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Introduction:

Each time you look up to the sky and see a star you are looking at a sun in another galaxy. If you were on another planet looking back at our solar system, you would see our sun as a star.

It's believed that every sun has planets orbiting it. Our Milky Way galaxy has more planets than it has stars. In our solar system we have eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the inner rocky planets.

Jupiter and Saturn are the outer gas giants. Uranus and Neptune are the outer ice giants. In recent years, astronomers have designed a new class called the "dwarf planets."

These are smaller worlds, not quite big enough to be considered a standard planet, and include Pluto.

To qualify as a gas giant planet it must be of a larger size and made up of mostly gases, such as helium and hydrogen, and have a small rocky core.

In our solar system, our four gas giants are also called "Jovian planets," named after Jupiter as they live in the outer orbits of the solar system.

Gas Giant Statistics:
Jupiter: Saturn: Uranus: Neptune:
History of the Names:

We have four gas giants in our solar system: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and is the largest planet in our Solar System. It was named after the roman king of the gods and the name fits its size.

Saturn is the sixth planet and was named after the Roman father of the god Jupiter, also the god of agriculture. Uranus is the seventh planet and is associated with the Roman god Caelus.

In Ancient Greek literature, Uranus or Father Sky was the son and husband of Gaia, Mother Earth. Neptune is the eighth planet and was named after the Roman god of the sea because it has such a beautiful color of blue.

Formation:

Using NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, astronomers have located evidence that showed that the gas giants may have formed within the first 10 million years of a sun-like star's life.

They came to this conclusion when they were searching for gas traces around 15 different sun-like stars. They found that a majority ranged in age from 3-30 million years.

The Spitzer Space Telescope's Infrared Spectrometer instrument allowed the scientists to search through the inner regions of these stars that had relatively warm gas.

In our solar system this area might be comparable to the zone between Jupiter and Earth. The astronomers also searched for cooler gases in these system's outer reasons using ground-based radio telescopes.

In our solar system it's believed that they may have finally settled into their current configuration around 4.5 billion years ago.

Scientists believe that planets such as Jupiter and Saturn were originally formed as icy, rocky planets that are similar to the terrestrial planets.

Their core size allowed them to capture helium and hydrogen from the gas clouds before the sun blasted most of it away.

The smaller sized Neptune and Uranus have greater orbits and it was more difficult for them to collect the vast amounts of helium and hydrogen efficiently.

Structure and Surface:

The gas and ice giant planets are all located in the outer perimeters of our solar system. Since they are so far out they take longer to complete their orbit around the sun.

Our terrestrial planets may be higher in density that the gas giants, but unlike the name, the gas giants aren't completely made up of gas. Jupiter and Saturn have layers of molecular hydrogen and liquid metallic hydrogen under their atmospheres.

The liquid metallic hydrogen layers also conduct electricity. Neptune has a rocky core with a mantle of water-ammonia that overlays it. Uranus has an icy layer around the solid rock core and that is surrounded by its atmosphere of gas.

As scientists continue to study other solar systems, they are finding that a majority of the larger gas giants are closer to their sun than ours are.

These gas giant exoplanets are called "hot Jupiters, Giant Neptunes, or Super Jupiters," and it's thought that our gas giants may have originated close to our sun and over time, migrated to the outer areas of our solar system.

The cores of the gas giants are under very high pressures that crush the core to create the energy that keeps their temperatures so hot. The Kepler Space Telescope has allowed scientists to discover gas giants around over one thousand stars.

Scientists refer to Uranus and Neptune as "ice giants." These are defined as planets that have at least ten times the Earth's mass and have a higher percentage of the "ices" of volatile elements heavier than helium and hydrogen.

Astronomers are continuing to study other exoplanets and believe some of them could be ice giants.

Atmosphere. Magnetosphere, and Moon Status:

Jupiter's atmosphere is difficult to define, mainly because it is a gaseous outer zone that transitions into the planet's liquid layer. Scientists have designated that the atmospheric pressure on Jupiter's "surface" is equal to 10 times that of the Earth at sea level.

The atmosphere is around 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, which is almost the same as that of the Sun. Due to this fact, it is believed that if Jupiter had grown just a little bit more it could have been a star

The atmosphere of Saturn is made up of around 96% hydrogen, 4% helium, and trace amounts of acetylene, ethane, ammonia, methane, and phosphine. Saturn has a layer of atmosphere that has up to 1,800 km wind speeds.

These are considered to be some of the fastest speeds in the Solar System. While it isn't visible, Saturn does have a horizontally banded cloud pattern that are wider in the equator than even those found on Jupiter's equator.

They were unknown until the 1970's Voyager missions. The clouds on Saturn appear as faint jet streams, striped and storms and these have an array of colors including shades of brown, yellow, and grey.

Uranus has a blue-green color from all of the methane gas in its atmosphere. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere it reflects light back through the top of the clouds. Methane gas absorbs the red factors in light, leaving the blue-green shade

Very similar to the planet Uranus, Neptune's upper atmosphere is made up of mostly hydrogen (80%), helium (19%), and trace amounts of the methane that gives it the blue coloring.

Neptune has a much deeper shade of blue that makes it different than Uranus in atmospheric composition.

