# data[].attributes.body
In Hungary there are minimum 20 endemic vascular plants such as Linum dolomiticum (hu.wikipedia) or  Rosa sancti-andreae (hu.wikipedia), some insects such as a moth Jordanita fazekasi(hu.wikipedia). We have endemic earthworms, nematodes, spiders, and three snails. The Carpathian Montane Forests ecoregion (EoE) is especially important for endemic species.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Most of the people do not even know about the existence of these species, but if you hurt them, you have to pay a fine of millions of forints, claims Femina.hu.
The variety of nature is a gift, which one must take care of. The damage done may be irretrievable. The extinction of species of plants and animals is a tragedy that makes the world more miserable forever. Because of this, it is especially important to take care of these treasures as long as we can. However, conscience is not always a dissuasive force efficient enough, therefore legal regulations are needed. These are protecting the endangered species with fines.

Since 947, in Hungary, intrinsic value is assigned to protected animals.

For the damage, torture destruction or disturbance of the protected animals, a fine needs to be paid.

There is a penalty specified by law, someone who damages the natural flora and fauna might have to pay a fine up to the value of the intrinsic value of the living being, but these people might be imprisoned as well.

Specially protected animals have an intrinsic value of 100, 250, 500, and 1 million Ft. 39 species are worth 500 thousand forints and 14 species are worth 1 million forints. However, surprisingly, rare, but highly exciting animals such as brown bears or wolves received a value of 250,000 Ft, so they did not even reach the top 50 most valuable species.

Below you can see some of the Hungarian animals of the highest intrinsic value.

Many people have never seen them, especially not in the wilderness.

The great bustard is the emblematic animal of the Hungarian fauna. It lives in the Dévavány reservoir and the Hortobágy. It is worth 1 million HUF. Its little relative, the little bustard, is worth 500 thousand HUF and is also rare due to excessive hunting.

The meadow viper, subspecies of the meadow viper, only occurs in Hungary. Its bite is painful but not deadly. There are about 500 individuals left, each worth approximately 1 million forints.

If one would disturb the eagle or the white-tailed eagle that would cost him or her 1 million HUF. The white eagles can even be 4-6 kilograms with a wingspan of 240 centimetres. It's "cousin", the imperial eagle is not much smaller.

Most people think of mice as those small ineradicable rodents who multiply so quickly. The modest, striped Southern birch mouse is very rare, so it is in the category of 1 million HUF worth.

The imposing carnivore birds, which are smaller than the eagles, are worth one million HUF too. The Short-toed snake eagle feeds on reptiles, the Lesser spotted eagle nests in the mountains, and the Saker falcon has a vital role in Hungarian religious culture.

The Lesser mole-rat is a strange little creature. It lives under the ground, so not many people have the chance of seeing it. It is worth 1 million HUF. It is the size of a rat, and it digs with its head. It has become endangered because of the deep ploughing.

The most precious species of the Anseriformes are the Lesser white-fronted goose and the red-breasted goose, which are worth 1 million HUF, and the white head duck, which arrives in Hungary from the North rarely and is worth 500 thousand forints.

The lucky visitors might catch the sight of a lynx in the Aggtelek National Park. Hardly ten lynxes live in Hungary, and they are worth 500 thousand HUF. They can catch a deer and have a hiding lifestyle.

The aquatic warbler weight 10-14 grammes and is worth 1 million HUF. The European roller and the common rock thrush are bigger and worth 500 thousand HUF.

Both Hungarian species of The family Threskiornithidae are worth 500 thousand forints. The glossy ibis and the Eurasian spoonbill can be found in the marsh.

The Kentish plover and the slender-billed curlew can be found around marshes looking for food. Both are only temporarily in Hungary.
Featured Image: Wikicommons by Vaibhavcho
Source: femina.hu

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
14 Hungarian wild animals that are worth the most

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Most of the people do not even know about the existence of these species, but if you hurt them, you have to pay a fine of millions of forints, claims Femina.hu. The variety of nature is a gift, which one must take care of. The damage done may be irretrievable.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Hungary has a very d iverse flora and fauna. It is a perfect place to find several easternly distributed species or to find other threatened or exciting organisms, that are rare elsewhere in Europe

Highlights of the Wildlife in Hungary
Hungary is home to many endangered animals & plants and other species which cannot be found or are rare in other parts of Europe.

Birds
Extensive list of the species that can be encountered during your stay at Farm Lator and Image Galery. Most pictures taken by our guests.

Butterflies
Extensive list of the species that can be encountered during your stay at Farm Lator and Image Galery. Most pictures taken by our guests.

Moths
Extensive list of the species that can be encountered during your stay at Farm Lator and Image Galery. Most pictures taken by our guests.

Other insects
Extensive list of the species that can be encountered during your stay at Farm Lator and Image Galery. Most pictures taken by our guests.

Amphibians and reptiles
Extensive list of the species that can be encountered during your stay at Farm Lator and Image Galery. Most pictures taken by our guests.

Mammals
A nice lists of the species that live around Farm Lator and Image Galery. Some of the species can be observed at the feeding stations.

Farm Lator TV
Various high quality footage of the wildlife in the gardens, the direct surroundings and the region. You'll also see images of our guests activities. The best way to get an impression of what you can experience when staying with us.

Publications
Articles about either Farm Lator or the surrounding nature.

Web shop for nature lovers
On offer: Informative DVD's about the Hungarian wildlife. Purchase and convince yourself that visiting this region is inevitable.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
wildlife in hungary farm lator the hungarian wildlife center

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hungary has a very diverse flora and fauna. | Farm Lator

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hungary has a very d iverse flora and fauna. It is a perfect place to find several easternly distributed species or to find other threatened or exciting organisms, that are rare elsewhere in Europe Highlights of the Wildlife in Hungary Hungary is home to many endangered animals & plants and other species which cannot be found or are rare in other parts of Europe.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A magyar állami természetvédelem hivatalos honlapja

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A magyar állami természetvédelem hivatalos oldala

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
National Atlas of Hungary | Volume 2 | Natural environment

