy War' over. He had essentially used Henry's troops as bait; when the French went off to fight the English, Ferdinand seized his chance and attacked Navarre. To top off his treachery, he also openly criticized the English soldiers who, without receiving his permission, had sailed home after waiting four months at Fuentarrabia. Henry was too embarrassed by his soldiers' mutiny to call his father-in-law's bluff.

Desperate to erase the memory of that military blunder, he planned a grand campaign for the spring of 1513. His ambassadors even secured the support of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian. He joined the 'Holy Alliance' of England and Spain to attack France. But once again Ferdinand's self-interest ruled the day. He went behind his allies' backs to make a secret truce with Louis XII of France, and so he kept Navarre peacefully. This happened in March 1513 and suitably angered Henry. But the English king had learned a lesson from his previous blunder. His forces were launched from England's only possession on the continent, Calais in northern France. The Spanish would not be involved. On 1 August 1513, about a month after he left England, Henry besieged the town of Therouanne. Two centuries before, Edward III had seized that city after the great battle of Crecy. With Maximilian by his side (actually as his subordinate; he allowed Henry command of his troops in exchange for paying their salaries), Henry won a victory within a fortnight. The capture of a duke, marquis, and vice-admiral fleeing the scene helped raise substantial ransoms. He gave the town to Maximilian as a gift and the emperor ordered it razed to the ground. Their next battle was one month later at Tournai. It surrendered after eight days and Henry decided it would become another English stronghold within France.

He had left Katharine in charge at home, officially titled Governor of the Realm and Captain-General of the Armed Forces, an honor never allowed his other wives. She had been resoundingly successful. France and Scotland had an 'Auld Alliance' against England, and James IV of Scotland, married to Henry's sister Margaret Tudor, had responded to English aggression against his ally. He led his armies into northern England. Thomas Howard, the earl of Surrey, took the few English troops left in the nation to meet him. The armies clashed at Flodden Edge, between Berwick and the Cheviots. Three hours of fighting ended the Scottish threat. The evening of 9 September 1513 saw over 10,000 Scots dead, including most of their aristocracy. James IV himself was killed. Had Henry's attention been focused on his own country, he could have seized a golden opportunity - with James dead and the high nobility of Scotland destroyed, he could have marched into Edinburgh and seized his sister Margaret and her infant son, now King James V. But instead he remained enthralled with dreams of European conquest, perhaps comparing himself to his hero, Henry V. And these dreams were encouraged by news that the Pope had, in secret, promised to recognize Henry as king of France if he could physically seize possession of the country. This generous offer had been inspired by French meddling in papal affairs.

During this triumphant time, Katharine lost another child. In November 1513, another prince, also called Henry, duke of Cornwall, was born and soon died. It was the third miscarriage in as many years. Was Henry worried? He was still young, as was Katharine, and had been king for just five years. He was naturally optimistic, though undoubtedly disappointed. Once again, the queen was on her knees in prayer. Perhaps she felt the losses more keenly. In letters to her father, she blamed herself. She clearly saw the dead children as a reproof of some sort, a failure to fulfill the most basic feminine role. But she was able to send Henry the bloody coat of the Scottish king; it may have been some consolation.

Still, in 1514, as Cardinal Thomas Wolsey extended his control of government, Katharine had reason to become wary. The golden happiness of the first years with Henry was wearing thin. Her father had betrayed her husband openly and scornfully, treating them both as little more than foolish children. She had been her father's best ambassador, heedlessly pressing his claims upon Henry, using the natural affection between husband and wife to urge alliances with Spain. She felt the sting of her father's betrayals. He had lied to her, misled her, and tricked her into betraying her husband. It was clear that her primary loyalty must be to Henry and the English people; she would never trust Ferdinand again. In 1514, the king returned home and his councilors told him that Henry VII's great treasury was fast running low. War with France was too costly to continue. Henry had seized Tournai and made the competent Thomas Wolsey its bishop, but more extensive campaigning was out of the question. In this, the king surprisingly agreed. He had won his share of glory - at least for now - and it would be enough. And Ferdinand's betrayal had been met with a suitable reply. Henry's younger sister Mary, the most beautiful of the Tudor children, had been betrothed to Ferdinand's nephew, the duke of Burgundy, but now Henry made peace with France and promised Mary to Louis XII, three times her age and suffering from gout.

