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My BioArea has already been evaluated by some of my co-learners at the comments bellow the red "Instructions box" (upper left side). If anyone else wishes to evaluate as well, is welcome to do so here, or at the aforementioned box!

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It is evident that biodiversity is being threatened worldwide by a combination of human-induced pressures which are often exacerbated by the ongoing climate change. All the above were documented in various ways by the fellows co-learners of this course, providing different perspectives of presenting biodiversity and its’ threats from Latin America all the way to Europe and Asia. Two BioAreas that I really enjoyed were those of  Luisa Fernanda Restrepo Avendaño (for Colombia) and Georgia Gogou (for Attika, Greece), since we had a similar way of network-style “unfolding” our information and way of thinking.

What is for sure is that the only way for protecting and even ameliorating biodiversity on our planet is through our initiatives. It is up to us..!

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 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Greece’s biodiversity at risk. 

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 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Greece’s biodiversity at risk. 

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National Biodiversity Strategy & Action Plan of Greece

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National Biodiversity Strategy & Action Plan of Greece

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the most significant biological threats are to coastal and halophytic habitats and forests.

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water management activities mainly affect freshwater habitats and some types of forests.

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residential and infrastructure development primarily affect sclerophyllous scrub, coastal
habitats and halophytic habitats

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forestry activities occur almost exclusively in forests

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the strongest effect of agricultural activities is on sclerophyllous scrub and grasslands

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the most severe effect of tourism and recreational activities is on sand dunes and halophytic
habitats

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Assessing the threats to and pressures on habitat types

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Assessing the threats to and pressures on habitat types

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Threats to and pressures on Greek species. 2

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Threats to and pressures on Greek species. 2

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National Biodiversity Strategy, 2014 https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nbsap-01-en.pdf

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Habitat types of interest and their conditions

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Habitat types of interest and their conditions

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National Biodiversity Strategy, 2014 https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nbsap-01-en.pdf

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National Biodiversity Strategy, 2014 https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nbsap-01-en.pdf

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Threats to and pressures on Greek species. 1

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Threats to and pressures on Greek species. 1

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National Biodiversity Strategy, 2014

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Present status of biodiversity in Greece

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Present status of biodiversity in Greece

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According to the most recent surveys, Greek flora includes 5752 species and 1893 subspecies of vascular plants, which cumulatively represent 6600 taxa that belong to 1072 genera and 185 families. Greece is also one of the world’s hotspots for endemic plants, with 1278 endemic species (22.2% of all species present) and 452 endemic subspecies, which cumulatively represent 1461 taxa (22.1% of all taxa present in Greece). Regarding Greece’s fauna, until now 23130 animal species have been recorded in the country’s terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, of which 3956 are characterised as Greek endemics. Furthermore, 3500 animal species have been recorded in the Greek
marine environment.

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Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation are the most significant threats at the European level to species that occur in Greece. For freshwater species, major threats include the over-extraction of water, which in many cases is further exacerbated by increasing droughts due to climate change, pollution and the introduction of alien species. Other major threats come from farming and ranching as a result of agricultural expansion and intensification, consumptive use of biological resources, urbanization and tourism. ( INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE © May 2013 )

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Details of the aforementioned study, can be found here!

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Details of the aforementioned study, can be found here!

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Resource partitioning in two heterochronic populations of Greek Alpine newts, Triturus alpestris veluchiensis

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Resource partitioning in two heterochronic populations of Greek Alpine newts, Triturus alpestris veluchiensis

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Heterochronic morphs occupy particular micro-habitats and focus on specific prey

items. Food selection: paedomorphs prey more on plankton and less on terrestrial invertebrates than metamorphs.
Relevant paper: Denoël and Schabetsberger,

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Ecological niche  Martes foina (Beech Marten

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Ecological niche  Martes foina (Beech Marten

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Geographic range, habitat, food habits and behaviour found in:
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Martes_foina/

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Geographic range, habitat, food habits and behaviour found in
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Monachus_monachus/

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Endoparasites of Wild Mammals Sheltered in Wildlife Hospitals and Rehabilitation Centres in Greece

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Endoparasites of Wild Mammals Sheltered in Wildlife Hospitals and Rehabilitation Centres in Greece

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Abstract

Wildlife parasitic diseases represent an important field of investigation as they may have a significant impact on wild animals' health and fitness, and may also have zoonotic implications. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of endoparasites in wild mammals admitted to wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres in Greece. Sixty-five animals belonging to 17 species and originated from various areas of continental and insular Greece were included in the survey. The most numerous animal species examined were hedgehogs ( n = 19), red foxes ( n = 16), and European roe deer ( n = 6). Faecal samples were collected individually and examined by floatation and sedimentation method. Parasites were found in 46 (70.7%) of the animals. Most parasites found in canids, felids, and ruminants are of great relevance to the domestic animals' health and some of them are also of zoonotic importance. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first report of endoparasites in hedgehogs, roe deers, fallow deers, badgers, and bats, and the first report of the pulmonary nematode Troglostrongylus brevior in a wild cat in Greece. The significance of the parasites found in each animal species in regard to their health and their relevance to domestic animals and human health is discussed.

Keywords: wildlife, mammals, Greece, endoparasites, zoonotic, rehabilitation centres, wildlife hospitals, wildlife-domestic animal interface

Introduction

The importance of wildlife protection and conservation came under the spotlight several decades ago and today is more comprehensive and integrated than ever ( 1). Wildlife infectious diseases are a key field of investigation with regard to robustness and conservation of wild animal populations, but are also important as some of them may also affect domestic animals and where zoonotic pathogens are involved, humans too. The study of such interactions constitutes the core of the One Health approach.

Parasitic diseases are among the most prevalent and important infectious diseases in wildlife. As far as free ranging and wild animals are concerned, parasitism is the norm rather than the exception. Although almost always present, parasites are usually in balance with the host organism, doing little damage or having little clinical impact ( 2, 3). As accurately described before, in every evaluation of parasitism in wild animals three main points should be considered: the effect and importance of the parasites on the hosts themselves, the transmissibility of parasites to domestic animals, and the relationship to public health ( 2).