# data[].attributes.headline
Vegetation based landscape regions of Hungary

# data[].attributes.subject
Vegetation based landscape regions of Hungary

# data[].attributes.headline
Habitat classification system in Hungary

# data[].attributes.subject
Habitat classification system in Hungary

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Pannonian Basin lies in the southeastern part of Central Europe. It forms a topographically discrete unit set in the European landscape, surrounded by imposing geographic boundaries - the Carpathian Mountains and the Alps. The Rivers Danube and Tisza divide the basin roughly in half.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
During its first historical phase, the Pannonian Sea had a western connection with the Mediterranean Sea through the territories of the modern Ligurian Sea, Bavaria, and Vienna Basin. Through the Đerdap Strait, the Pannonian Sea was linked to the Paratethys in the Wallachian- Pontic Basin.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Many think that the 300 thousand m² big Carpathian Basin is an unmatched geographical region. According to nlcafe.hu, the Equator and the North Pole are almost the same distance afar from here. It starts with the Danube breaking through the Carpathians at the Dévény pass and ends with its exit at the Alduna pass. The Carpathian Basin is rich in natural wonders and even some records can be connected to the following places. The world's biggest helio-thermal lake: Bear Lake, Sovata
The lake found in the Transylvanian Maros County was formed by the obstruction of a swallet in 1875 after an abundant downpour. It got its name after its shape (it looks like a spread out bear skin). Due to the salt forming a deposit millions of years ago, the bottom water-bearing is salty, while the upper one is fresh. So the bottom layer of bigger density is able to keep the warmth from the sunrays. This is why the temperature of the 10 metre deep lake's water can reach 35° Celsius on the surface (even 80 degrees has been measured once!).
An absolute curiosity in the world: the boxthorn tree in Debrecen
Anyone who's been to the "Calvinist Rome" has probably visited the curiosity on the side of the church which could hardly be called a tree or a bush. According to tradition, the representatives of the old and new beliefs argued which one would finally triumph in the "city of endurance". The Catholic priest broke down a branch angrily and stuck it into the ground saying that Calvinism would only find its home in Debrecen when the branch grew into a tree. Since then, the unique plant didn't only root in the city, but also has been flourishing ever since.
The unrivalled Cave Bath of Miskolctapolca
The lake cave turned into a cave bath is a true curiosity in the Carpathian Basin. The water graved its way through the limestone rocks in thousand years, and they are now filled with pleasant thermal water and curing cave air. You can stay in the 30° Celsius water for as long as you desire as its salinity is lower than medical water's, but you can also try the outdoors pools, sauna park or the floating cabin. Europe's only beach built according to Green City principles can also be found in Miskolctapolca.
The mysterious hive rocks in Bükkalja
The volcano tufa formations of the Bükk Mountains were formed by the joined work of wind and water. Out of these, the cone-shaped ones are the most interesting because someone carved small chambers into them sometime. Certain scientists believe that these 60 cm tall, 30 cm wide and 25-30 cm deep chambers once guarded the urines of the deceased, while other think that the chambers were used for beekeeping around the time of the Settlement of the Magyars in Hungary.
Europe's biggest coherent grassy plain: the Hortobágy
Why is this seemingly monotonously plain Hortobágy so special on our continent? Its secret is that it wasn't formed after a deforestation as it is a cultural landscape cultivated by herdsmen's communities, which was able to keep its biological diversity. The N°1 Hungarian national park is now more than 82 thousand hectares big. Its must-see sights include draw wells, taverns, sepulchral mounds and the famous Nine-holed Bridge.
The continent's biggest curing hot-watered lake: the Thermal Lake of Hévíz
The 4,5 hectare turf bedded spring lake is surrounded by a 50 hectare shelter-wood. The surface of the water is covered by a layer of steam, the lake is framed by swamp cypresses. The Indian nymphaea was naturalised more than a hundred years ago, so visitors can admire its beautiful white species from May till November. The thermal water of Lake Hévíz is perfect for curing rheumatic and muscoskeletal diseases.
Europe's biggest alluvial fan: Szigetköz and Csallóköz
Nlcafe.hu writes that the whole area of the Little Hungarian Plain is 9000 km ², which is shared by Slovakia, Austria and Hungary. In ancient times it was covered by the Pannon Sea and was later filled with the alluvial of the Danube and its tributaries. This is how the continent's biggest alluvial fan was formed.
The Torda Cleft and its unique natural reservation
The Transylvanian limestone cleft is rich in steep cliffs and dangerous caves, suspension bridges that are hard to approach. It's a beloved hiking spot which evolved from a yielded cave system. Legend has it that King Saint László prayed to God for help here, so the mountain sprang and the cleft blocked the cavalier king from his Cumanian persecutors. The print of his horse's shoe can be seen on the Hoof Rock, while his well can also be found in the form of a crystal clear water spring, which he burst with his bard from a rock to appease the thirst of his warriors. However, what makes the cleft so special are not the legends nor the beautiful natural environment, but the fact that it is populated by such a rare flora and fauna that can hardly be found anywhere else in Europe.
The biggest dripstone formation of the temperate climatic zone
The world's biggest calc-tuff column can be found in the Krasznahorka Cave in Slovakia. The diameter of the 34 m tall stalagmite's base is 12 metres and it was part of the Guinness Record Book as the world's biggest dripstone for a very long time.
Europe's biggest saltwater lake: Lake Fertő
The flora and fauna of the 20 thousand-year-old steppe lake is absolutely unique on our planet (some species solely occur in this region). 300 bird species nest there and more than 30 different fish species live in the lake. The 36 kilometre long, 7-15 kilometre wide Lake Fertő's salinity is 33 times as much as Lake Balaton's. Another curiosity is that its water level is bevelled in times of stormy wind.
Photos: www.facebook.com/Medve-tó,Szováta, BükkiNemzetiParkIgazgatóság, Kilenclyukú-híd-Hortobágy, Szigetköz, Fertőtó, Hévíz, www.debrecen.varosom.hu, www.barlang.hu, www.barlangfurdo.hu
Copy editor: bm

Source: http://www.nlcafe.hu/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The natural wonders of the Carpathian Basin

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Many think that the 300 thousand m2 big Carpathian Basin is an unmatched geographical region. According to nlcafe.hu, the Equator and the North Pole are almost the same distance afar from here.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Environmental Protection in Hungary | Tények Könyve | Kézikönyvtár

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
"The approximation of Hungary's standards in waste management, energy efficiency, and air, soil, and water pollution with environmental requirements for EU accession will require large investments, estimated by the Government of Hungary at $4 billion over six years; the 1997 budget allocated $9.7 million for this purpose; the 1998 budget allocated $11.3 million; the Central Environmental Fund, which collects monies from product charges, environmental fines, and mining taxes, provided approximately $76.2 million in 1997 and is expected to provide $109.5 million in 1998."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Pentezug wild horse reserve, where Przewalski's horses and reconstructed aurochs are living in semi-wild conditions, is situated in the core of the Hortobágy National Park. It belongs to the so-called A-zone of the park, which means that it is under the highest level of protection.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
World Heritage Photos - Caves of Aggtelek Karst - Baradla

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
World Heritage Photos Caves of Aggtelek Karst - Baradla. The caves of the Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst are located on the border between Hungary and...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
UNESCO - MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A világörökség magyarországi helyszínei, intézményei, hírei

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The majority of terrestrial habitats of the core area and the buffer zone are covered by softwood or hardwood gallery forests, but there are also extensive grassland areas along the Drava River. The area contains a variety of wetland habitats, including those that are among the most threatened in Europe: alluvial forests, wet grasslands, gravel and sand bars, islands, steep banks, oxbow lakes, stagnant backwater, abandoned riverbeds and meanders. They are surrounded by riparian forests and arable land with scattered pastures. This variety of habitats provides shelter for a great number of species.