The atmosphere of both Uranus and Neptune contain more heavier elements such as ammonia and methane

Jupiter has a powerful magnetic field that balloons 600,000 to 2 million mi/1-3 million km toward the sun.

This is 7-21 times the diameter of Jupiter itself and the field tapers into a tadpole-shaped tail that extends out behind the planet more than 600 million mi/1 billion km.

This extension goes as far as the orbit of Saturn. The intense magnetic field of Jupiter is 16-54 times as powerful as the magnetic field of Earth and rotates with the planet, picking up any particles that have an electric charge.

The magnetic field traps swarms of charged particles near the planet and then speeds them up to extremely high energies, creating high intensity radiation that bombards the innermost moons.

It's this radiation that can cause a lot of damage to any spacecraft and why much of the exploration of Jupiter is often done from a distance. The magnetic field does create some of the most beautiful aurorae at its poles.

Although Saturn's magnetic field is smaller than Jupiter's, it's still 578 times more powerful than our Earth's. Saturn and its rings as well as a lot of its satellites all exist within its enormous magnetosphere.

Saturn's magnetosphere is in the region of space where electrically charged particles are influenced less by solar wind and instead, controlled by Saturn's magnetic field.

Magnetic fields are usually aligned with the rotation of the planet, but not so on Uranus. It has an irregular magnetosphere which is tipped over on an axis of almost 60 degrees from the axis of rotation of the planet.

Due to the lopsided magnetic field, the auroras are also not lined up with the poles, like they are on Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn.

The tail of Uranus' magnetosphere extends into space for millions of miles and its magnetic field lines are twisted due to Uranus' sideways rotation so that it's shaped like a corkscrew.

A 1989 discovery of an oval-shaped storm in the southern hemisphere of Neptune was named its "Great Dark Spot."

This spot is big enough to hold the entire Earth, and while this one disappeared, others have shown up on various areas of the planet.

Neptune's magnetic field main axis is tipped to the side by around 47 degrees as compared to Neptune's planetary rotation axis.

Both Neptune and Uranus have magnetic axis that are tilted and the tilt causes wild variations as the planet rotates.

Neptune's magnetic field is around 27 time stronger than that of Earth.

The gas giants have dozens of moons and due to the matched rotation of the parent planet, most are thought to have been formed at the same time as the parent planet.

However, there are some moons that rotate in the opposite direction and these are believed to have been external bodies that were pulled in by the parent planet's gravity

The gas giants in our Solar System all have some sort of ring system. The rings are made up of a number of elements including material chunks, dust, and ice in the outer areas of the Solar System.

The planet Saturn has the largest ring system in our Solar System and at least one asteroid is believed to have a small ring.

Could Life Exist?

None of the gas giants have an actual surface and the temperatures and pressures are so great that it is believed that life as we know it couldn't survive, adapt, and thrive.

Interesting Information:

Space Visits:

Jupiter has been studied for many years, with the first observations detailed in 1610 by Galileo Galilei. Since then, we have sent a number of spacecraft, probes, and orbiters to take detailed images and collect data from Jupiter.

In the 1970's we sent Pioneer 10 and 11 as well as Voyager 1 and 2 for flybys of Jupiter. The Galileo spacecraft orbited the gas giant and sent a probe into the atmosphere.

When Cassini was heading to Saturn it took an array of images of Jupiter, and New Horizon did the same as it headed to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt. In 2016 NASA's June spacecraft arrived in the Jovian system to study the gas giant in orbit.

So far, there have been four robotic spacecraft that have visited Saturn. The first look was NASA's Pioneer 11 in 1979. Then in 1980 and 1981, NASA sent Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 for flybys.

Each new trip exposed wonderful details about the ringed gas giant, however, it wasn't until 2004 with the international Cassini mission that we learned so much more.

Cassini remained in orbit for 13 years, studying Saturn. Cassini's last mission was to plunge it into the atmosphere of Saturn in 2017 to learn as much as possible.

Cassini had also carried the Huygens probe that had previously landed in 2005 on Saturn's moon Titan.

There has been only one spacecraft that visited near Uranus. NASA's Voyager 2 took 9 years and traveled 1.8 billion mi/3 billion km, gathering important information about our solar system.

It flew by Uranus, spending only six hours and collected much of the data that we know about the planet. Almost everything else that we have learned about Uranus has been thanks to the Hubble Space Telescope observations.

In 1989, NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft studied Neptune up close. This was over 140 years after the predictions made by Le Verrier about Neptune.

Voyager 2 remains the first-and-only spacecraft to study Neptune, and it sent back an incredible volume of information and data about the planet and its moons.

Voyager 2 also confirmed that the ice giant had faint rings like other gas giant planets. Since that time, scientists have relied on the Hubble Space Telescope for additional information about Neptune.

Facts about the Gas Giants:

Gas giants are also called "Jovian planets," named after Jupiter

To be considered a gas giant, the planet has to be made up of mostly gas, be located in the outer area of the solar system, and have a mass that is ten times that of Earth.

Scientists refer to the atmospheres of Saturn and Jupiter as being more "polluted" because they have larger percentages of heavy metals such as methane and ammonia.