Henry's new desire for peace with France, England's traditional enemy, was encouraged by Spanish duplicity. But itwas also due to the growing influence of Wolsey. Derisively called 'Master Almoner' by those jealous of his influence, Wolsey came from a humble background and, like most talented and ambitious men from poor families, he used the church to advance in society. He attended Oxford and showed such promise that he was made bursar of Magdalen College and then chaplain to Archbishop Deane. In 1507, in his thirties and now well-connected, he became chaplain to Henry VII. Upon Henry VIII's accession, Wolsey received a seat on the council and was made king's almoner. This position allowed him personal contact with the young, impressionable monarch. He accompanied Henry to France during the successful campaigns of 1513, where he was made bishop of Tournai, and their close relationship grew stronger. Henry appreciated Wolsey's dedication to administrative detail and hard work. And both Warham and Fox, the two senior councilors Henry inherited from his father, regarded Wolsey as their protégé. They were quite happy to retire to their dioceses, leaving the younger man to deal with the headstrong and rash young king. One can easily sympathize with Warham and Fox since Henry VIII's personality was quite different from his father's. The most obvious difference was that he spent money with the same passion his father had collected it.
But it is important to remember that Henry VIII never completely abandoned his power to Wolsey, though court gossip believed otherwise. He carefully read the Cardinal's dispatches and proved himself well-informed about domestic and foreign affairs when dealing with ambassadors. Also, Henry possessed a lifelong love of keeping his subjects, noble or common, on their toes; he enjoyed indulging his taste for surprises. In banquets, this showed itself in his passion for elaborate costumes in which his identity was hidden. His subjects would guess which costume hid their king, to the delight of all. Once, he and several courtiers dressed as Robin Hood and his band of outlaws and then broke into Katharine of Aragon's apartments. The queen, used to such antics, wisely played along but several of her ladies were terrified. At the Primary Sources section, you can read about Henry's first meeting with his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves; he disguised himself at their first meeting, to the amusement of his nobles and the confusion of the lady. At times, this love of surprise - of keeping those close to him on an uneven keel - was downright cruel. He would later allow his councilors to plan Thomas Cranmer's arrest, only to tell the archbishop their plan in secret. When the soldiers arrived, they were openly embarrassed and thwarted when Cranmer revealed his knowledge of the plan and the king's pardon. And his sixth and final wife, Katharine Parr, was likewise surprised. Walking in her garden with Henry, she was accosted by soldiers intending to arrest her. Their warrant had been signed by Henry himself. But when they attempted to seize the queen, Henry cursed them, beat several of them about the head and shoulders, and demanded they beg Katharine's forgiveness. One can imagine the guards' confusion.
All of these instances serve to illustrate Henry's desire to remain in control, to hold absolute power in his hands always. As king, he could give orders but it was also his privilege to immediately change his mind without bothering to consult anyone. His will was law. And so he demonstrated his power by doing exactly as he liked, oftimes choosing the perfect moment to throw everyone off guard and demonstrate his complete authority. It may have seemed irrational to his contemporaries, and also to us, but it was quite an effective policy. It meant that no one ever really knew where they stood with the king. And so, not knowing his true feelings, they were all the more eager to sycophantically fawn over him and seek his approval.
This strain of the king's character was perhaps a bit more light-hearted in the early years of his reign but, like most of Henry's good qualities, it soon developed an ugly cast. His mutability was certainly recognized by Wolsey, and famously by Sir Thomas More, and later led to the Cardinal's downfall. But in the early years of their relationship, as Wolsey's genius for administration and diplomacy led him to amass great titles and wealth, the men got along amazingly well. This continued for over a dozen years. In 1514, Wolsey was titled archbishop of York, and in 1515 he became a cardinal and lord chancellor, and in 1518 he was made papal legate. As archbishop of York, he lived at York Palace and to most outside observers this was the real seat of government power. Messengers rode constantly between York and Henry's palaces.
For a long while, both Wolsey and Henry were focused on foreign affairs. Wolsey was a Francophile and desired peace between the traditional enemies. He used Ferdinand's treacherous behavior to encourage a marriage between Henry's sister and Louis XII. This pro-France policy naturally placed him at odds with Katharine of Aragon. Though she recognized her father's treachery and protected her marriage by no longer pressing Spanish claims, she was still the daughter of the Spanish king. Wolsey didn't trust her, which certainly wasn't surprising. Katharine developed a natural antipathy to the Cardinal as well. She was a deeply pious woman, growing more so as she aged. She thought Wolsey far too worldly to be a man of the church. She favored councilors like Thomas More and John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, men whose dedication to the church was as passionate as her own. She was also peeved that her role as Henry's confidante and advisor was slowly stolen away by Wolsey. Katharine was jealous of the Cardinal's influence with her husband, particularly since it meant a subsequent decline in her own influence. The king no longer brought foreign ambassadors to her rooms and he no longer sought her opinions. It was as if her father's betrayals implicated her. Wolsey was the consummate diplomat, skilled at flattering the queen when they met, but their mutual dislike was open knowledge at court.
In December 1514, Katharine suffered another miscarriage; it was her fourth, and the third son. It was particularly galling for her since earlier that year Henry had taken his first public mistress. He was not a lecher, and certainly less victimized by lust than his fellow monarchs, particularly Francis I of France. But kings take mistresses and around New Years' 1514, Henry's eye was caught by Elizabeth Blount. She was the cousin of Lord Mountjoy and one of Katharine's ladies-in-waiting. Bessie was pretty and vivacious, and quite happy to bask in the king's attention. And she had his attention for several years, which once more proves Henry's monogamous streak. And he did not neglect his wife. On 18 February 1516, Katharine and Henry's luck changed. Their only surviving child, a princess called Mary, was born. She was healthy and survived the difficult early months of infancy. Henry was proud, if disappointed, and told an ambassador: 'We are both young. If it was a daughter this time, by the grace of God the sons will follow.'
One can easily understand Henry's disappointment. He was a good father to Mary in those early years, proudly carrying her about and showing her off to visitors. But he was perhaps aware that time was running out for a male heir to be born. There are indications that he explored the idea of divorcing Katharine as early as 1518. An English courtier had supposedly visited the Vatican on an exploratory mission earlier that year. And gossip about Katharine's miscarriages had spread through the English court as early as 1514.