The most significant protected animal species are as follows: Wild cat (Felis silvestris), Otter (Lutra lutra), Beaver (Castor fiber), Pond bat (Myotis dasycneme), Pygmy Cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus), Willow Warbler (Phyloscopus trochilus), White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), Little Tern (Sterna albifrons), Danubian newt (Triturus dobrogicus), Blackwinged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea), Great White Egret (Egretta alba), Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) and others.

The unique wetland area of Kopacki Rit is also a Ramsar site, and hosts more than 20,000 birds during the winter period. To date, the diversity recorded in the area includes: 400 plant species, 400 invertebrate species, 44 fish species, 293 bird species (of which 141 nest permanently or temporarily) and 55 mammal species.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mura Drava Danube | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The majority of terrestrial habitats of the core area and the buffer zone are covered by softwood or hardwood gallery forests, but there are also extensive grassland areas along the Drava River.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When the Iron Curtain disappeared EuroNatur was quick to take the initiative and started ambitious projects to save the unique Drava river landscape. In May of 1993 EuroNatur organised the first international nature conservation conference on the future of the Drava.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Gábor Mezősi

Part of the Geography of the Physical Environment book series (GEOPHY)

Abstract

The Transdanubian Mountains mainly consist of Mesozoic carbonate sedimentary blocks, but young volcanic elements also appear in the region. The main character of the macro-region is determined by limestone and dolomite covered by younger sediments, as they influence the rate of (weak) karstification and the type of vegetation, which is also influenced by elevation and lithological changes. The main natural resource of the area is bauxite with declining exploitation, manganese and brown coal with already closed mines. Nowadays, they rather constitute a reserve. The mining activity already terminated, but it caused very complex environmental problems, and the relaxation period of the landscape is very long, as the extreme lowering of the karst water table caused several problems. The most well-known consequence of the mining was the limited utilisation of Hévíz Lake, as the discharge of the hot springs supplying the lake decreased dramatically. The problem of decreasing water supply appeared in several lakes, as karst water withdrawal was very intensive during the mining. Probably, the regeneration and relaxation of the hydrological system will last for decades after the termination of mining. In the eastern and north-eastern meso-regions, the greatest problems are in connection with dense urbanisation (region of Budapest) and with intensive industrial activity along the Danube in the northern foreland of the Gerecse Mts. (e.g. at Almásfüzitő).

Keywords

Thermal Water Brown Coal Water Withdrawal Karst Water Mine Dump

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Physical Geography of the Transdanubian Mountains

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gábor Mezősi Part of the Geography of the Physical Environment book series (GEOPHY) The Transdanubian Mountains mainly consist of Mesozoic carbonate sedimentary blocks, but young volcanic elements also appear in the region.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A magyar állami természetvédelem hivatalos honlapja

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A magyar állami természetvédelem hivatalos oldala

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Acer negundo (ash-leaved maple, boxelder): Go Botany

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ash-leaved maple (also known as box elder) is named for its compound leaves that resemble ash leaves, unlike other members of the maples (Acer). It is a fast-growing, though short-lived, tree that can tolerate stressful growing conditions. This scrappy tree is very drought- and cold-resistant and is a common street tree and windbreak.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
History: The tree-of-heaven came to United States in 1748 by a Pennsylvania gardener as an ornamental plant. By 1840 it was made commercially available. It was introduced to California during the gold rushes of the mid-1800s, by the Chinese immigrants because of the tree's medicinal and cultural importance.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Amorpha fruticosa is a species of flowering plant in the legume family (Fabaceae) known by several common names, including desert false indigo, false indigo-bush, and bastard indigobush.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Milkweeds Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sun.Meadows, pastures, and roadsides.Maine native. A fragrant summer-blooming meadow wildflower that is crucial to the life cycle of the monarch butterfly. Pink globe-shaped flower clusters provide nectar for many species of bees and butterflies. Plant spreads by underground runners and is most suited to meadows and roadsides, challenging to control in a garden.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Minden Pictures stock photos - Goldfish (Carassius auratus) in aquarium, Bubble Eye variety, Europe

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Goldfish (Carassius auratus) in aquarium, Bubble Eye variety, Europe / 00554244

# data[].attributes.body
HAVE NOT SETTLED IN HUNGARY BUT POSE POTENTIAL THREATS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The eastern gray squirrel ( Sciurus carolinensis), also known as simply the grey squirrel, is a tree squirrel in the genus . It is native to eastern North America, where it is the most prodigious and ecologically essential natural forest regenerator. Widely introduced to certain places around the world, the eastern gray squirrel in Europe, in particular, is regarded as an invasive species.

In Europe, Sciurus carolinensis is included since 2016 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.

Distribution

Sciurus carolinensis is native to the eastern and midwestern United States, and to the southerly portions of the central provinces of Canada. The native range of the eastern gray squirrel overlaps with that of the fox squirrel ( Sciurus niger), with which it is sometimes confused, although the core of the fox squirrel's range is slightly more to the west. The eastern gray squirrel is found from New Brunswick, through southwestern Quebec and throughout southern Ontario plus in southern Manitoba, south to East Texas and Florida. Breeding eastern gray squirrels are found in Nova Scotia, but whether this population was introduced or came from natural range expansion is not known.

A prolific and adaptable species, the eastern gray squirrel has also been introduced to, and thrives in, several regions of the western United States and in 1966, this squirrel was introduced into Vancouver Island in Western Canada in the area of Metchosin, and has spread widely from there. They are considered highly invasive and a threat to both the local ecosystem and the native squirrel, the American red squirrel.

Overseas, Eastern gray squirrels in Europe are a concern because they have displaced some of the native squirrels there. They have been introduced into Ireland, Britain, Italy, South Africa, and Australia (where it was extirpated by 1973).

In Ireland, the native squirrel - also colored red - the Eurasian red squirrel S. vulgaris - has been displaced in several eastern counties, though it still remains common in the south and west of the country. The gray squirrel is also an invasive species in Britain; it has spread across the country and has largely displaced the red squirrel. That such a displacement might happen in Italy is of concern, as gray squirrels might spread to other parts of mainland Europe.