The gas giant planets have so many moons that it's believed that the moons were originally independent travelers that got trapped by each gas giant's gravity.

If Jupiter had been a bit larger it could have become the second star in our solar system.

Pop Culture:
Jupiter:
Jupiter has made a presence in many television shows, movies, comics, and video games. In the science fiction "Jupiter Ascending" it was the main destination.

Jupiter's moons have also been noted in "Cloud Atlas, Futurama, Power Rangers, and Halo."

You might remember "Men in Black" when Will Smith, playing Agent J, comments that he thought his teacher was from Venus and Tommy Lee Jones, playing Agent K, corrects him to say that she was really from one of Jupiter's Moons.

In the movie "2010: The Year we Make Contact," Jupiter was ignited to become the second sun in our solar system and its moon Io was to be left alone to allow life to progress.
Saturn:
Saturn has played a role in many science fiction stories, television, movies, comics, and video games.

The planet's usual rings have made it an icon for space travel. Some of the pop culture references include: "Cthulhu Mythos, WALL-E, 2001: A Space Odyssey, Star Trek, Dead Space 2, and Final Fantasy VII.

Tim Burton created the movie "Beetlejuice" where a fictional Saturn is home to giant sandworms, and the 2014 movie "Interstellar," had a wormhole near Saturn that allowed astronauts to travel to another galaxy.
Uranus:
There is no getting around the "butt" of so many jokes about this planet, however, it's also been the focus of quite a few science fiction stores, television shows, and games, including "Doctor Who" and the video game "Mass Effect."
Neptune:
Neptune has been a frequent focus for quite a few science fiction and pop culture themes. The "Event Horizon" was a sci-fi/horror film in 1997 and Neptune was the backdrop for the storyline.

The animated series "Futurama" had Robot Santa Claus with a home based in the north pole of Neptune. The "Sleep No More" episode of Doctor Who was set on a space station that orbited around Neptune.

Star Trek: Enterprise had the episode "Broken Bow" where fans leaned that at the speed of warp 4.5 it would be possible to fly from Earth to Neptune and back in only six minutes.

https://www.space.com/30372-gas-giants.html
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/677/gas-giant-interiors-2003/
https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/resources/66/gas-giants-form-quickly/
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/overview/

Planets

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Gas Giant Facts for Kids - The Outer Planets

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Each time you look up to the sky and see a star you are looking at a sun in another galaxy. If you were on another planet looking back at our solar system, you would see our sun as a star. It's believed that every sun has planets orbiting it.

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When we refer to terrestrial planets, it helps to understand first the definition. Terrestrial and telluric are from the Latin words for Earth ( Terra and Tellus) because these planets have a composition that is similar to that of the Earth.

The four terrestrial planets, in order of distance from the Sun, are:

We can easily identify the terrestrial planets because they have solid and rocky surfaces. They are smaller but much denser than the gas giants.

As the name says, the gas giants are just big balls of gases like hydrogen and helium. The four giant planets in our solar system are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. They are also called Jovian planets, after Jupiter, and are located in the outer solar system.

The Inner Solar System

Where do the terrestrial planets exist in the solar system? These rocky worlds are in the inner solar system. They are located much closer to the Sun than the giant planets.

The inner solar system is composed of the terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt.

Looking at their compositions, why are the inner planets rocky and the outer planets gaseous?

The answer to that lies in their distances from the Sun. Because they are much closer, the inner planets receive more intense solar radiation. The solar wind blew off most of the lighter elements from the inner planets. As time passed, only the heavy materials were left on these planets.

The size of the inner planets also played a part in this. Smaller size means lesser gravity. That means they were not able to hold the escaping gases.

The more distant outer planets were not as much affected by the solar wind. Plus, they're also much bigger. So they retained their original atmospheres. The terrestrial planets only formed a secondary atmosphere through outgassing and volcanic activity.

The asteroid belt is also in the inner solar system. It lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This donut-shaped region is composed of planetesimals-rocky leftovers from the formation of the solar system.

Characteristics of a Terrestrial Planet

Terrestrial planets share some similar characteristics that make them a unique class of their own.

Composition and Structure

First of all, terrestrial planets have a distinct composition. They are mostly composed of silicate rock and metal. These planets have solid surfaces, so we have something to land on these planets. Many spacecraft have landed on the rocky planets in our solar system, especially on Mars.

Terrestrial planets have distinct and differentiated layers in the interior. At the center of these compact worlds is a metal core, most commonly iron. This core is then surrounded by a silicate mantle.

The surfaces of these planets are also marked by different features. They are plain in some regions but there are also areas of cratering and highlands. Like on Earth, we have water on the surface. Tectonic activities also help shape the formation of our landforms like mountains and valleys.

No Rings, Fewer Moons

As observed, none of the terrestrial planets in our solar system has rings. Unlike the Jovian planets, they also have fewer moons. Mercury and Venus have no natural satellites. Earth has one ( the Moon) and Mars has two ( Phobos and Deimos).

Atmosphere and Magnetic Field

The terrestrial planets in our solar system, except Mercury, have a significant atmosphere. Because of its small size, Mercury does not have much gravity to hold an atmosphere like the others.