For areas with large populations of free roaming dogs and cats and open type herds of productive animals, wildlife and domestic animal interactions and spillovers of parasitic infections are very likely ( 4). Both of the abovementioned conditions are being met in Greece. Greek wildlife is estimated to include 102 terrestrial mammal species ( 5). Urbanisation, poisoned baits, land use change, hybridism, and fires are among the most significant threats for wild animals in Greece, where many species are characterised as endangered ( 5). At present, there are relatively few wildlife veterinary hospitals and rehabilitation centres, which are not fully organised or funded by the state, but function mostly as non-governmental organisations or citizens' associations, supported exclusively by volunteers. Most of wild animals are admitted to these hospitals due to injuries, disorientation, orphanage, car accidents or infectious and parasitic diseases. The major role of such centres is to preserve the national biodiversity through individual wild animal treatment and rehabilitation as well as to provide animal welfare during their convalescence. At the same time, these organisations support research to study different aspects of wildlife biology, nutrition, disease epizootiology and other biomedical factors of scientific interest.

Parasites and parasitic diseases of wild mammals in Greece have been studied to a relatively small extent, in individual cases or confined animal populations ( 6- 12). Globally, one of the most significant challenges of carrying out a wildlife parasitological survey is the collecting of biological material from wild animals, which is usually not an easy task. Wildlife hospitals provide access to such samples from various animal species, which in most cases are species with closer interaction with domestic animal and human populations and are thus of great interest as far as the transmission of parasites between these groups of hosts is concerned. In this context, this study aimed to investigate the occurrence of endoparasites in wild mammals admitted to wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres in Greece and thus to evaluate the possibility of transmission of parasites among wildlife and domestic animals and/or humans.

Materials and Methods

Bioethics

This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Presidential Decree 56/13 "Bringing Greek legislation into line with Directive 2010/63/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22nd September 2010 (L 276/33/20.10.2010) regarding the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes" that does not require approval by ethics committee, as it did not include any experimental practices on the animals, or practices likely to cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm equivalent to, or higher than, that caused by the introduction of a needle in accordance with good veterinary practice.

Study Period and Animal Species

From September 2012 to October 2017, 65 mammals submitted to two wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres, "Action for Wildlife" based in Thessaloniki and "EKPAZ - Hellenic Centre for Wildlife Rescue and Rehabilitation" based on the island of Aegina were included in the survey. The animals originated from various areas of continental and insular Greece and were admitted to the hospitals as victims of road accidents, due to injuries, mobility restriction, shock, poisoning, confusion, weakness and exhaustion, disorientation or orphanage and illegal capture. The mammals examined belonged to the following 17 species (in order of number of animals examined): European hedgehog ( Erinaceus europaeus, n = 19), red fox ( Vulpes vulpes, 16), European roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus, 6), red squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris, 4), brown hare ( Lepus europaeus, 3), grey wolf ( Canis lupus, 3), beech marten ( Martes foina, 2), Eurasian badger ( Meles meles, 2), Eurasian otter ( Lutra lutra, 2), golden jackal ( Canis aureus, 1), fallow deer ( Dama dama, 1), European wild cat ( Felis silvestris silvestris, 1), European mink ( Mustela lutreola, 1), coypu ( Myocastor coypus, 1), common noctule bat ( Nyctalus noctula, 1), greater noctule bat ( Nyctalus lasiopterus, 1), and brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus, 1) (Table ). For each animal, a record including available data such as area where the animal was found, reason for admission, clinical signs, sex, and age, was kept.

Parasitological Methods

Faecal samples were collected from the boxes or cages where the animals were kept individually and were preserved at 4-7°C until their transfer to the laboratory. In the case of a hare, the whole gastrointestinal tract and liver were examined after the death of the animal.

The faecal samples were examined by two standard parasitological methods, i.e., zinc sulphate (ZnSO ₄) flotation and merthiolate iodine formaldehyde (MIF)-ether sedimentation ( 13, 14). In brief, for the flotation method, approximately 1 g of faecal material was diluted with tap water and passed through a sieve (No. 150) into a centrifuge tube. The tube was centrifuged at 200 ×  g for 3 min, the supernatant fluid was discharged down to approximately 1 cm above the sediment and zinc sulphate (ZnSO ₄·7H ₂O) solution 33.2% (w/v) was added to the sediment. After thorough dilution of the sediment, zinc sulphate solution was added to just over the top of the tube and a cover slip was placed on the top of the tube. After centrifugation at 150 ×  g for 1 min, the cover slip was carefully removed and placed on a microscope slide. For the sedimentation method, approximately 1 g of the faecal material was diluted in MIF solution, passed through a sieve (No. 150) into a centrifuge tube, 5 ml ether was added, and the content of the tube was homogenised by vigorous shaking. After centrifugation at 200 ×  g for 3 min, all the phases of the centrifuged material, except the sediment, were discharged. Drops of the sediment were placed on a microscope slide and covered with a cover slip. All the preparations were examined under the optical microscope at 100×, 400×, and 1,000× magnification.

The identification of the parasitic stages (eggs, larvae, cysts, and oocysts) found was based on morphological criteria ( 15- 17).

Follow-up of the Cases

Antiparasitic treatment was administered to all of the animals that were found positive for parasites. However, in most cases, follow-up was not feasible, thus evaluation of the antiparasitic treatment was not performed.

Statistical Analysis

Results were statistically analysed with the chi-square test of independence and the Fisher's exact test ( p  < 0.05) with the software IBM SPSS Statistics 23. The parameters analysed were the age of the animal (young vs adult), the area where the animal was found (Northern vs Southern Greece), the clinical condition (weakness/exhaustion vs other clinical condition), and sex, in association with positive result in the parasitological examinations.

Results

Endoparasites were found in 46 (70.7%) out of 65 animals examined, and the results are summarised in Table . The animal species examined belong to six orders, i.e., Carnivora, Lagomorpha, Artiodactyla, Rodentia, Eulipotyphla, and Chiroptera. The parasites found were identified to the genus or species level (21 genera/species) and in some cases to the phylum, superfamily, or subfamily level (Acanthocephala, Trematoda, Capillariinae, and Trichostrongyloidea in 7, 4, 2, and 1 cases respectively).