The generic name, Sciurus, is derived from two Greek words, skia, meaning shadow, and oura, meaning tail. This name alludes to the squirrel sitting in the shadow of its tail. The specific epithet, carolinensis, refers to the Carolinas, where the species was first recorded and where the animal is still extremely common. In the United Kingdom and Canada, it is simply referred to as the "grey squirrel". In the US, "eastern" is used to differentiate the species from the western gray squirrel ( Sciurus griseus).

Description

The eastern gray squirrel has predominantly gray fur, but it can have a brownish color. It has a usual white underside as compared to the typical brownish-orange underside of the fox squirrel. It has a large bushy tail. Particularly in urban situations where the risk of predation is reduced, both white - and black-colored individuals are quite often found. The melanistic form, which is almost entirely black, is predominant in certain populations and in certain geographic areas, such as in large parts of southeastern Canada. Melanistic squirrels appear to exhibit a higher cold tolerance than the common gray morph; when exposed to −10 °C, black squirrels showed an 18% reduction in heat loss, a 20% reduction in basal metabolic rate, and an 11% increase to non-shivering thermogenesis capacity when compared to the common gray morph. The black coloration is caused by an incomplete dominant mutation of MC1R, where is a wild type squirrel, is brown-black, and is black.

The head and body length is from 23 to 30 cm (9.1 to 11.8 in), the tail from 19 to 25 cm (7.5 to 9.8 in), and the adult weight varies between 400 and 600 g (14 and 21 oz). They do not display sexual dimorphism, meaning there is no gender difference in size or coloration.

The tracks of an eastern gray squirrel are difficult to distinguish from the related fox squirrel and Abert's squirrel, though the latter's range is almost entirely different from the gray's. Like all squirrels, the eastern gray shows four toes on the front feet and five on the hind feet. The hind foot-pad is often not visible in the track. When bounding or moving at speed, the front foot tracks will be behind the hind foot tracks. The bounding stride can be two to three feet long.

The dental formula of the eastern gray squirrel is 1023/1013 (upper teeth/lower teeth).

Incisors exhibit indeterminate growth, meaning they grow consistently throughout life, and their cheek teeth exhibit brachydont (low-crowned teeth) and bunodont (having tubercles on crowns) structures.

Like many members of the family Sciuridae, the eastern gray squirrel is a scatter-hoarder; it hoards food in numerous small caches for later recovery. Some caches are quite temporary, especially those made near the site of a sudden abundance of food which can be retrieved within hours or days for reburial in a more secure site. Others are more permanent and are not retrieved until months later. Each squirrel is estimated to make several thousand caches each season. The squirrels have very accurate spatial memory for the locations of these caches, and use distant and nearby landmarks to retrieve them. Smell is used partly to uncover food caches, and also to find food in other squirrels' caches. Scent can be unreliable when the ground is too dry or covered in snow.

Squirrels sometimes use deceptive behavior to prevent other animals from retrieving cached food. They will pretend to bury the object if they feel that they are being watched. They do this by preparing the spot as usual, for instance, digging a hole or widening a crack, miming the placement of the food, while actually concealing it in their mouths, and then covering up the "cache" as if they had deposited the object. They also hide behind vegetation while burying food or hide it high up in trees (if their rival is not arboreal). Such a complex repertoire suggests that the behaviors are not innate, and imply theory of mind thinking.

The eastern gray squirrel is one of very few mammalian species that can descend a tree head-first. It does this by turning its feet so the claws of its hind paws are backward-pointing and can grip the tree bark.

Eastern gray squirrels build a type of nest, known as a drey, in the forks of trees, consisting mainly of dry leaves and twigs. The dreys are roughly spherical, about 30 to 60 cm in diameter and are usually insulated with moss, thistledown, dried grass, and feathers to reduce heat loss. Males and females may share the same nest for short times during the breeding season, and during cold winter spells. Squirrels may share a drey to stay warm. They may also nest in the attic or exterior walls of a house, where they may be regarded as pests, as well as fire hazards due to their habit of gnawing on electrical cables. In addition, squirrels may inhabit a permanent tree den hollowed out in the trunk or a large branch of a tree.

Eastern gray squirrels are crepuscular, or more active during the early and late hours of the day, and tend to avoid the heat in the middle of a summer day. They do not hibernate.

Reproduction

Eastern gray squirrels can breed twice a year, but younger and less experienced mothers normally have a single litter per year in the spring. Depending on forage availability, older and more experienced females may breed again in summer. In a year of abundant food, 36% of females bear two litters, but none will do so in a year of poor food. Their breeding seasons are December to February and May to June, though this is slightly delayed in more northern latitudes. The first litter is born in February or March, the second in June or July, though, again, bearing may be advanced or delayed by a few weeks depending on climate, temperature, and forage availability. In any given breeding season, an average of 61 - 66% of females bear young. If a female fails to conceive or loses her young to unusually cold weather or predation, she re-enters estrus and has a later litter. Five days before a female enters estrus, she may attract up to 34 males from up to 500 meters away. Eastern gray squirrels exhibit a form of polygyny, in which the competing males will form a hierarchy of dominance, and the female will mate with multiple males depending on the hierarchy established.

Normally, one to four young are born in each litter, but the largest possible litter size is eight. The gestation period is about 44 days. The young are weaned around 10 weeks, though some may wean up to six weeks later in the wild. They begin to leave the nest after 12 weeks, with autumn born young often wintering with their mother. Only one in four squirrel kits survives to one year of age, with mortality around 55% for the following year. Mortality rates then decrease to around 30% for following years until they increase sharply at eight years of age.

Rarely, eastern gray females can enter estrus as early as five and a half months old, but females are not normally fertile until at least one year of age. Their mean age of first estrus is 1.25 years. The presence of a fertile male will induce ovulation in a female going through estrus. Male eastern grays are sexually mature between one and two years of age. Reproductive longevity for females appears to be over 8 years, with 12.5 years documented in North Carolina. These squirrels can live to be 20 years old in captivity, but in the wild live much shorter lives due to predation and the challenges of their habitat. At birth, their life expectancy is 1-2 years, an adult typically can live to be six, with exceptional individuals making it to 12 years.

Growth and ontogeny

Newborn gray squirrels weigh 13-18 grams and are entirely hairless and pink, although vibrissae are present at birth. 7-10 days postpartum, the skin begins to darken, just before the juvenile pelage grows in. Lower incisors erupt 19-21 days postpartum, while upper incisors erupt after 4 weeks. Cheek teeth erupt during week 6. Eyes open after 21-42 days, and ears open 3-4 weeks postpartum. Weaning is initiated around 7 weeks postpartum, and is usually finished by week 10, followed by the loss of the juvenile pelage. Full adult body mass is achieved by 8-9 months after birth.