Mercury's distance from the Sun means that it is constantly bombarded by solar radiation. It has a thin exosphere instead.

Also, terrestrial planets are different because they have secondary atmospheres. The giant planets have primary atmospheres from the solar nebula.

Earth is the only terrestrial planet with a significant magnetic field. This is one of the important factors that make it habitable. It shields our planet from solar wind and particles that can be harmful to our atmosphere.

Mars no longer has a global magnetic field. It was believed that the red planet lost its magnetic field about four billion years ago. Because of that, the atmosphere of this planet is no longer protected against harsh solar winds.

The Terrestrial Planets in Our Solar System

The terrestrial planets are the four closest planets to our Sun. Lying in the inner solar system, they are also the densest of the eight planets.

Relative distance of the inner planets from the Sun

Mercury

Mercury is only a third of Earth's size and is the smallest of the eight planets. As the closest neighbor of the Sun, it has not retained any moon and atmosphere. The Sun would look three times as big on this planet as seen here on Earth.

Astronomers believe that there is water around the planet's north and south poles, just like the Earth's Moon. Still, it receives intense solar radiation and a human would not survive there.

Mercury is the fastest-moving planet of all. Moving at about 47 kilometers per second (29 miles per second), it also has the shortest orbital period. While a year on Earth takes about 365 days, a year on Mercury is only 88 Earth days long! [Learn more about Mercury]

Venus

Venus is surrounded by a thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide. This atmosphere is so thick that it obscures observations of the planet's surface. It is also responsible for making Venus the hottest planet in our solar system.

This planet is often called "Earth's twin" because of its size. However, its atmosphere would be very toxic to us, humans. This planet is visible to the naked eye and is the second-brightest celestial body in our night sky after the Moon.

Venus is unique because it rotates backward. Because of that, the Sun also takes the opposite course as seen on Venus. It rises in the west and sets in the east. Also, a day on this planet is longer than its year! [Learn more about Venus]

Earth

The Earth is the only planet known where life as we know it can flourish. Our home planet is unique among the other terrestrial planets because it has the perfect ingredient for life to exist.

Water comprises about 70% of the Earth's surface. Our atmosphere is rich in oxygen and the magnetic field of our planet protects us from solar radiation. The shift in plate tectonics is also beneficial to the carbon cycle on our planet.

The Earth has only one Moon. This natural satellite affects the tides in the oceans and the lives of humans and animals alike. [Learn more about Earth]

Mars

Mars is a dusty desert and the fourth planet from the Sun. It is nicknamed the "red planet" because of the iron minerals on its surface. As it is exposed to the elements, the iron rusts and makes the whole place reddish.

Mars is said to have the ingredients for life such as organics and water ice. It has polar ice caps and methane has been found on this planet. On the surface, Mars is heavily cratered. The tallest mountain in the entire solar system, Olympus Mons, is found on this planet.

A day on this planet is roughly the same length as a day here on Earth. It has the most moons among the terrestrial planets. [Learn more about Mars]

Life on Other Terrestrial Planets

Other than Earth, it is believed that the conditions on Mars are the most hospitable for life. There may have been life there in the past, and there may still be life on Mars today. Meanwhile, the extreme conditions on Mercury and Venus are too harsh to sustain and nurture life.

Spacecraft Visitors and Their Findings

Although no human has visited the terrestrial planets in our solar system, we have sent many unmanned probes to these rocky worlds. Some were successful, while some were not.

Over time, findings from these spacecraft have given us clues on what it is like on other terrestrial planets in our solar system.

To Mercury

The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was Mariner 10. It also explored Venus on its way to Mercury. This spacecraft launched in 1973 and performed three flybys on the innermost planet.

Mariner 10 discovered that Mercury's surface has ridges, craters, and other features like our Moon's. During its course, Mariner 10 was able to map a big part of the planet's surface. It also sent more than 2,700 images.

Another visit to Mercury was made by the MESSENGER spacecraft. It was the first robotic space probe to orbit Mercury. Among its many discoveries is the presence of water in the planet's exosphere.

Launched in 2018, the European-Japanese mission BepiColombo is the third mission to Mercury. It will study the planet's surface and composition. After several flybys, it will enter into orbit in December 2025.

To Venus

The second planet from the Sun, Venus, has been visited by many spacecraft through the years.

The first successful flyby to another planet was made by Mariner 2 on Venus. It was launched in 1962. At that time, much was still unknown about Venus.

Before Mariner 2, many thought that the climate on Venus was probably comparable to the Earth's tropics. However, during a flyby, the spacecraft discovered the very high temperature on the planet caused by greenhouse effect. Mariner 2 also discovered that the planet has no water, no magnetic field, and no plate tectonics like Earth.

More than 40 spacecraft have been sent to Venus. The Soviet's Venera mission had more than 10 probes to explore the planet, including landers.

The Magellan mission was also another important mission to Venus. It was discovered that more than 80% of the planet's surface is covered with volcanic materials.

To Mars

Mars, aka the Red Planet, is a favorite spacecraft destination. It is an interesting world as it is the most Earth-like candidate among the terrestrial planets.

