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Researchers are aiming to figure out exactly the connections between reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

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Talk in the classroom is about personal experiences, stories, expository textbook materials, and also about themselves and others' talk.

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Social scientists had described habits of groups of youngsters who were consistently failing to achieve academic excellence.

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Language researchers tried to describe the contexts of how children from different cultures learned to use language.

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Believe they have to teach their children to talk. They respond to their infants initial sounds as words. These parents also label things in their environment, read to them, buy them supplies for learning, ask their children explicit questions such as "Where's your nose?" and many other practices that relate to school learning.

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Adults allow their children to be in an ongoing stream of talk from extended family members and wide circle of people within their community. Children are seen as the responsibility of the members within the community. Children are given nicknames and teased. The children often tell stories, recount events, or describe objects they have seen. Overall, children in this community are considered conversational partners.

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Parents focus the attention of their young on objects and events while they point out verbally the labels and features of those which the child should perceive and later talk about. Children form this community learn to attend to items in both real life and in books. They hear a lot of talk about talk.

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Children from backgrounds whose do not match the school can still obtain academic success. One way is to use communication to bridge academics and the community around them.

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A teacher should help students develop strategies, skills, habits, and dispositions of the engaged reader.

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This is the behavior motivated by a student's own satisfaction without the necessity of some separable consequence.
We want our students to love and to value reading.

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Includes both types of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic). It is behavior you engage in to bring yourself satisfaction.
Students read less when they have little motivation to read. This creates the Matthew effect where the 'richer get richer and the poor get poorer.' This typically begins in Kindergarten.
This type of motivation has been shown to lead to favorable school and psychological outcomes.
Teachers need to support students' development of autonomous motivation.

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Skills-based applications to literacy instruction stem from behaviorism.
They are shown to better promote reading proficiency.
These approaches include clear and explicit instruction on variety of skills such as alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, and decoding.
Skills-based approaches are essential in early years, but overreliance can later undermine performance.

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Motivation is essential for a student's literacy development.
Students who enjoy reading, read more often.
It is important to find the best motivation for your students, one that is adaptive.

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SDT is a humanistic theory of motivation that aims at promoting academic growth, overall well-being, and interest in learning of students.
Bridges reading motivation and achievement.
This theory supports that classroom environments that address students' basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness promote autonomous motivation.

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Phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge are two of the most powerful predictions of early literacy success.

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Students with good comprehension rely on what they have already learned from home.
NELP report stated that oral language is one of the skills attributed to decoding, comprension, and achievement.

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Teachers can provide activities that encourage the building of meaningful bridges between school and home. This satisfies students' need to feel connected.

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Policymakers fail to take seriously the consequences of not having a love for literacy.
There also needs to be more research conducted to understand more of what motivates and demotivates young students to read and write.

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In reading, a student must construct meaning, attend to language structure, and learn to differentiate one letter from another.

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This theory includes that each child has unique understandings, comes to literacy by different means, and benefits from instruction that plays to their individual strengths.

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A child who is building an effective literacy processing system monitors their own reading and writing. They search for information using in text meaning and grammar structures, use print to make discoveries, notice and correct errors, and overall are problem solvers.
As the student advances their processing system, they always keep meaning at the forefront.

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Letter knowledge is the key to success in reading and writing.
This includes knowing the letter shape, their name, their sound(s), and the overall concept of letters.
Commonly students begin to learn letters that are in their name, ones in the beginning of the alphabet first, those that are most commonly used in print, and letter sounds that they hear more often.
It also depends on where the student is concerning their period of language acquisition.

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It is important that teachers are constantly tracking students' progress, strengths and weaknesses, in order to maximize instructional time.
Students learn more effectively when the teacher connects the new letter with known letters or words.
The goal of letter learning is to apply them to reading and writing continuous texts.

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A handmade book constructed of heavy paper and contains both uppercase and lowercase letters arranged alphabetically that the student fluently identifies.
Only known letters are entered first, others are left blank.
This book serves as a personal resource for the student.
The page includes the uppercase and lowercase letter long with a picture of what that letter starts with. (Example, H h, picture drawn of a hamster).
The picture helps aid the student's journey to sounds.

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When conducting interactive writing, it is important to draw on their current understandings of writing to scaffold them to attend to the meaning of their message, use their own oral language to monitor their message, write words based on their knowledge of how they work, attend to conventions of print, and learn more about letters and their formation.

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Letter learning is very complex and evolves over time.
It is important to track and monitor students' learning of letters to maximize their instruction.
Letters should be taught in isolation, but only as necessary along with what the student needs to learn next about letter features, formation, discrimination, and sound correspondence.
Letter instruction is focused, yet brief and involves both reading and writing.

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There are three interrelated ideas that offer the best chance of preventing reading failure in kindergarten and first grade. These are leveled books, leveled phonics, and teacher training.

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Every ten years or so, the US changes the way that we approach beginning reading instruction.
This is due to competing theories, new research findings, and ongoing concern.
1980- beginning reading was taught using basal reading programs that featured systematic word control
1990- whole language movement, abandoned word control
2000- 'No Child Left Behind Act' mandated title 1 funds should be used to intensive phonics instruction

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We have not solved the problem of early reading failure.
In order to progress, we need to carefully analyze the results of the past 30 years of changes.

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We know that beginning struggling readers need to be led through interesting leveled books.
They also need to be led through a leveled word study or a phonics curriculum that starts with beginning consonants through occurring vowel patterns.
Teachers need to be trained to effectively lead and guide a student through their reading journey.

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There are three main methods that have been used to control text difficulty.
1.  Whole-word method (popular 1930-1990), this included systematically repeated words to be memorized.
2. Sentence-based method (popular 1990s) used pattern books, poems, and dictated stories. Texts were read and re-read to acquire new sight words.
3. Phonics-intensive method (popular 2002-present) addressed text difficulties by using decodable texts.
All of these approaches have had a touch of success, especially in chronological order.

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In order to teach a child to decode, you must obtain knowledge and skill.
As a teacher, you must understand the context of the phonics instruction.
You must also be able to decide where a child needs to be taught along the continuum.
Finally, you must have a method for teaching the various letter sounds and spelling patterns.
The end goal for phonics instruction should be automatic recognition of patterns.

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It is important as a teacher that you have a clear and laid out plan for your phonics instruction.
Balanced instruction is a must.
It can be beneficial to explicitly teach letter sounds along with re-reading texts, and monitoring students to level books.
A teacher should not stop there.
Teachers should also conduct read-alouds with challenging texts on a daily basis.
Writing should also be taken into consideration as a tool of success for beginning readers.

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Overall, effective phonics instruction depends on the expertise of the teacher. Schools can purchase good appropriate materials but it takes a successful teacher to maximize its effectiveness. It is suggested that schools develop a training capacity that increases the skill and confidence of teachers who work with struggling beginning readers.