Henry was still affectionate towards Katharine, and they remained intimate for several years after Mary's birth, as evidenced by other pregnancies. But perhaps the bloom of the relationship had gone. His wife looked older than her years, her body worn out by ceaseless pregnancies and births. She was by nature a reserved and serious person; her mind dwelt constantly upon the failure of her most important duty as queen. On 10 November 1518, her last child - another daughter - was born, and died. Special doctors summoned from Spain arrived to help the queen conceive again. They were unsuccessful. Henry publicly vowed to lead a crusade against the Turks if God granted him a son.
But it was not to be, at least not with Katharine of Aragon. In 1519, Elizabeth Blount, his young mistress, bore him a healthy son. Henry was ecstatic. Here at last was proof that the king could father sons. Henry named the boy after himself, giving him the last name 'Fitzroy', the traditional surname of royal bastards. He would soon lavish so many titles upon the boy that Katharine felt it necessary to remind him that Princess Mary was his heir. Henry publicly chastised her and, in a fit of spite, sent several of her favorite attendants back to Spain.

Now we come to an important moment in what came to be called 'the king's great matter' (Henry's attempt to annul his marriage to Katharine.) Fitzroy's birth proved Henry could have a son, and no one could deny Katharine's fertility. It is doubtful Henry ever blamed her for the failure to produce a male heir after witnessing the endless cycle of pregnancies and prayer. Yet why had he and Katharine been unable to produce a living son between them? Naturally enough, the king's mind turned to God. It must be God's will that they had no male heir. But what had he done to offend God? Henry searched for an answer and soon found it quite easily. In the Bible, Leviticus XVIII, 16 clearly stated 'Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy brother's wife: it is thy brother's nakedness'. And, later, in chapter XX, 'If a man shall take his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing: he hath uncovered his brother's nakedness; they shall be childless'. What could be more clear? The Bible itself condemned his marriage to Katharine. The pope's dispensation was meaningless.
And so began one of the most fascinating decades in English history.

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King Henry VIII - Facts, Information, Biography & Portraits

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'My, you ought to seen old Henry the Eight when he was in bloom. He was a blossom. He used to marry a new wife every day, and chop off her head next morning. And he would do it just as indifferent as if he was ordering up eggs.

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Rival Queens: Elizabeth 1 and Mary Queen of Scots

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Rival Queens: Elizabeth 1 and Mary Queen of Scots

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by: Aldana Balarezo
find out the true relationship between these two queens and their rivalry.

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This article was first published in the Christmas 2015 issue of BBC History Magazine

1558-59: The rivals take the stage

On 17 November 1558 Elizabeth I acceded to the throne of England having been acknowledged as Henry VIII 's heir in her father's will and testament. Yet for many Catholics in England and abroad, Elizabeth was illegitimate. They saw Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland and legitimate granddaughter of Henry's sister Margaret Tudor, as the rightful queen of England.