Though Mars seems like a spacecraft magnet, reaching this planet is anything but easy. About 50 missions have been sent to Mars so far, but roughly half of them were unsuccessful. Still, it is the most explored planet in the solar system, with rovers roaming the dusty world.

The Mariner 4 performed the first successful Mars flyby in 1965. It gave us a first look at the Martian surface, which has a lot of impact craters. The first rover on the Martian surface was Sojourner, brought into the surface by the Mars Pathfinder lander.

The Curiosity rover has made important discoveries on the red planet. Rounded pebbles indicate an ancient streambed and, therefore, water in the past. Findings on the planet's chemistry and atmosphere make the search for life more exciting. Though, the radiation there is harmful to humans.

No human has landed on Mars yet, but conceptual missions have been proposed throughout the years.

Could Life Exist Elsewhere in the Solar System?

Several objects in the solar system have similar structures to the terrestrial planets. The Moon, for example, has a crust, mantle, and core. This iron core, however, is much smaller. It has been speculated that the Moon may have been habitable in the past.

As indicated in many missions, there is evidence of water on other terrestrial planets. This may indicate that they were once habitable.

The innermost planet, Mercury, may have water ice near the poles. If life indeed existed in this world, the life forms are most likely primitive microorganisms. In its early years, Venus may have had water on its surface. The presence of methane in Mars's atmosphere is an indication of microbial life.

Life, as we know it, is still impossible on other planets. The other terrestrial planets are way too hot. The gas giants, on the other hand, have no solid surfaces and are very cold. Aside from the planets, other objects in the solar system have environments that can potentially be habitable for extraterrestrial life.

Jupiter and Saturn may not be able to foster life, but we might get a shot with their moons. The Galilean moon Europa is a strong candidate because it might have a subsurface liquid water ocean.

Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is also speculated to have the potential for life. This moon has a significant atmosphere and liquid on the surface. The internal global ocean of the icy moon, Enceladus, also makes it a major subject in terms of habitability.

At the end of its mission, the Cassini spacecraft plunged into Saturn to avoid damaging potentially-habitable moons of the ringed planet.

Aside from planets and moons, the dwarf planet Ceres can also possibly harbor life. It has a thin atmosphere of water vapor. This can be an indication that life may have existed there in the past. Also, the distant and cold Pluto may have had the potential for habitability when it formed. It has a rocky core and is believed to have a subsurface ocean.

The Search for Extrasolar Terrestrial Planets

We know that the Sun is just one of the many stars out there. With so many stars, we could only assume that there will also be so many planets. These other worlds outside our solar system are called "extrasolar planets."

From the word terra, terrestrial means Earth-like. The presence of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere is an indication of life. Therefore, detecting oxygen in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets would be a major breakthrough.
Because of their great size, Jovian giants are the most commonly detected types of extrasolar planets. However, some are considered super-Earths.

Super-Earths are extrasolar planets with masses between that of Earth and Neptune. Since this category only tells us about their masses, they can either be gas or terrestrial planets. Below are some extrasolar planets that are believed to be terrestrial worlds:

Kepler-452b - Nicknamed "Earth's Cousin," it is likely a rocky world in the habitable zone of the solar-type star Kepler-452.

HD 85512 b - A rocky Earth-sized planet orbiting the K-type star HD 85512.

Gliese 876 d - A super-Earth terrestrial exoplanet orbiting a red dwarf star.

TRAPPIST-1 system - A collection of seven Earth-size planets orbiting a red dwarf star. These exoplanets have similar densities and are roughly as massive as Earth.

Types of Terrestrial Planet

Just like the gas giants, there are also different types of terrestrial planets. Since the terrestrial planets in the solar system are of the silicate type, the other categories are still theoretical.

Silicate planets are differentiated internally. They have metallic cores, mostly iron, surrounded by a silicon-based mantle. The inner planets in our solar system all belong to this type.

Ice planets are a theoretical type of terrestrial world. On the surface, these cold worlds can contain water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and carbon monoxide. They likely have subsurface oceans and cryovolcanoes.

Ice planets are like the bigger versions of the icy moons in our solar system. To know what these worlds are like, we can take a look at Enceladus, Titan, and Triton for inspiration.

Iron planets are another hypothetical class that is largely composed of iron. Planets of this type are thought to have formed closer to the star.

Also, if they had a rocky mantle in the past, it was likely scraped off by impacts. They are smaller yet denser and have no plate tectonics.

As the name implies, coreless planets are mostly rocky. They have no metallic core and are believed to have formed farther from the star. In short, this hypothetical planet type is the opposite of iron planets.

Carbon planets are believed to have a metallic core with a carbon-based mantle. These planets are more abundant in carbon than oxygen. This type is also dubbed "diamond planets."

Interesting Terrestrial Planets Facts

From largest to smallest, the terrestrial planets are Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Earth is roughly 12,756 km (7,926 miles) across while Venus is 12,104 km (7,521 miles) across. They are often called "sister planets" because of their similar sizes.

The inner planets have a shorter orbital period than the outer planets, but a longer orbital period.

As we now know, the terrestrial planets in our solar system have no rings. There is a possibility, however, that they may have had rings in the past that disappeared over time.

The four terrestrial planets have anything but a smooth surface. They have impact craters and other features like volcanoes.