More precisely, in the order of Carnivora, all ( n = 16) red foxes ( V. vulpes) examined were found to be infected with one or more parasites. The parasites found were Ancylostomatidae (in eight animals), Eucoleus aerophilus ( n = 5), Trichuris vulpis ( n = 5), Brachylaima ( Brachylaemus) spp. ( n = 5), Acanthocephala ( n = 4), Toxocara canis ( n = 3), Diplopylidium/Joyeuxiella spp. ( n = 2), Cystoisospora canis ( n = 1), Sarcocystis spp. ( n = 1), Alaria alata ( n = 1), and Trematoda ( n = 1). Similarly, all three grey wolves ( C. lupus) examined were infected; Cystoisospora rivolta was found in two animals and Sarcocystis spp. in 1. In the only golden jackal ( C. aureus) examined, a mixed infection with E. aerophilus, T. canis, and Ancylostomatidae was found. Finally, in the wild cat F. silvestris silvestris, Toxocara cati, Troglostrongylus brevior, and Cystoisospora felis was found. Of the rest of the carnivores examined, only one Eurasian badger ( M. meles) was found infected with Eimeria spp.

In the three brown hares ( L. europaeus) examined, the parasites Trichostrongylys spp. ( n = 2) and Eimeria spp. were found in the faecal examinations. Furthermore, Dicrocoelium dendriticum adults and Linguatula serrata larvae were found in the post mortem examination of the gastrointestinal tract and liver of one hare.

In the representatives of the Artiodactyla, D. dendriticum was found in two of the four European roe deer ( C. capreolus) examined, and Capillaria bovis and Eimeria spp. were found in fallow deer ( D. dama).

The most numerous animal species examined was the hedgehog ( E. europaeus, 19 animals), where Crenosoma striatum (in 9 animals), Capillaria spp. ( n = 7), Physaloptera clausa ( n = 6), Eimeria spp. ( n = 3), Acanthocephala ( n = 3), Brachylaima spp. ( n = 1), Hymenolepis erinacei ( n = 1), and Trematoda ( n  = 1) were found.

In the two species of bats (Chiroptera) examined eggs of Capillariinae (in two animals), Trematoda ( n = 2), and Trichostrongyloidea ( n = 1) were found. Finally, parasites were not found in any of the rodents ( M. coypus, R. norvegicus, and S. vulgaris) examined.

Mixed infections were common (Figure ) and were recorded in 27 animals. More precisely, five different parasites were found in a fox, four in two hedgehogs, three in five foxes, two hedgehogs and a jackal, two in six hedgehogs, five foxes, and in a hare, the wild cat, the fallow dear, and both bats.

According to the results of the statistical analysis, there was no statistically significant association between the factors evaluated with the presence of parasites. More precisely, the calculated p values were 0.729, 1.000, 0.655, and 0.693 for age, area, clinical condition, and sex, respectively.

Discussion

Knowledge of parasite fauna in wildlife is limited ( 18, 19). However, the increase in studies and efforts around the One Health concept recently underlines the importance of investigation and understand the impact of parasites in wild animals, domestic animals, and humans. This objective requires constant surveillance and extension of investigation to new areas, biotopes, and animals' species ( 3). To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of endoparasites in hedgehogs, roe deer, fallow deer, badgers, and bats in Greece.

It is obvious that the parasites of certain wild animals, such as canids, felids, and ruminants, are generally of greater relevance to the domestic animals' health, because of their taxonomic relation and consequently the existence of common parasitic species. On the other hand, most parasites in animals such as hedgehogs or bats are significant in the context of conservation, robustness, and welfare of these wild populations. The majority of the parasites found in the group of carnivores can be transmitted to the domesticated carnivores, i.e., dogs and cats and vice versa. Most importantly, some of these parasites are additionally of zoonotic importance.

Toxocara spp. found in carnivores here is the most common intestinal parasite of dogs and cats ( 20). Toxocara spp. infection in animals can be accompanied by severe clinical signs, such as coughing, diarrhoea, vomiting, and even intestinal rapture ( 21). Most importantly, Toxocara spp. may infect humans and is the agent of human toxocarosis, one of the most common parasitic zoonoses worldwide, that is associated with larva migrans syndrome ( 22).

Ancylostomatidae were found here in foxes and the jackal. These parasites include the common hookworms of carnivores, i.e., Uncinaria stenocephala and Ancylostoma caninum ( 15). These nematodes and especially A. caninum are quite pathogenic and can cause developmental impairment and some severe clinical signs such as diarrhoea, anaemia, and hypoproteinaemia which can eventually lead to death ( 23). The prevalence of infection by these parasites in dogs has recently been found to be 7.4% in Poland ( 20) and 33% in Romania ( 24). Furthermore, these nematodes can cause enteritis, skin lesions and cutaneous larva migrans syndrome in humans ( 25- 27) and impact human health.

Trichuris vulpis, found in five of the foxes examined here, is a nematode parasite of the large intestine of canids. It is a common finding in foxes: for example, 33 and 17% of the foxes in Tunisia and Netherlands, respectively, have been found infected with this nematode ( 28, 29). Trichuris vulpis is also often found in dogs. For example, in some recent surveys it has been found in 8.4 and 10% of dogs in Poland and Slovak Republic, respectively ( 20, 30) and in 6.4% in Kennel dogs of Northern Belgium ( 31). This parasite produces particularly environment resistant eggs, has a direct life cycle and can cause severe colitis, with lesions like thickening, ulceration, and necrosis of the intestinal mucosa, severe anaemia, dehydration, and even death of the animal ( 32). Although there have been some reports in the past connecting T. vulpis with patent infection and visceral larva syndrome in humans, the zoonotic potential of this parasite is uncertain and needs further clarification, thus is currently not considered zoonotic ( 32).

Alaria alata was found in one of the foxes examined. This is an important finding as this trematode is the agent of alariosis, a new emerging food-borne disease of humans ( 33). Little information exists about alariosis that is caused by the migration of A. alata larval stage (mesocercariae). This trematode has various carnivores as definitive hosts, and two intermediate hosts: an aquatic gastropode and an amphibian. However, the large number of paratenic hosts that have been identified are important in this parasite's epizootiology/epidemiology. Regarding human infection, the most important paratenic host is considered to be the wild boar, as human infection occurs when raw or undercooked infected meat is consumed ( 33). Foxes are an important reservoir of the parasite as they can be infected in high percentages. For example, recently, 26 and 49% of foxes were found to be infected in Ireland and Hungary, respectively ( 34, 35).