One was Henry II, king of France, whose son François was married to Mary. He proclaimed the couple as king and queen of England, and ordered that the royal arms of England be quartered with those of Scotland and France on his niece's badges and silverware. It was reported that as Mary entered her chapel, gentlemen before her cried "make way for the queen of England".

Elizabeth's secretary, William Cecil, realised that as long as Mary lived, "this quarrel now begun, is undoubtedly like to be a perpetual incumbrance of this kingdom". When the French king died in July 1559, 15-year-old François became king of France - with Mary, aged 16, as his queen consort. The threat to Elizabeth now grew even greater.

1560: Elizabeth strikes the first blow

Mary was still in France when, in 1560, a Protestant and anti-French uprising threatened her Scottish throne. English intervention on the side of the insurgents and the death of Mary's mother, Mary of Guise, led to the Treaty of Edinburgh. By this, the French agreed to withdraw their troops that had been stationed in Scotland and recognise Elizabeth's right to rule England, leaving Scotland in the hands of a coalition that supported Protestantism.

While Mary refused to ratify the treaty, it marked the end of the first stand-off between the young queens: Elizabeth was triumphant, Mary was humiliated and incensed. Her eclipse was confirmed when in December 1560 her husband died, leaving her a childless dowager queen with no rule or status. When her mother-in-law, Catherine de Medici, made it clear there was no home for her in France, Mary chose to return to Scotland and claim her throne.

1561-62: The moment is lost

With Elizabeth and Mary now neighbouring queens, relations began with a show of amity. Mary declared that they were "both in one isle, both of one language, the nearest kinswoman that each other hand, and both queens". Yet within days of her arrival in Scotland she sent a representative to England to ask Elizabeth to acknowledge her as her heir. Elizabeth refused, explaining that she did not intend to nominate a successor, believing it would inspire disaffection against her.

In early 1562, arrangements were made for the two queens to meet in Nottingham in the autumn, but this was cancelled in March after the massacre of French Protestants at Wassy under the orders of Mary's uncle, the Duke of Guise.

1562-66: Marital woes

Mary now began to look for a new husband and negotiations were opened for a match with Don Carlos, son of Philip II of Spain. Elizabeth made clear that she would regard such a marriage as a hostile act. She tried to neutralise the threat by suggesting the Duke of Norfolk, the Earl of Arundel and then, rather bizarrely, her great favourite, and rumoured lover, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. The proposal came to nothing: not only was the intended bridegroom unwilling, but Mary's attention had instead come to focus on the Catholic Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley.

Darnley was also a grandchild of Margaret Tudor so, like Mary, had a strong claim to the English throne. Their marriage on 29 July 1565 left Mary and Elizabeth's diplomatic relationship in tatters: "All their sisterly familiarity was ceased, and instead thereof nothing but jealousies, suspicions and hatred," wrote the Scottish diplomat Sir James Melville. Though the marriage floundered, not least following the murder of Mary's private secretary David Rizzio - a crime that involved Darnley - Anglo-Scottish relations were damaged. Mary gave birth to James in June 1566, giving her a son and heir, and an even greater claim to the English throne.

1567: "I treat you as my daughter"

On 10 February 1567 there was an explosion at the house at Kirk O'Field in Edinburgh where Lord Darnley had been staying. His dead body was found in the garden. When James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, Mary's ally -with whom some believed she was having an affair - emerged as the chief suspect for Darnley's murder, Mary too fell under suspicion. Elizabeth was horrified and in a letter to Mary explained how, "my ears have been so deafened and my understanding so grieved and my heart so affrighted to hear the dreadful news of the abominable murder of your mad husband and my killed cousin that I scarcely have the wits to write about it".

Elizabeth urged Mary to distance herself from the scandal in order to protect her reputation: "I treat you as my daughter, and assure you that if I had one, I could wish for her nothing better than I desire for you."

1567-68: Mary seeks solace in England

On 15 May 1567, just three months after Darnley's death, Mary married the Earl of Bothwell at Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. The marriage proved to be deeply unpopular and many people, including Elizabeth, were shocked at the fact that Mary could marry the man accused of murdering her previous husband. Weeks later, 26 Scottish peers, known as the confederate lords, turned against Mary and Bothwell, and in July Mary was forced to sign deeds of abdication. Her son James was to become king with the Earl of Moray as regent.