Of all the inner planets, Venus has the least impact craters. This is mostly because of this planet's thick atmosphere. Most objects disintegrate whenever they enter the planet's atmosphere. Because of that, only a few of them reach the ground and make impacts.

According to the Kepler mission, there could be billions of terrestrial exoplanets in our Milky Way galaxy alone. The closest of them is believed to be about 12 light-years away from us.

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(https://www.universetoday.com/50289/terrestrial-planet/)

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(https://space-facts.com/terrestrial-planets/)

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https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mercury/overview/

https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/venus/overview/#otp_ten_things_to_know_about_venus

Image Sources:

Terrestrial planets: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Telluric_planets_size_comparison.jpg/800px-Telluric_planets_size_comparison.jpg

Martian soil: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PIA17944-MarsCuriosityRover-AfterCrossingDingoGapSanddune-20140209.jpg/600px-PIA17944-MarsCuriosityRover-AfterCrossingDingoGapSanddune-20140209.jpg

Earth and Moon: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Moon%2C_Earth_size_comparison.jpg/1143px-Moon%2C_Earth_size_comparison.jpg

Mariner 10: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/system/content_pages/main_images/1316_mariner10.gif

Mariner 2: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mariner_2.jpg/1024px-Mariner_2.jpg

Crater farm on Venus: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/internal_resources/3536

Mariner 4: https://d2pn8kiwq2w21t.cloudfront.net/original_images/missionswebmariner3_4.jpg

Curiosity rover: https://mars.nasa.gov/system/feature_items/images/6037_msl_banner.jpg

The Moon: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/FullMoon2010.jpg/800px-FullMoon2010.jpg

Europa moon: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Europa-moon-with-margins.jpg/800px-Europa-moon-with-margins.jpg

Ceres: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ceres_-_RC3_-_Haulani_Crater_%2822381131691%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/800px-Ceres_-_RC3_-_Haulani_Crater_%2822381131691%29_%28cropped%29.jpg

TRAPPIST-1 system: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/PIA22093-TRAPPIST-1-PlanetLineup-20180205.jpg/1920px-PIA22093-TRAPPIST-1-PlanetLineup-20180205.jpg

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Terrestrial Planets: Facts about the 4 Inner (Rocky) Planets

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We can easily identify the terrestrial planets because they have solid and rocky surfaces, and are smaller but much denser than the gas giants

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All About the Planets | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids

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Learn more about the planets in our solar system

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Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars information

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Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars information

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(Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech)

Terrestrial planets are Earth-like planets made up of rocks or metals with a hard surface. Terrestrial planets also have a molten heavy-metal core, few moons and topological features such as valleys, volcanoes and craters.

In our solar system, there are four terrestrial planets, which also happen to be the four closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

During the formation of the solar system, there were likely more terrestrial planetoids, but they either merged with each other or were destroyed.

The definition of "planet" from the International Astronomical Union is controversial. The IAU defines a planet as a celestial body that is in orbit around the sun, has a nearly round shape, and has mostly cleared its orbital neighborhood of debris. Scientists are divided in particular on the third point, with some saying that it's hard to define how much clearing a planet does, while others saying a world like Pluto would clear less than a world like Earth. This means that some astronomers argue that the dwarf planet Pluto should be classified as a planet, along with various other dwarf planets scattered throughout the solar system.

Mercury is the smallest terrestrial planet in the solar system, about a third the size of Earth. It has a thin atmosphere, which causes it to swing between burning and freezing temperatures. Mercury is also a dense planet, composed mostly of iron and nickel with an iron core. Its magnetic field is only about 1 percent that of Earth's, and the planet has no known moons. The surface of Mercury has many deep craters and is covered by a thin layer of tiny particle silicates.

In 2012, scientists found extensive evidence of organics - the building blocks of life - as well as water ice in craters shaded from the sun. Mercury's thin atmosphere and close proximity to the sun mean it's impossible for the planet to host life as we know it.

Venus, which is about the same size as Earth, has a thick, toxic carbon-monoxide-dominated atmosphere that traps heat, making it the hottest planet in the solar system. Venus has no known moons. Much of the planet's surface is marked with volcanoes and deep canyons.

The biggest canyon on Venus stretches across the surface for 4,000 miles (nearly 6,500 kilometers). And it's possible that at least some of the planet's volcanoes are still active. Few spacecraft have ever penetrated Venus' thick atmosphere and survived. And it's not just spacecraft that have trouble getting through the atmosphere - there are fewer crater impacts on Venus than other planets because only the largest meteors can make it. The planet is hostile to life as we know it.

Of the four terrestrial planets, Earth is the largest, and the only one with extensive regions of liquid water. Water is necessary for life as we know it, and life is abundant on Earth - from the deepest oceans to the highest mountains. Like the other terrestrial planets, Earth has a rocky surface with mountains and canyons, and a heavy-metal core. Earth's atmosphere contains water vapor, which helps to moderate daily temperatures.