Communication

As in most other mammals, communication among eastern gray squirrel individuals involves both vocalizations and posturing. The species has a quite varied repertoire of vocalizations, including a squeak similar to that of a mouse, a low-pitched noise, a chatter, and a raspy "mehr mehr mehr". Other methods of communication include tail-flicking and other gestures, including facial expressions. Tail flicking and the "kuk" or "quaa" call are used to ward off and warn other squirrels about predators, as well as to announce when a predator is leaving the area. Squirrels also make an affectionate coo-purring sound that biologists call the "muk-muk" sound. This is used as a contact sound between a mother and her kits and in adulthood, by the male when he courts the female during mating season.

The use of vocal and visual communication has been shown to vary by location, based on elements such as noise pollution and the amount of open space. For instance, populations living in large cities generally rely more on the visual signals, due to the generally louder environment with more areas without much visual restriction. However, in heavily wooded areas, vocal signals are used more often due to the relatively lower noise levels and a dense canopy restricting visual range.

Eastern gray squirrels eat a range of foods, such as tree bark, tree buds, flowers, berries, many types of seeds and acorns, walnuts, and other nuts, like hazelnuts (see picture) and some types of fungi found in the forests, including fly agaric mushrooms (Amanita muscaria). They can cause damage to trees by tearing the bark and eating the soft cambial tissue underneath. In Europe, sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) suffer the greatest damage. The seeds and catkins of gymnosperms such as cedar, hemlock, pine, and spruce are another food source. The squirrels also raid gardens for wheat, tomatoes, corn, strawberries, and other garden crops. Sometimes they eat the tomato seeds and discard the rest. On occasion, eastern gray squirrels also prey upon insects, frogs, small rodents including other squirrels, and small birds, their eggs, and young. They also gnaw on bones, antlers, and turtle shells - likely as a source of minerals scarce in their normal diet.

Eastern gray squirrels have a high enough tolerance for humans to inhabit residential neighborhoods and raid bird feeders for millet, corn, and sunflower seeds. Some people who feed and watch birds for entertainment also intentionally feed seeds and nuts to the squirrels for the same reason. However, in the UK eastern gray squirrels can take a significant proportion of supplementary food from feeders, preventing access and reducing use by wild birds. Attraction to supplementary feeders can increase local bird nest predation, as eastern gray squirrels are more likely to forage near feeders, resulting in increased likelihood of finding nests, eggs and nestlings of small passerines.

Predators include humans, hawks, weasels, raccoons, bobcats, foxes, domestic and feral cats, snakes, owls, and dogs. In its introduced range in South Africa, it has been preyed on by African harrier-hawks.

In the wild, eastern gray squirrels can be found inhabiting large areas of mature, dense woodland ecosystems, generally covering 100 acres (40 hectares) of land. These forests usually contain large mast-producing trees such as oaks and hickories, providing ample food sources. Oak-hickory hardwood forests are generally preferred over coniferous forests due to the greater abundance of mast forage. This is why they are found only in parts of eastern Canada which do not contain boreal forest (i.e. they are found in some parts of New Brunswick, in southwestern Quebec, throughout southern Ontario and in southern Manitoba).

Eastern gray squirrels generally prefer constructing their dens upon large tree branches and within the hollow trunks of trees. They also have been known to take shelter within abandoned bird nests. The dens are usually lined with moss plants, thistledown, dried grass, and feathers. These perhaps provide and assist in the insulation of the den, used to reduce heat loss. A cover to the den is usually built afterwards.[citation needed ]

Close to human settlements, eastern gray squirrels are found in parks and back yards of houses within urban environments and in the farmlands of rural environments.

Introductions

The eastern gray squirrel is an introduced species in a variety of locations in western North America: in western Canada, to the southwest corner of British Columbia and to the city of Calgary, Alberta; in the United States, to the states of Washington and Oregon and, in California, to the city of San Francisco and the San Francisco Peninsula area in San Mateo and Santa Clara Counties, south of the city. It has become the most common squirrel in many urban and suburban habitats in western North America, from north of central California to southwest British Columbia. At the turn of the 20th century, the eastern gray squirrel was introduced into South Africa, Ireland, Hawaii, Bermuda, Madeira Island, the Azores, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Italy and the United Kingdom.

In South Africa, though exotic, it is not usually considered an invasive species owing to its small range (only found in the extreme southwestern part of the Western Cape, going north as far as the small farming town of Franschhoek), as well because it inhabits urban areas and places greatly affected by humans, such as agricultural areas and exotic pine plantations. Here, it mostly eats acorns and pine seeds, although it will take indigenous and commercial fruit, as well. Even so, it is unable to use the natural vegetation ( fynbos) found in the area, a factor which has helped to limit its spread. It does not come into contact with native squirrels due to geographic isolation (a native tree squirrel, Paraxerus cepapi, is found only in the savanna regions in the northeast of the country) and different habitats.

Gray squirrels were first introduced to Britain in the 1870s, as fashionable additions to estates. They spread rapidly across England, and then became established in both Wales and parts of southern Scotland. On mainland Britain, they have almost entirely displaced native red squirrels. Larger than red squirrels and capable of storing up to four times more fat, gray squirrels are better able to survive winter conditions. They produce more young and can live at higher densities. Gray squirrels also carry the squirrelpox virus, to which red squirrels have no immunity. When an infected gray squirrel introduces squirrelpox to a red squirrel population, its decline is 17-25 times greater than through competition alone.

In Ireland, the displacement of red squirrels has not been as rapid because only a single introduction occurred, in County Longford. Schemes have been introduced to control the population of gray squirrels in Ireland to encourage the native red squirrels. Eastern gray squirrels have also been introduced to Italy, and the European Union has expressed concern that they will similarly displace the red squirrel from parts of the European continent.

Displacement of red squirrels

In Britain and Ireland, the eastern gray squirrel is not regulated by natural predators, other than the European pine marten, which is generally absent from England and Wales. This has aided its rapid population growth and has led to the species being classed as a pest. Measures are being devised to reduce its numbers, including one plan for celebrity television chefs to promote the idea of eating the squirrels. In areas where relict populations of red squirrels survive, such as the islands of Anglesey, Brownsea and the Isle of Wight, programs exist to eradicate gray squirrels and prevent them from reaching these areas in order to allow red squirrel populations to recover and grow.

Although complex and controversial, the main factor in the eastern gray squirrel's displacement of the red squirrel is thought to be its greater fitness, hence a competitive advantage over the red squirrel on all measures. The eastern gray squirrel tends to be larger and stronger than the red squirrel and has been shown to have a greater ability to store fat for winter. The squirrel can, therefore, compete more effectively for a larger share of the available food, resulting in relatively lower survival and breeding rates among the red squirrel. Parapoxvirus may also be a strongly contributing factor; red squirrels have long been fatally affected by the disease, while the eastern gray squirrels are unaffected, but thought to be carriers - although how the virus is transmitted has yet to be determined. However, several cases of red squirrels surviving have been reported, as they have developed an immunity - although their population is still being massively affected. The red squirrel is also less tolerant of habitat destruction and fragmentation, which has led to its population decline, while the more adaptable eastern gray squirrel has taken advantage and expanded.