Elizabeth was outraged. She instinctively aligned herself with her fellow monarch, cousin and close kinswoman. She believed what the lords had done was abhorrent and maintained an uncompromising defence of Mary's sovereignty. They had imprisoned and deposed an anointed queen, a crime against God that was even greater than Darnley's assassination months earlier. Nothing justified the action against Mary.

In 1568 Mary escaped from Lochleven Castle where she had been imprisoned, fleeing south to England to seek refuge and her cousin's support in order to regain the Scottish throne.

1568-69: A show of solidarity

When Mary landed at Workington (in modern-day Cumbria) on 16 May 1568, Elizabeth was placed in a quandary. She acknowledged the legitimacy of Mary's position as a fellow monarch and found it hard to countenance the actions of those who would keep Mary from her rightful throne. However, she was also aware that the Earl of Moray was supportive of English Protestant interests, and that Mary's restoration would mean his destruction.

Elizabeth resolved that an inquiry would be held into the conduct of the confederate lords and the question of whether Mary was guilty of Darnley's murder. As evidence against Mary, Moray presented the so-called casket letters - eight unsigned missives purportedly from Mary to Bothwell - which, he claimed, proved her adultery and her complicity in Darnley's murder.

While the majority of the commissioners did accept the letters as genuine, Elizabeth believed they represented not just a devastating attempt to destroy Mary's reputation but also an attack on every woman in an "unnatural" position of authority. She refused to be moved by the evidence suggested by the letters and resolved that the inquiry would reach the verdict that nothing had been proven against either side. Moray returned to Scotland as regent and Mary remained in custody in England.

1569-86: The plot thickens

Mary was now in England as a prisoner and Elizabeth cast as an unwilling gaoler. After she was moved to Tutbury Castle and placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury, Mary petitioned her cousin for an audience, better treatment and the restoration of her crown, but was offered little in response. Elizabeth's professions of determination to restore Mary to the Scottish throne now looked to be little more than realpolitik.

When evidence emerged that Mary was implicated in the Ridolfi Plot that sought to depose Elizabeth and place Mary on the throne, Elizabeth was forced to acknowledge Mary as a significant threat and placed her in stricter custody. The unravelling of the Throckmorton Plot in 1583, a scheme for the Duke of Guise to invade England and place Mary on the throne, was proof to spymaster Francis Walsingham and William Cecil that the time had come for action. By the Bond of Association and the Act for the Security of the Queen's Person in 1584, Mary, though not specifically named, was made responsible for future plots instigated in her name. When Walsingham uncovered a third plot that involved Antony Babington, a Catholic gentleman, he was ready to act.

1586: Walsingham's trap is sprung

The Babington Plot planned a Catholic rising, the assassination of Elizabeth and the accession of Mary as queen of England. With Mary's correspondence under surveillance, a letter addressed to Babington, which apparently endorsed the plot, gave Walsingham the evidence he needed. In September Mary was moved to Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire where she would be tried for treason: the stage was set for the final act of struggle between the two queens.

Elizabeth was determined that Mary should admit her wrongdoing and ask for forgiveness, clinging to the possibility of pardoning her cousin and saving her life. Yet Mary was uncompromising: she refused the right of the commissioners to try her, argued against the legality of the trial, and maintained that, as a foreign anointed queen, she had never been an English subject and thus could not be convicted of treason.

The outcome was inevitable. Mary was found guilty, having "compassed and imagined the hurt, death and destruction of the royal person".

1587: The sword falls

Despite unrelenting pressure from parliament and her councillors to carry out Mary's sentence, Elizabeth hesitated to order the execution. In her eyes, Mary remained a legitimate sovereign and she was concerned that killing her would set a dangerous precedent. It was what Elizabeth had always sought to avoid but now she had little choice.

On 1 February 1587 she finally signed the death warrant. However, without her knowledge, her councillors resolved to carry out the sentence immediately and a week later, on 8 February, Mary was executed, her head severed in three blows.

Elizabeth was furious when she was told that the sentence had been carried out, and William Davison, to whom she had entrusted the death warrant, was sent to the Tower. The council pleaded for clemency, claiming they had wanted to spare Elizabeth the pain of having to order Mary's death. Elizabeth claimed her advisors had betrayed her wishes.
Anna Whitelock is a historian and broadcaster and author of Elizabeth's Bedfellows: An Intimate History of the Queen's Court (Bloomsbury, 2013). You can follow Anna on Twitter @AnnaWhitelock
It was a convenient fiction. Doubtless Elizabeth was genuinely distraught by the execution but when Mary was sentenced to death the die had been irrevocably cast.

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