Troglostrongylus brevior is a pulmonary nematode that is considered primarily a parasite of wild cats ( F. silvestris silvestris) ( 36). It is noteworthy that 71.4% of wildcats examined in southern Italy were found infected by this parasite ( 37). However, in recent years, T. brevior has become a parasite of emerging significance in the domestic cat ( F. s. catus) also ( 38). Although T. brevior has already been found in some areas where currently wild cats are non-existent ( 39, 40), in most cases, the distribution pattern of this parasite is compatible with the distribution of the wild cat ( 41, 42). Moreover, the genetic characterisation of various isolates of T. brevior, both from wild cats and domestic cats ( 43) confirmed that these animal species share common lungworm populations (same haplotypes), thus may be involved in a common transmission cycle. Consequently, the finding of T. brevior in the wild cat examined in this study constitutes the first report of this parasite in wild cats in Greece, and it is an indication that the wild cat-domestic cat circulation of the parasite is also a realistic scenario in the examined area.

Eucoleus aerophilus (syn. Capillaria aerophila) is a nematode of the respiratory tract that can affect both canids and felids and was found in 5 of the 16 foxes and in the single jackal examined in this study. Eucoleus aerophilus is considered one of the most common lungworms in wild carnivores in Europe. For example, it was found in 33.3% of wild cats in southern Italy ( 37), in 30% of red foxes in Pyrenees area ( 44), and in 84% of red foxes in Serbia ( 45). Its presence in wildlife is important because it can also affect cats and dogs ( 46) and moreover, because it is potentially zoonotic with occasionally severe implications for human health (agent of human capillariosis) ( 47).

The cestodes Diplopylidium/Joyeuxiella spp. found in two foxes are common parasites of wild and domestic carnivores. The transmission from one animal to another occurs via various intermediate and paratenic hosts (arthropods and small vertebrates). Although generally infection by cestodes remain subclinical, it is occasionally accompanied by signs related to intestinal function disorders ( 48).

The coccidian parasite Sarcocystis spp. in carnivores (definite host) develops in the epithelial cells of the intestine, usually causing little damage (asymptomatic infection) and is spread to the environment via faeces. In herbivores, omnivores or birds (intermediate host) the parasite develops in the muscles, where in some cases it can cause important lesions ( 15). In countries such as Greece, where open type flock rearing (mostly sheep and goats) is practiced, the infection of wild and free ranging carnivores with Sarcocystis spp. represents a significant threat for animal production, as in some cases it leads to abattoir condemnation of meat during veterinary inspection due to excessive infection with the parasite.

Apart from Sarcocystis, other Coccidian protozoa found were Cystoisospora spp. and Eimeria spp. Cystoisospora canis, C. felis, and C. rivolta infect canids, felids, and both animal families, respectively, while Eimeria spp. are parasites of a large variety of animal species. These parasites have a direct life cycle, are transmitted via contaminated soil and/or water, and may cause severe enteritis characterised by diarrhoea, anorexia, weight loss, vomiting, and even death, especially in young individuals ( 49). Wildlife and domestic animals in many cases share common parasites of these genera, thus the transmission cycles can be practically considered merged.

Nymphs of the pentastomid parasite Linguatula serrata were found on the intestines of an examined hare. This is a rather common finding in this animal species as it was found on the intestinal serosa in 19% of the hares examined in Northern Greece ( 12). Carnivores are the definitive host of this parasite and in wolves in Central Greece, eggs of the parasite were found in 18.4% of the samples examined ( 10). Meat producing animals, such as sheep and goats are also intermediate hosts of L. serrata, and the percentage of infection in some areas ( 50) may have an important impact on the economy of animal production, as evidence exists that L. serrata nymphs transfer bacteria that contaminate offal, enhancing post mortem spoilage of the infected organs ( 51). In addition, this parasite can have a significant impact on human health, causing the so-called marrara or halzoun syndrome, characterised by inflammation and itching of the upper respiratory tract ( 52, 53).

Some of the parasites found in herbivorous animals in this study are also very common in domestic animals. Dicrocoelium dendriticum, a trematode parasite of the biliary ducts, was found in roe deer and hare. Capillaria bovis, a nematode parasite of the small intestine in many species of wild and domestic ruminants ( 54- 56) was found in fallow dear in this study. The nematode of the genus Trichostrongylus found in hares here was very likely T. retortaeformis as it was the only species of this genus found in necropsied hares in Greece ( 12). This nematode can also infect domestic rabbits. All the abovementioned animals may represent reservoir hosts of these parasites and their epizootiological role in the infection of domestic herbivores-especially sheep and goats-because of the open type flock rearing may be decisive.

Acanthocephala were found in foxes and hedgehogs. These parasites generally cannot be identified to a lower than the phylum level by coprological examinations, as their eggs are similar in morphology in many genera and species. Moreover, in carnivores, pseudoparasitism is a common finding, as their prey may be infected by such parasites. For example, in two cases in this study, morphologically similar acanthocephalan eggs were found both in foxes and their common prey, hedgehogs. A second faecal sample from these foxes a number of days later would most likely have solved this problem, but could not be collected as these foxes were released very soon after their admission to the shelter. Some species of Acanthocephala reported in foxes are Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, Macracanthorhynchus catulinus, Prosthorhynchus transversus, Oncicola canis, and Pachysentis spp. ( 11, 28, 57) and in hedgehogs Nephridiacanthus major and Plagiorhynchus ( Prosthorhynchus) cylindraceus ( 58, 59). Regarding Acantocephala and their relation to predator-prey relationships, the phenomenon of postcyclic transmission, where adult parasites when ingested within their definite host-prey survive and parasitise the predator, should also be taken into consideration as a way of encountering the same parasite species both in prey and predators ( 60).

Pseudoparasitism, as mentioned earlier, could also be involved in the occurrence of Brachylaima spp. in both foxes and hedgehogs. Brachylaima erinacei is quite common in European hedgehogs ( 61) and although foxes may be parasitised by other species of this genus like Brachylaima recurva and Brachylaima tokudai ( 57, 62), the presence of Brachylaima eggs in the faeces of these animals could also be attributed to pseudoparasitism after preying on infected hedgehogs.