Similar factors appear to have been at play in the Pacific region of North America, where the native American red squirrel has been largely displaced by the eastern gray squirrel in parks and forests throughout much of the region.

Ironically, "fears" for the future of the eastern gray squirrel arose in 2008, as the melanistic form (black) began to spread through the southern British population. In the UK, if a "grey squirrel" (eastern gray squirrel) is trapped, under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, it is illegal to release it or to allow it to escape into the wild; instead, it is legally required be "humanely dispatched".

In the late 1990s, Italy's National Wildlife Institute and University of Turin launched an eradication attempt to halt the spread of gray squirrels in northwest Italy, but court action by animal rights groups blocked this. Hence gray squirrels are expected to cross the Alps into France and Switzerland in the next few decades.

Fossil record of the eastern gray squirrel

Twenty different Pleistocene fauna specimens contain S. carolinensis, found in Florida and dated to be as early as the late Irvingtonian period. Body size seems to have increased during the early to middle Holocene and then decreased to the present size seen today.

Gray squirrels were eaten in earlier times by Native Americans and their meat is still popular with hunters across most of their range in North America. Today, it is still available for human consumption and is occasionally sold in the United Kingdom. However, physicians in the United States have warned that squirrel brains should not be eaten, because of the risk that they may carry Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

References

1. ^ Thorington, R.W., Jr.; Hoffman, R.S. (2005). "Family Sciuridae". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 760. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.

2. ^ Cassola, F. (2016). "Sciurus carolinensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T42462A22245728.

3. ^ De Abreu-Jr, Edson Fiedler; Pavan, Silvia E.; Tsuchiya, Mirian T. N.; Wilson, Don E.; Percequillo, Alexandre R.; Maldonado, Jesús E. (2020). "Museomics of tree squirrels: A dense taxon sampling of mitogenomes reveals hidden diversity, phenotypic convergence, and the need of a taxonomic overhaul". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 20 (1): 77. doi:10.1186/s12862-020-01639-y. PMC . PMID 32590930. S2CID 220071854.

4. ^ Goheen, Jacob R.; Swihart, Robert K. (2003). "Food-hoarding behavior of gray squirrels and North American red squirrels in the central hardwoods region: Implications for forest regeneration". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 81 (9): 1636-1639. doi:10.1139/z03-143.

5. ^ Steele, M. A.; Hadj-Chikh, L. Z.; Hazeltine, J. (1996). "Caching and Feeding Decisions by Sciurus carolinensis: Responses to Weevil-Infested Acorns". Journal of Mammalogy. 77 (2): 305-314. doi:10.2307/1382802. JSTOR 1382802.

6. ^ "REGULATION (EU) No 1143/2014 of the European parliament and of the council of 22 October 2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species".

7. ^ Huynh H.; Williams G.; McAlpine D.; Thorington R. (2010). "Establishment of the Eastern Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) in Nova Scotia, Canada". Northeastern Naturalist. 17 (4): 673-677. doi:10.1656/045.017.0414. S2CID 84649999.

8. ^ McGoldrick, M.; Rochford, J. (2009). "Recent range expansion by the Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis Gmelin 1788". Irish Naturalists' Journal. 30: 24-28. JSTOR 20764520.

9. Carey, M., Hamilton, G., Poole, A., and Lawton, C. (2007) ^ The Irish Squirrel Survey 2007. COFORD, Dublin, ISBN 1902696603

10. ^ "Summary (of Bertolino S., Lurz. P.W.W., Rushton S.P. 2006, DIVAPRA Entomology & Zoology)". Europeansquirrelinitiative.org. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011.

11. Hamilton, H. (1990). Smith, D. (ed.). Eastern Grey Squirrel. Hinterland Who's Who. ISBN 978-0-660-13634-9. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014.

12. ^ "New York's Wildlife Resources" (PDF). Department of Natural Resources at Cornell University. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2007.

13. ^ McRobie, H.; Thomas, A.; Kelly, J. (2009). "The Genetic Basis of Melanism in the Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)". Journal of Heredity. 100 (6): 709-714. doi:10.1093/jhered/esp059. PMID 19643815.

14. ^ "Red & Gray Squirrels in Massachusetts". MassWildlife. Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013.

15. Murie, Olaus Johan and Elbroch, Mark (2005). ^ Peterson Field Guide to Animal Tracks, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 79, ISBN 061851743X.

16. ^ McCracken, Brian. "DO SQUIRRELS REALLY KNOW WHERE THEY BURY THEIR FOOD?". Animals - mom.me.

17. Grant, Steve (21 October 2004). "^ The Squirrel's Bag Of Tricks: They Can't Get Out Of The Way Of Cars, But Other Behaviors Demonstrate Advanced Thinking (for A Rodent)", The Hartford Courant.

18. Curtis, Paul D. and Sullivan, Kristi L. (2001) ^ Tree Squirrels, Wildlife Damage Management Fact Sheet Series, Cornell Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, N.Y.

19. ^ Webley, G. E.; Pope, G. S.; Johnson, E (1985). "Seasonal changes in the testes and accessory reproductive organs and seasonal and circadian changes in plasma testosterone concentrations in the male grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 59 (1): 15-23. doi:10.1016/0016-6480(85)90414-9. PMID 4018551.

20. ^ Partan, Sarah R. (2010). "Multimodal alarm behavior in urban and rural gray squirrels studied by means of observation and a mechanical robot" (PDF). Current Zoology. 56 (3): 313-326. doi:10.1093/czoolo/56.3.313.

21. ^ Lawniczak, Mara Katharine. "Sciurus carolinensis (eastern gray squirrel)". Animal Diversity Web.

22. Long, Kim (September 1995). Squirrels: a wildlife handbook. Big Earth Publishing. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-55566-152-6.

23. Butler, F. and Kelleher, C. (eds) 2012. ^ All-Ireland Mammal Symposium 2009. Irish Naturalists' Journal, Belfast, ISBN 978-0-9569704-1-1

24. ^ Hanmer, Hugh J.; Thomas, Rebecca L.; Fellowes, Mark D. E. (2018). "Introduced Grey Squirrels subvert supplementary feeding of suburban wild birds" (PDF). Landscape and Urban Planning. 177: 10-18. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.04.004.

25. ^ Hanmer, Hugh J.; Thomas, Rebecca L.; Fellowes, Mark D. E. (2017). "Provision of supplementary food for wild birds may increase the risk of local nest predation" (PDF). Ibis. 159 (1): 158-167. doi:10.1111/ibi.12432.