The planet has regular seasons for much of its surface; regions closer to the equator tend to stay warm, while spots closer to the poles are cooler and in the winter, icy. The Earth's climate, however, is warming up due to climate change associated with human-generated greenhouse gases, which act as a trap for escaping heat. Earth has a northern magnetic pole that is wandering considerably, by dozens of miles a year; some scientists suggest it might be an early sign of the north and south magnetic poles flipping. The last major flip was 780,000 years ago. Earth has one large moon that astronauts visited in the 1960s and 1970s.

Mars has the largest mountain in the solar system, rising 78,000 feet (nearly 24 km) above the surface. Much of the surface is very old and filled with craters, but there are geologically newer areas of the planet as well. At the Martian poles are polar ice caps that shrink in size during the Martian spring and summer. Mars is less dense than Earth and has a smaller magnetic field, which is indicative of a solid core, rather than a liquid one.

While scientists have found no evidence of life yet, Mars is known to have water ice and organics - some of the ingredients for living things. Evidence of methane has also been found in some parts of the surface. Methane is produced from both living and non-living processes. Mars has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos. The Red Planet is also a popular destination for spacecraft, given that the planet may have been habitable in the ancient past.

Beyond the solar system

During its lifetime, NASA's Kepler space observatory discovered more than 2,300 confirmed alien planets - and thousands more possibilities - as of January 2019. Kepler ran out of fuel in 2018, but many of its possible planet discoveries still need to be confirmed with follow-up observations from other telescopes. Using the data from the telescope, scientists calculated that there may be billions of Earth-like planets in the Milky Way galaxy.

In 2017 another telescope - The Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope (TRAPPIST) - discovered a system of Earth-like planets orbiting a star more than 39 light-years away. Within the system are 7 planets, thought to be terrestrial - 4 of which are super-Earth sized. This exoplanet system is known as the TRAPPIST-1.

A 2021 study published in the Planetary Science Journal (opens in new tab) suggests that all the planets in this system share a similar density. This could mean they share the same ratio of materials - such as iron, silicon and oxygen - commonly found on rocky planets.

There are 3 planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system that sit in the habitable zone of its central star - TRAPPIST-1 e, f and g. The habitable zone is the distance from the star whereby liquid water could exist on the planet's surface. Planets in this region of a solar system are potentially capable of hosting life.

A successor mission to Kepler, called TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite), began operations in 2018. The spacecraft is designed to look for Earth-size planets that are only a few light-years away from our planet, allowing for quick observations by other telescopes on Earth. As of early 2019, TESS has already discovered a handful of planets; its first confirmed find was in September 2018.

Non-terrestrial planets

Not all planets are terrestrial. In our solar system, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are gas giants, also known as Jovian planets. It's unclear what the dividing line is between a rocky planet and a terrestrial planet; some super-Earths may have a liquid surface, for example. In our solar system, gas giants are much bigger than terrestrial planets, and they have thick atmospheres full of hydrogen and helium. On Jupiter and Saturn, hydrogen and helium make up most of the planet, while on Uranus and Neptune, the elements make up just the outer envelope. These planets are also inhospitable to life as we know it, although this region of the solar system has icy moons that could have habitable oceans.

Additional resources

For an in-depth look into our solar system, check out NASA's interactive Solar System Exploration webpage (opens in new tab). The Planets: The Definitive Visual Guide to Our Solar System (opens in new tab) by DK, is also an excellent illustrative guide to all things planets.

Bibliography

Courtney Dressing et al, " The mass of Kepler-93b and the composition of terrestrial planets," The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 800, February 2015.

Simon Grimm et al, "The nature of the TRAPPIST-1 exoplanets", Astronomy & Astrophysics, Volume 813, May 2019, https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201732233.

George Ricker et al, " Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) (opens in new tab)," American Astronomical Society, Volume 42, January 2010.

NASA, " Mercury: Solar System Exploration (opens in new tab)," January 2022.

NASA, " Venus: Solar System Exploration (opens in new tab)," January 2022.

NASA, " Mars: Solar System Exploration (opens in new tab)," January 2022.

NASA, " Earth: Solar System Exploration (opens in new tab)," January 2022.

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Terrestrial Planets: Definition & Facts About the Inner Planets

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(Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech) Terrestrial planets are Earth-like planets made up of rocks or metals with a hard surface. Terrestrial planets also have a molten heavy-metal core, few moons and topological features such as valleys, volcanoes and craters. In our solar system, there are four terrestrial planets, which also happen to be the four closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

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Explore how planets and moons orbit the sun

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NASA Activity Site

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Articles, games and activities about our planetary neighbors

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Your Age on Other Worlds | Exploratorium

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Notice that your age on other worlds will automatically fill in. Notice that Your age is different on the different worlds. Notice that your age in "days" varies wildly.

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Find out what your weight is on a different planet

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Find out what your weight is on a different planet

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Before we get into the subject of gravity and how it acts, it's important to understand the difference between weight and mass.

We often use the terms "mass" and "weight" interchangeably in our daily speech, but to an astronomer or a physicist they are completely different things. The mass of a body is a measure of how much matter it contains. An object with mass has a quality called inertia. If you shake an object like a stone in your hand, you would notice that it takes a push to get it moving, and another push to stop it again. If the stone is at rest, it wants to remain at rest. Once you've got it moving, it wants to stay moving. This quality or "sluggishness" of matter is its inertia. Mass is a measure of how much inertia an object displays.