The lung worm C. striatum, transmitted by snails and slugs (intermediate hosts) was the most commonly found parasite in hedgehogs (in 9 of the 19 animals). Furthermore, the stomach nematode nematode P. clausa was found in six animals. This parasite has an indirect life cycle, with insects as intermediate and reptiles as paratenic hosts. Crenosoma striatum and P. clausa are particularly common in hedgehogs and can parasitise practically all individuals in some areas ( 63). Mixed infections by these parasites were observed in 43% of the hedgehogs examined in Iran ( 63). Similarly, this particular mixed infection was recorded in five of the animals in the present survey. In addition, Capillaria spp., Eimeria spp. H. erinacei, and non-identified trematodes were found in hedgehogs in the present survey. Hedgehogsare known to harbour a large variety of parasites, probably due to their omnivorous diet that includes, apart from of fruits and grass, animals that serve as intermediate or paratenic hosts of various parasites, i.e., earthworms, gastropods, beetles, reptiles, amphibians, fish, rodents, and birds ( 63, 64). In the case of heavy parasitism, these animals may show severe clinical signs or even die and also may act as a transport and reservoir host for parasites in urban, semi-urban, and rural environments ( 59), especially as these animals live mostly in close contact with humans and domestic animals ( 65).

Eggs of Capillariinae, Trichostrongyloidea, and Trematoda were found in the two representatives of Chiroptera examined in this study. Very few surveys of endoparasites of bats exist worldwide. For example, some endoparasites of the abovementioned taxonomic groups found in bats of the genus Nyctalus in Japan are the capillarian Capillaria pipistrelli, the trematodes Plagiorchis muris and Mesodendrium macrostomum, and the trichostrongyloid Molinostrongylus skrjabini longispicula ( 66). Although some pathogens of bats and viruses particularly are well studied with regard to their impact on the same animal, on other animal species and on humans ( 67), analogous surveys on endoparasites are insufficient or non-existing and thus need to be planned and materialised.

It is worth noting that no endoparasites were found in the order of Rodentia. As the group was constituted basically by squirrels, this result was rather expected, as it has been repetitively found that Sciuridae have a relatively poor parasitic fauna ( 6).

Interestingly, none of the parameters examined (age, sex, area, and clinical condition) were statistically associated with parasitic infection. However, a highest percentage of infection (88.9%) was found in the group of animals showing exhaustion and weakness, while the animals with injury (car accident or dog attack) and the orphans were infected to a lower percentage, i.e., 75 and 50%, respectively. This observation could be attributed to opportunistic establishment of parasites in the weakened organism of these animals and/or to the pathogenetic mechanisms of the parasites that had an impact on the health status of these animals, resulting in their weakness. Either way, parasitism would most likely complicate the health problems of these animals and threaten their recovery in the absence of antiparasitic treatment ( 2).

It is indeed true that our knowledge of the kind of infectious pathogens that occur in wild animals and which of these could actually be transmitted and established in domestic animals or humans is very limited ( 3). For that reason, epizootiological investigations are particularly important and should be conducted systematically, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, and also in an attempt to cover as many areas, ecosystems and biotopes as possible. Such surveillance can provide the scientific community with important insights regarding host-parasite relationships, prevalence, and transmission patterns.

Furthermore, it is also important to mention that although faecal examinations-the most practical way of investigating endoparasites in live animals-are very useful, as they simultaneously inspect both the digestive and the respiratory systems for metazoa and protozoa, necropsy usually shows higher sensitivity in revealing the metazoan parasitic fauna and should be implemented whenever possible ( 68).

Finally, molecular analyses of parasites obtained from wildlife are of particular importance and should be implemented in future surveys, whenever feasible, as these can provide identification of the parasites to a level that would reveal paths of transmission among animal populations (wild and domestic) and clarification of their zoonotic potential ( 3).

Author Contributions

TL conceived and designed the study, reviewed the data, performed parasitological examinations, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. AM and PB performed parasitological examinations. SP performed the clinical procedures (history, physical examination, nursing, and treatment) and provided the samples. AD designed the study, reviewed and interpreted the data, performed parasitological examinations, and carried out the major editing of the manuscript. All the authors critically reviewed the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Mr. Yannis Poulopoulos, responsible for the "EKPAZ - Hellenic Centre for Wildlife Rescue and Rehabilitation" on the Aegina for providing samples from the animals at the Centre, as well as all the volunteers at the hospital and rehabilitation centre, "Action for Wildlife" who helped with sample collection.

References

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Endoparasites of Wild Mammals Sheltered in Wildlife Hospitals and Rehabilitation Centres in Greece

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Wildlife parasitic diseases represent an important field of investigation as they may have a significant impact on wild animals' health and fitness, and may also have zoonotic implications. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of endoparasites in wild mammals admitted to wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres in Greece.

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Vulpes vulpes

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Toxocara canis

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Parasite attached betweenthe first and second branchial arches

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Parasite attached betweenthe first and second branchial arches

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Relevant paper:
Leonardos and Trilles, 2003
https://www.int-res.com/articles/dao2003/54/d054p243.pdf

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Atherina boyeri  (Osteichthyes: Atherinidae)

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Mothocya epimerica, Costa 1851 (Isopoda: Flabellifera: Cymothoidae). Photo from:  Hadfield et al., 2015.

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Instead of 2 examples I present an attempt of a simplified food web of mesozooplankton and ichthyoplankton. The trophic relationships in this case are quite chaotic and are based mostly on size. Thus, the different mesozooplankton taxa were grouped according to their body length, the different fish larvae according to their snout length and the possible relations were investigated based on their spatial coexistence.
Based on an experiment conducted during the MSc of "Oceanography and Management of Marine Environment" of University of Athens, Greece.

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Come up with possible reasons for the decision to reintroduce grey wolves into the National Park. From the three options below, select the reason you find most likely.
My answer:
3.     The wolves were brought in because the increased elk population was overgrazing the deciduous, woody species such as aspen and cottonwood.

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1) Better zoom out first, navigate and then zoom in.
2) All Themes of the Course start from the human "Atlas" holding the Biodiversity (right under this instruction box) and then spread out to the right.

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Integrative status of the marine water bodies in Greece, based on MSFD (EC, 2010) criteria.

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Integrative status of the marine water bodies in Greece, based on MSFD (EC, 2010) criteria.