26. ^ "Polyboroides typus (African harrier-hawk, Gymnogene)". Archived from the original on 3 November 2013.

27. Long, J. L. (2003). Introduced Mammals of the World: Their History, Distribution and Influence. Csiro Publishing, Collingwood, Australia. ^ ISBN 9780643099166

28. ^ The grey squirrel policy and action statement. forestry.gov.uk

29. ^ Sheehy, Emma; Lawton, Colin (March 2014). "Population crash in an invasive species following the recovery of a native predator: the case of the American grey squirrel and the European pine marten in Ireland". Biodiversity and Conservation. 23 (3): 753-774. doi:10.1007/s10531-014-0632-7. S2CID 10449048.

30. ^ Wauters, L. A.; Gurnell, J.; Martinoli, A. & Tosi, G. (2002). "Interspecific competition between native Eurasian red squirrels and alien grey squirrels: does resource partitioning occur?". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 52 (4): 332-341. doi:10.1007/s00265-002-0516-9. S2CID 44051537.

31. ^ Bertolino, Sandro; Genovesi, Piero (2003). "Spread and attempted eradication of the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) in Italy, and consequences for the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in Eurasia" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 109 (3): 351-358. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00161-1.

32. United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (2010) ^ Review of the Grey Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge

33. ^ "Wild meat: Squirrel nutcase". The Economist, Vol. 402 Number 8772 (3 March 2012).

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The eastern gray squirrel ( Sciurus carolinensis), also known as simply the grey squirrel, is a tree squirrel in the genus . It is native to eastern North America, where it is the most prodigious and ecologically essential natural forest regenerator.

# data[].attributes.body
HAVE NOT SETTLED IN HUNGARY BUT POSE POTENTIAL THREATS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The North American beaver ( Castor canadensis) is one of two extant beaver species. It is native to North America and introduced to Patagonia in South America and some European countries (e.g. Finland).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in Hungary | nater.mbfsz.gov.hu

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
To support national and local decision-makers in assessing the impact of climate change on different sectors and developing necessary measures to adapt to the changing climate, the Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary is creating a new database.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere. The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average, while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4.5% below the 1981-2010 average.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Land is a limited resource, and in Europe we are using more and more previously wild areas for agriculture, forestry, roads and settlements, according to Earth satellite observations of land cover from 1990 to 2006. Some of these data only became available recently and are detailed in a new land cover assessment published by the European Environment Agency (EEA). Although current trends may differ due to the changing economic situation in much of Europe, the data tells an interesting story about Europe's changing landscape.

Roads, buildings and other artificial surfaces are spreading in Europe, and almost half of this spread was on to farmland between 2000 and 2006. To a lesser extent, these
areas also encroached on forests, semi-natural and natural areas. Almost half of these surfaces were new residential areas, services and recreation facilities.

However, urban sprawl seemed to be slowing according to the data. Artificial land cover, such as roads and buildings, increased 2.3 % per year between 1990 and 2000, but this rate fell to 1.5 % between 2000 and 2006.

While only 4 % of Europe's land is covered by artificial surfaces, according to the data, this seems to be the only type of land cover which is increasing significantly in Europe. Forested areas cover 34 % of Europe. Grassland and other semi-natural vegetation makes up just 8 % of Europe's surface, while bare soils and wetlands cover 6 % and 2 % respectively.

Approximately 43 % of land is covered by agricultural areas, of which the most common types are non-irrigated arable land (50 %) and pasture (16 %). Both these types increased since 1990, according to the most recent data.

The fastest land use change happened in Portugal, Ireland, Hungary, Finland and Sweden. In contrast, the most stable landscape structure is found in mountainous areas such as the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Romanian part of the Carpathians and in the Scandinavian mountains (Norway). Most conversions to forest occurred in Finland and Norway, while most agricultural land conversions took place in Spain.

"Our high-consumption lifestyles are putting more pressure on the land," EEA Executive Director Hans Bruyninckx said. "But beyond the proportion of land we are covering with concrete, there is another important effect - roads and other infrastructure are carving valuable habitats into increasingly smaller fragments, with serious consequences for some of Europe's most endangered species."

Alongside the analysis, the EEA presents more information on land use changes in different European countries in its land take indicator.

A new Corine Land Cover dataset is expected to be available in 2014. It will provide information on land cover change in the period 2006-2012.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Urban sprawl eating into wildlife habitats in Europe

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Land is a limited resource, and in Europe we are using more and more previously wild areas for agriculture, forestry, roads and settlements, according to Earth satellite observations of land cover from 1990 to 2006. Some of these data only became available recently and are detailed in a new land cover assessment published by the European Environment Agency (EEA).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Considering international requirements [1][2], the annual report on the state of the environment (SoER) is stipulated by Act LIII of 1995 [3]. The SoER[4] is compiled by the government body responsible for the environmental protection (as of 2013 the Ministry of Rural Development, in co-operation with the National Institute for Environment) and aims to inform the Government and the general public.

The latest report, published in 2013, deals with environmental topics such as climate change, diversity of nature, waste management, environmental pollution in connection with health and quality of life, environmental management issues, environmental challenges for Hungary and Europe. The report uses roughly 100 indicators arranged by the EEA's DPSIR (driving forces-pressures-state-impact-responses) model.

Complementing the SoER, the Hungarian Central Statistical Office publishes environmental snapshots[5] bi-annually and regularly updates national environmental statistics[6] on the internet.

Key findings of the State of Environment report

There has been a decrease in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from economic activities (since the late 1990s) and from households (since 2006). In 2011, 82% of GHG emissions came directly from economic activity. From 2000 to 2011, N ₂O emissions from the economy decreased by 22%, CH ₄ emissions by 17%. Meanwhile CO ₂ emissions increased until 2005 then started to decrease. An increase in HFC emissions has almost stopped in part because they are replaced by other gas mixtures.

Some of the air pollutants from national economy are still causing environmental problems. Emissions of acidifying substances have drastically decreased from 2000 to 2011 (by 65%) primarily due to the use of SO ₂ abatement methods. Ammonia and nitrogen-oxide emissions have become the most significant factors of acidification. NO X concentrations have exceeded health limit values several times over in certain areas.

Emissions of ozone precursors decreased from 2000 to 2011 (by 31%); PM ₁₀ emissions halved while PM 2.5 fell by one third in the same period. However, the total quantity of atmospheric particulate matter is still problematic. Health limit values are often exceeded because the dominant part of total emissions comes from households especially during the winter season and from the effect of long-range transport (PM ₁₀: 56%, PM 2.5: 77%).