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Figure from Simboura et al., 2015 (https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/hcmr-med-mar-sc/article/view/12823)

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(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278571003_Aegean_floristic_elements_in_Attiki_new_records_for_Silene_holzmannii_Heldr_ex_Boiss_and_Ophrys_basilissa_CAlibertis_AAlibertis_HRReinhard/figures?lo=1)

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Habitat:  Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp

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Habitat:  Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp

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2250_ Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp.JPG

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Mammal species: Rupicapra rupicapra balkanica

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Mammal species: Rupicapra rupicapra balkanica

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LIFE-IP 4 NATURA project.  Deliverable of Action A.1: Report on species/habitat selection

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LIFE-IP 4 NATURA project.  Deliverable of Action A.1: Report on species/habitat selection

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Twelve (12) Action Plans have been selected referring to one (1) habitat, three (3) bird species, six (6) fish species, two (2) cetacean species, two (2) terrestrial mammals, one (1) marine mammal species, one (1) invertebrate species, two (2) amphibian/reptile species and one (1) flora species.

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It comprises of 419 sites with a total combined coverage of almost 4 300 000 ha, corresponding to around 27% of Greece’s terrestrial area and 6% of its territorial waters. Click on to see the Network!

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Greek designated areas per ha, for marine ecosystems

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Greek designated areas per ha, for marine ecosystems

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(1 ha = 10000 m^2)
(https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/nationally-designated-protected-areas-10/assessment)

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Greek designated areas per ha, for terrestrial ecosystems

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Greek designated areas per ha, for terrestrial ecosystems

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(1 ha = 10000 m^2)
(https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/nationally-designated-protected-areas-10/assessment)

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Complementarity between European designations (Natura 2000 and Emerald Network) and national designations (Common Database on Designated Areas)
by share of terrestrial area.
(https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/nationally-designated-protected-areas-10/assessment)

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The Date of The Legendary Volcano Explosion of Thera Has Finally Been Traced

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The Date of The Legendary Volcano Explosion of Thera Has Finally Been Traced

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Thousands of years ago, on what is now the Greek island of Santorini, a mountain exploded in one of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history. But scientists have had difficulty establishing exactly when the Minoan volcano Thera erupted - until now.

An unusual source may be able to settle the debate from conflicting archaeological and radiocarbon analyses: the rings in trees that were alive at the time of the eruption.

Pinning down the date of Thera's eruption could tell us more about not just the event itself, but the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Egypt at this critical time.

"The volcano erupts and represents one short moment in time, if you can date precisely when that moment is," explained dendrochronologist Charlotte Pearson of the University of Arizona.

"Then, whenever you find evidence of that moment at any archaeological site, you suddenly have a very precise marker point in time - and that's really powerful for examining human/environmental interactions around that time period."

Now researchers have something akin to that marker. According to tree ring data, the eruption of Thera can be placed in the 16th century BCE - sometime between 1600 and 1525, around 3,600 years ago.

It's not a super-precise date, but it does help narrow it down, because radiocarbon dating has placed it as early as between 1650 and 1600 BCE, while archaeological evidence has placed it between 1570 and 1500 BCE.

The research team analysed 285 tree samples from between 1700 BCE and 1500 BCE. But you might be surprised to learn these trees did not come from Minoa, or even the Mediterranean.

Two hundred of the samples came from long-lived bristlecone pines that were growing in California and Nevada during the specified timeframe. The remaining 85 were from Irish oak trees from the same time.

Both of these types of trees are excellent sources for studying the past, because they lay down a single ring every year.

The radiocarbon-14 in those individual rings decays at a steady rate, which means - based on a the current radiocarbon calibration curve that's been developed over the last 50 years - a dendrochronologist can accurately date each ring.

"Every tree ring is a time capsule of the radiocarbon at the year in which it grew, so we can say here's a tree ring from 1600 BC and here's how much radiocarbon is in it," Pearson said.

The second part of the research was to study the actual size of the rings themselves.

Thera's eruption was massive. It buried the Minoan settlement of Akrotiri under a layer of ash and pumice over 40 metres (130 feet) deep. And it spewed dense smoke and material high into the atmosphere.

Remember the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010? The thick clouds of ash it sent into the atmosphere got into the jet stream, disrupting air travel all over Europe for weeks.

A volcanic eruption as large as Thera would probably have caused a temporary cooling effect, as small particles of ash blocked the light of the Sun; such clouds can stay in the atmosphere for months. In addition, if the volcano emitted sulphur dioxide, this could have reached the stratosphere, combining with water particles to form sulphuric acid aerosols that also block solar radiation.

If this cooling reached both Ireland and the US, evidence would be visible in the tree rings - and it was. During cooler years, both species of tree produce a thinner ring. The researchers found four exceptionally narrow rings during the timeframe that could indicate a massive volcanic eruption.

They also discovered that the old radiocarbon calibration curve wasn't precisely correct for this period - resulting in a more accurate dataset for future researchers.

"This research is about Thera, but really, the implications of it are profound for anyone that uses radiocarbon dating throughout the world for this time span," said one of the team, anthropologist Gregory Hodgins of the University of Arizona.

"There's a kind of revolution in the radiocarbon community to revise the calibration curve using these more precise measurements."

The research has been published in the journal Science Advances.

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The Date of The Legendary Volcano Explosion of Thera Has Finally Been Traced

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Thousands of years ago, on what is now the Greek island of Santorini, a mountain exploded in one of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history. But scientists have had difficulty establishing exactly when the Minoan volcano Thera erupted - un

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How The Eruption of Thera Changed the World

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How The Eruption of Thera Changed the World

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"Thera didn't just blow a massive hole into the island of Santorini (around 1600-1500 BC) it set the entire ancient Mediterranean onto a different course. Scientists can compare it to the detailed records available from the famous eruption of Krakatoa, Indonesia, in 1883."

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Each Monday, this column turns a page in history to explore the discoveries, events and people that continue to affect the history being made today.

The world map might look differently had the Greek volcano Thera not erupted 3,500 years ago in what geologists believe was the single-most powerful explosive event ever witnessed.

Thera didn't just blow a massive hole into the island of Santorini - it set the entire ancient Mediterranean onto a different course, like a train that switched tracks to head off in a brand new direction.

Minoan culture, the dominant civilization in the Mediterranean at the time, crumbled as a result of the eruption, historians believe, changing the political landscape of the ancient world indefinitely. Environmental effects were felt across the globe, as far away as China and perhaps even North America and Antarctica.

The legend of Atlantis and the story of the Biblical plagues and subsequent exodus from Egypt have also been connected to the epic catastrophe.

Dwarfed the atomic bomb

Historians and archaeologists have had trouble deciding on the year Thera erupted, with dates ranging anywhere from 1645 BC to 1500 BC. Studies of ash deposits on the ocean floor have revealed, however, that when the volcano did blow, it did so with a force dwarfing anything humans had ever seen or have seen since.

There are no first-person accounts of what happened that day, but scientists can compare it to the detailed records available from the famous eruption of Krakatoa, Indonesia, in 1883.

That fiery explosion killed upwards of 40,000 people in just a few hours, produced colossal tsunamis 40 feet tall, spewed volcanic ash across Asia, and caused a drop in global temperatures and created strangely colored sunsets for three years. The blast was heard 3,000 miles away.

Thera's eruption was four or five times more powerful than Krakatoa, geologists believe, exploding with the energy of several hundred atomic bombs in a fraction of a second.

An absence of human remains and valuables like metal suggest that the Minoan residents of Santorini predicted the eruption and the island was evacuated, but the culture as a whole did not fare as well.

Based on the nearby island of Crete, the powerful Minoan civilization declined suddenly soon after Thera blew its top. Tsunamis spawned by the eruption would have swamped its naval fleet and coastal villages first off, historians think. A drop in temperatures caused by the massive amounts of sulphur dioxide spouted into the atmosphere then led to several years of cold, wet summers in the region, ruining harvests. The lethal combination overran every mighty Minoan stronghold in less than 50 years.

In just a short time, their peaceful, efficient bureaucracy made way for the warring city-state system of ancient Greece to dominate the Mediterranean. The Aegean would turn out to be a fundamental building block for the history of Europe, and the Minoan decline changed its early foundation completely.

Famous legends

Thera didn't just alter the cultural make up of Europe, it has kept adventurers and treasure hunters busy too.

When the Greek philosopher Plato described the lost city of Atlantis over a thousand years after the volcanic eruption, he may have been referring to Thera folklore passed down in Greece over many generations and exaggerated like a game of broken telephone.

The eruption has also been loosely linked with the Biblical story of Moses and the exodus from Egypt. The effects of Thera's eruption could have explained many of the plagues described in the Old Testament, including the days of darkness and polluting of the rivers, according to some theories.

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How The Eruption of Thera Changed the World

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Each Monday, this column turns a page in history to explore the discoveries, events and people that continue to affect the history being made today. The world map might look differently had the Greek volcano Thera not erupted 3,500 years ago in what geologists believe was the single-most powerful explosive event ever witnessed.

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Santorini: Volcano History | Σαντορίνη: Ιστορία του Ηφαιστείου

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The circular island group is composed of overlapping shield volcanoes cut by at least four partially overlapping calderas. The oldest southern caldera was formed about 180,000 years before present (BP), followed by the Skaros caldera about 70,000 years BP, and then the Cape Riva caldera about 21,000 years BP. The youngest caldera formed about 3600 years BP during the Late-Bronze-Age Minoan eruption that forced abandonment of the thriving Aegean Sea island. Post-Minoan eruptions beginning in 197 BCE constructed a series of lava domes and flows that form two islands near the center of the caldera. A submarine eruption took place in 1650 CE outside the caldera NE of Thera. The latest eruption produced a small lava dome and flow in 1950, accompanied by explosive activity.

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Greece features a vast number of islands, between 1,200 and 6,000, depending on the definition,[144] 227 of which are inhabited. Crete is the largest and most populous island; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60m-wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by Lesbos and Rhodes. The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: the Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic gulf near Athens, the Cyclades, a large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea, the North Aegean islands, a loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey, the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey, the Sporades, a small tight group off the coast of northeast Euboea, and the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea. The islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once constituted an extension of the mainland.

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Extensive plains are primarily located in the regions of Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country.

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Northeastern Greece features another high-altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the region of East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests, including the famous Dadia forest in the Evros regional unit, in the far northeast of the country.

(picture from: agreekadventure.com/hiking-greek-rhodope-mountain-range/ )

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Another notable formation are the Meteora rock pillars, atop which have been built medieval Greek Orthodox monasteries.

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Aerial View of Meteora | Amazing Drone Shots | DJI Phantom 3 Advanced Sample Video

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Pindus is characterised by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes. The spectacular Vikos Gorge, part of the Vikos-Aoos National Park in the Pindus range, is listed by the Guinness book of World Records as the deepest gorge in the world.[143]

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Ophiolithic rocks are dominating in the northern and central part of the National Park (Smolikas, Flampouro, Vasilitsa, Tsouka Rossa, Ligkos, Mavrovouni). On the contrary, the southern and western part of the Park (Tymfi, Trapezitsa, Mitsikeli) and some places at the central (Kousta, Koziakas) and northeast (Orliakas) are dominated by limestones.

At October 1st, 2010, the broader area of Vikos-Aoos, because of its high geologic and geomorphologic value, was characterized as "Vikos-Aoos Geopark" and was included at the UNESCO European Geoparks Network. It is now the 4th recognized Geopark of Greece-the other three are the Lesvos Petrified Forest, Chelmos-Vouraikos and Psiloritis. Vikos-Aoos Geopark includes Tymfi mountain chain, Vikos and Voidomatis canyon, Aoos canyon, Trapezitsa Mountain, Smolikas and Kleftis, the area where rivers Aoos, Voidomatis and Saranataporos unite, Kavasila and Amarantos hot springs. The biggest part of the Geopark is included in the borders of the Northern Pindos National Park.

The purpose for the founding of the Geopark, is the designation, exposure and protection of the Geopark as a geologic monument of nature in parallel with the designation of the natural and human environment of the area. Also, a goal is for the Geopark to become an adding purpose for visitors to come and explore the rare and unique geologic and geomorphologic monuments of Vikos-Aoos Geopark.
A Short Geologic View of Valia Kalda
The mountains of Valia Kalda are made of a kind of rock called peridotite. Peridotites form within the earth's mantle, at depths nearly 100 km below the earth's surface. The peridotites of Valia Kalda date from ~170 million years ago, during the geologic period known as the Jurassic. How rocks from so great a depth came to be exposed in our high mountains is one of the geologic wonders of Greece.

170 million years ago ... Deep rocks within the earth's mantle began to rise, and as they did so, some of the minerals within them began to melt, creating magma. The magma reached the surface of the earth as lava, mainly through sub-sea volcanoes in the midst of the old Tethys Ocean. Lava from these subsea volcanoes can be seen in the Pindos Mountains at Perivoli, Mikrolivado and Monahiti.