The state of soil, which is a significant natural resource in Hungary, is good but land used for agriculture is endangered by numerous physical and chemical degradation processes (e.g. erosion, acidification) caused by inadequate land and fertilizer utilization. As the general state of natural areas is a serious issue worldwide, the loss of biodiversity also presents a major challenge to Hungary. Biodiversity is considered to be good or over average in some respects but this benefit seems to disappear gradually, e.g. farmland birds' population decreased by about 24% (2007-2012).

Nine per cent of surface water courses and 65% of lakes and reservoirs are in good or excellent ecological status (2010). Since 94% of surface water supply comes from neighbouring countries, it is heavily dependent on external factors, both in quantity and quality. Annual public utility water consumption per capita has gradually decreased since 2000 (by 10%) due to high water price and waste water discharge fee, and, in response, the water supply of private wells. Although the quality of most potable water supplied is good the quality of 30% of public potable water supply does not fill EU requirements. This concerns the high concentration of geologically originated arsenic, ammonia, iron and manganese. In 2012, 74% of households were supplied by via the public sewerage system, and 97.8% of sewage water was cleaned (46.9% of the total was biologically cleaned, which has been increasing).

Total waste generation has slowly been dwindling. In 2007 and 2008, waste generation fell back drastically. In 2010, simultaneously with slight GDP growth, the quantity of waste generated showed a more moderate decrease. The total quantity of waste (2011) still did not reach half the waste generated in 2000. Recycling rate of several waste streams (e.g. municipal solid waste) has increased since 2005. Waste incineration decreased significantly between 2000 and 2005 and has been unchanged ever since. The quantity of deposited municipal solid waste has been decreasing.

The National Environment Programme (NEP)[7][8] sets the environmental policy aims and provides the necessary measures, and is complemented by several thematic strategies.

Transportation and energy are decisive factors in shaping the state of the atmospheric environment, among others. Funding schemes, legislative changes and pertaining strategies primarily target energy-efficiency (especially for buildings), and increased use of renewable energy. The use of public transport is decreasing, while the rate of private transport is increasing. Funding has been provided for environmentally friendly transport solutions (e.g. public transport, especially city road transport and intercity rail transport, bicycle routes), but there is still room for further improvements.

57 per cent of Hungary's territory is made up of agricultural land. National and EU funds have been facilitating agri-environmental measures, however, in 2011, the share of land being used for organic farming (2.2%) is less than half the EU-27 average (5.4%)[9]. For the preservation of biodiversity, the NEP ensures priority to the interest of nature in urbanization, infrastructure development and agriculture, and contains active nature conservation measures (e.g. protection of species, remediation of habitats).

The protection of water resources is also a principle objective. Improving waste water treatment, modernizing landfills, implementing the nitrate action programme and the new Act CCIX of 2011[10] all contribute to a reduction in adverse effects on waters and the realization of sustainable water management. Basic elements of the Act are principles of protection of natural resources and of recovery of costs, and the 'polluter-pays' principle. The continued improvement of natural water retention, and reservation technologies also play an important role in climate change adaptation. Further hydro-morphological measures are to be made to expand the good ecological status of surface waters.

While there has been a considerable degree of technological development within the economy, the principles of circular economy are not yet widespread. The NEP[8] puts emphasis on further improving resource efficiency, strengthening green economy and enhancing eco-innovation. The renewed waste management regulatory system highlights waste prevention, reuse and recycling.

Country specific issues

The Accessible Sky agreement was signed on 26 February 2008 in collaboration with all distribution companies, governmental and non-governmental conservation organisations to minimise bird mortality along power lines. Numerous large-scale projects have been launched since the agreement was signed.[11]

Thanks to improving co-operation, energy companies have also co-financed projects right from the beginning. Since 2011, for the relevant projects, a minimum of 25% co-financing by energy companies is a requirement under the Hungarian Environment and Energy Operational Programme. Under the agreement, Birdlife Hungary produced a conflict map to prioritise all power lines in Hungary. The total length of top priority power lines was 21 700 km for retrofitting.

Large-scale projects included the burial of 80 km and 11 km of medium-voltage power lines in the Hortobágy National Park and in the Borsodi Mezőség Landscape Protection Area, respectively. Bird diverters were fitted on 45 km of medium and high voltage power lines in some of the most important Great Bustard sites in Hungary to avoid collision. Two LIFE Nature projects focused on prevention of electrocution: a total of 910 km of medium voltage power lines were insulated to save Saker Falcons and Red-footed Falcons, primarily. In close cooperation of energy companies and conservation experts, the best available technology (BAT) to produce power lines in a bird friendly way is constantly updated and new solutions are field-tested. In addition, the cooperating partners also support the nesting of Saker Falcons with nestboxes mounted on pylons (Fig 1).

Figure 1: Nest occupation of Saker Falcons on high voltage pylons and in trees

Dark Sky Parks represent an important role in light pollution reduction movements in Hungary. They draw attention to this growing, but not well-known ecological problem: the sensitivity of wildlife to artificial light at night. In Hungary, there are two certified International Dark Sky Parks. The Starry Sky Park at the Zselic[12] Landscape Protection Area became the first certified dark sky park in Europe together with the Scotch Galloway Forest Park in 2009. The second certified area is the Hortobágy[13] Starry Sky Park that is located in the heart of the Hortobágy National Park. It earned the International Dark Sky Park title in 2011.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hungary country briefing - The European environment - state and outlook 2015

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Considering international requirements [1] [2], the annual report on the state of the environment (SoER) is stipulated by Act LIII of 1995 [3]. The SoER[4] is compiled by the government body responsible for the environmental protection (as of 2013 the Ministry of Rural Development, in co-operation with the National Institute for Environment) and aims to inform the Government and the general public.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A magyar kikerics (Colchicum hungaricum) az egyszikűek (Liliopsida) osztályába, a liliomvirágúak (Liliales) rendjébe, a kikericsfélék (Colchicaceae) családjába tartozó faj.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A bánáti bazsarózsa vagy bánsági bazsarózsa (Paeonia officinalis subsp. banatica) növényritkaság. Legfontosabb élőhelyét a Baranya megyei Zengő gerincén találhatjuk meg, s minden bizonnyal ennek köszönhetően mecseki bazsarózsa névvel is illetik. Tavaszi virágzásakor a kelet-mecseki Hosszúhetényből bazsarózsanéző túrákat szoktak szervezni a lankákra.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A Zengő-hegyi csata vagy csata a Zengőn környezetvédők és a környező települések lakóinak akciója volt 2004. február 13-án, melynek során megakadályozták, hogy fakivágó munkások az érvényes engedélyek birtokában és biztonsági őrök kíséretében megkezdjék a Zengő hegyre tervezett NATO rádiólokátor-állomás építéséhez szükséges munkájukat.