The rocks that were left behind in the deep earth after the magma was melted from them are peridotites. In some sense, they are the "leftovers" in the earth from the birth of volcanoes. The minerals in the peridotites show us the conditions of temperature and pressure present in the earth's mantle, that is, the environment deep in the earth. Many of the mantle rocks of Valia Kalda are still "pristine," they have not changed at all from their birth in the earth's mantle. The interior of the hard and sharp rocks found at Stavros in Valia Kalda are grey and green colored, a mix of three main minerals: Olivine (grey-green in color), Pyroxene (square in shape and dark), and Chrome Spinel (small grains that are black and usually shiny). Bands and layers of these minerals actually show us the intense stress and deformation they suffered in the mantle. From these features, we can actually reconstruct how tectonic plates move!

The gold and yellow surfaces on the peridotite rocks of Stavros show that they have "rusted" in the oxygen-rich atmosphere of the earth's surface. But many of the peridotites were penetrated by water when they were rising to the earth's surface; these waters caused the alteration of the fresh minerals of olivine and pyroxene to minerals of the serpentine family. Rocks containing these altered minerals are known as "serpentinites." Serpentinites are usually black or dark green, are brittle but easily broken, and some even show coats of grey, green or even blue secondary minerals (listwanites). Many of the peridotites of Valia Kalda contain some serpentine and some have become entirely altered to serpentine.

The peridotites, lavas, and deep sea sediments that formed within and below the ancient Tethyan Sea of the Jurassic were "trapped" between the tectonic plates of Africa and Europe as these to continents drifted towards each other, and finally collided. The entire Tethys was destroyed in this collision by about 50 million years ago. But small fragments of the Tethys are pushed up onto the continent of Europe, and these fragments include the peridotites of Valia Kalda. If we hadn't found these old Jurassic oceanic rocks, we wouldn't have evidence for the existence of the Tethyan Ocean.

Even after the destruction of the Tethyan Sea, even after the remnants of the oceanic rocks had reached the earth's surface, the tectonic plates of Africa and Europe kept pushing against each other. This pushing finally shoved the rocks of Valia Kalda over rocks of a much younger age. These younger rocks are sediments that were eroded from the European Continent through streams and rivers, and deposited in a great delta, much like that formed from the deposits of the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico today. These sediments, hardened into a rock type called "flysch," are relatively soft, yellow-grey in color, and mainly composed of sands, gravels, and clays. The rocks of the flysch occur in layers, each layer corresponding to a flood of sediments coming from the old European continent.

All the rocks of Valia Kalda - the peridotites, the serpentinites, the oceanic sediments and flysch - were then witness to the Ice Ages of the Pleistocene. The mountain tops surrounding Valia Kalda are carved to sharp edges by glaciers. Avgo Peak itself is a glacial feature called a "horn," sculpted by ice on all sides such as the Matterhorn of Switzerland. The "Dragon Lakes" are features call glacial tarns, the melting spots of the last ice of the glaciers. Piles of rocky debris left from the glaciers can be seen within Valia Kalda.

The Valia Kalda environment is the result of 170 million years of a complex, unique geologic history. The presence of such rare rocks as peridotite is the basis of a very rare ecosystem. The isolation of Valia Kalda has protected the ecosystem during most recent history. The Forestry Service of Greece and now the North Pindos National Park are working to protect this rare environment: without the appropriate management, this internationally unique ecosystem could be altered in very short time.
When we sit under the shadow of a sycamore tree -a form of life that has changed slightly from the era of the dinosaurs - we share at least 100 million years of Earth History. Within Valia Kalda, we share the processes of plate tectonics that formed the entire world of Greece.
Dr. Annie Ewing Rassios,
Geologist, Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration

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Ophiolithic rocks are dominating in the northern and central part of the National Park (Smolikas, Flampouro, Vasilitsa, Tsouka Rossa, Ligkos, Mavrovouni). On the contrary, the southern and western part of the Park (Tymfi, Trapezitsa, Mitsikeli) and some places at the central (Kousta, Koziakas) and northeast (Orliakas) are dominated by limestones.

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Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range. The Pindus, a continuation of the Dinaric Alps, reaches a maximum elevation of 2,637 m (8,652 ft) at Mt. Smolikas (the second-highest in Greece). The Pindus range continues through the central Peloponnese, crosses the islands of Kythera and Antikythera and finds its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of Crete where it eventually ends.
(picture from: slideplayer.gr/slide/2300659/)

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Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe (highest mountain is Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek Gods, at 2,918 metres).

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Eastern Mediterranean. Greece is a transcontinental country that consists of a mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa.[d] Due to its highly indented coastline and numerous islands,  Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a large number of islands, of which 227 are inhabited, its land boundary is 1,160 km (721 mi).The country lies approximately between latitudes 34° and 42° N, and longitudes 19° and 30° E. The climate of Greece is primarily Mediterranean, featuring mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. This climate occurs at all coastal locations, including Athens, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands and parts of the Central Continental Greece region. The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater exposure to south-westerly systems bringing in moisture) than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to a rain shadow effect).

Ecology

Phytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the East Mediterranean province of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodope montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests and Crete Mediterranean forests.

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The Mediterranean Basin biodiversity hotspot is the second largest hotspot in the world and the largest of the world’s five Mediterranean-climate regions. The hotspot covers more than 2 million square kilometers and stretches west to east from Portugal to Jordan and north to south from northern Italy to Cape Verde. The Mediterranean Basin is the third richest hotspot in the world in terms of its plant diversity (Mittermeier et al. 2004). Approximately 30,000 plant species occur, and more than 13,000 species are found nowhere else, or endemic, to the hotspot; yet, many more are being discovered every year (Plantlife International 2010, unpublished report).

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Site and Corridor Outcomes for the Mediterranean Basin Hotspot . (CEPF ecosystem profile)

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There are 142 nations under whose jurisdiction the hotspots collectively fall. As this atlas shows 14 of the hotspots have reached or surpassed the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) 2020 terrestrial protected area target of 17% (IUCN categories I-VI, plus NA lands), and 21 have not.

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There are 142 nations under whose jurisdiction the hotspots collectively fall. As this atlas shows 14 of the hotspots have reached or surpassed the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) 2020 terrestrial protected area target of 17% (IUCN categories I-VI, plus NA lands), and 21 have not.