Weight is an entirely different thing. Every object in the universe with mass attracts every other object with mass. The amount of attraction depends on the size of the masses and how far apart they are. For everyday-sized objects, this gravitational pull is vanishingly small, but the pull between a very large object, like the Earth, and another object, like you, can be easily measured. How? All you have to do is stand on a scale! Scales measure the force of attraction between you and the Earth. This force of attraction between you and the Earth (or any other planet) is called your weight.

If you are in a spaceship far between the stars and you put a scale underneath you, the scale would read zero. Your weight is zero. You are weightless. There is an anvil floating next to you. It's also weightless. Are you or the anvil mass-less? Absolutely not. If you grabbed the anvil and tried to shake it, you would have to push it to get it going and pull it to get it to stop. It still has inertia, and hence mass, yet it has no weight. See the difference?

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Your Weight on Other Worlds | Exploratorium

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Before we get into the subject of gravity and how it acts, it's important to understand the difference between weight and mass. We often use the terms "mass" and "weight" interchangeably in our daily speech, but to an astronomer or a physicist they are completely different things.

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NASA Website

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Overview The Sun's gravity holds the solar system together, keeping everything - from the biggest planets to the smallest particles of debris - in its orbit. The connection and interactions between the Sun and Earth drive the seasons, ocean currents, weather, climate, radiation belts and auroras.

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American Natural History Museum

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Discover the universe with our downloadable atlas-the Digital Universe-where you can fly from the Sun out the edge of the observable universe.

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NASA Website

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Dwarf Planet Ceres Overview Dwarf planet Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and it’s the only dwarf planet located in the inner solar system. It was the first member of the asteroid belt to be discovered when Giuseppe Piazzi spotted it in 1801. When NASA’s Dawn arrived in […]

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NASA Website

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Overview Pluto is a complex and mysterious world with mountains, valleys, plains, craters, and apparently even glaciers. Discovered in 1930, Pluto was long considered our solar system's ninth planet. But after the discovery that many similar, intriguing worlds inhabit the distant region beyond Neptune known as the Kuiper Belt, icy Pluto was reclassified as a [...]

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NASA Website

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Planet Neptune Overview Dark, cold and whipped by supersonic winds, giant Neptune is the eighth and most distant major planet orbiting our Sun. More than 30 times as far from the Sun as Earth, Neptune is not visible to the naked eye. In 2011, Neptune completed its first 165-year orbit since its discovery.

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NASA Website

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Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun, and has the third-largest diameter in our solar system. It was the first planet found with the aid of a telescope, Uranus was discovered in 1781 by astronomer William Herschel, although he originally thought it was either a comet or a star.

It was two years later that the object was universally accepted as a new planet, in part because of observations by astronomer Johann Elert Bode. Herschel tried unsuccessfully to name his discovery Georgium Sidus after King George III. Instead, the scientific community accepted Bode's suggestion to name it Uranus, the Greek god of the sky, as suggested by Bode.​

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Pop Culture

Uranus is the source of more than a few jokes and witty (and not so witty) puns, but the ice giant and its moons has been a serious destination various fictional stories, and on TV shows such as "Doctor Who." The radioactive element uranium was named after Uranus when it was discovered in 1789, just eight years after the planet was discovered.

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The seventh planet from the sun with the third largest diameter in our solar system, Uranus is very cold and windy.

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NASA Website

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Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest planet in our solar system. Adorned with a dazzling system of icy rings, Saturn is unique among the planets.

It is not the only planet to have rings, but none are as spectacular or as complex as Saturn's. Like fellow gas giant Jupiter, Saturn is a massive ball made mostly of hydrogen and helium.

The farthest planet from Earth discovered by the unaided human eye, Saturn has been known since ancient times. The planet is named for the Roman god of agriculture and wealth, who was also the father of Jupiter.

Perhaps the most iconic of all the planets in our solar system, Saturn is heavily present in pop culture.

It provides a backdrop for numerous science fiction stories, movies, and TV shows, comics, and video games, including the "Cthulhu Mythos," "WALL-E," "2001: A Space Odyssey," and "Star Trek." In Tim Burton's film "Beetlejuice," a dusty, fictional Saturn is populated by giant sandworms. And in the 2014 movie "Interstellar," the wormhole that enables the astronauts to travel to another galaxy appears near Saturn.

Saturn is also the namesake of Saturday, arguably the best day of the week.​

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Planet Saturn Overview Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest planet in our solar system. Adorned with a dazzling system of icy rings, Saturn is unique among the planets. It is not the only planet to have rings, but none are as spectacular or as complex as Saturn's.

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NASA Website

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Jupiter is the fifth planet from our Sun and is, by far, the largest planet in the solar system - more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined.

Jupiter's stripes and swirls are actually cold, windy clouds of ammonia and water, floating in an atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's iconic Great Red Spot is a giant storm bigger than Earth that has raged for hundreds of years.

Jupiter is named for the king of the ancient Roman gods.​

The biggest planet in our solar system has a large presence in pop culture, including many movies, TV shows, video games, and comics. Jupiter and its moons were notable destinations in "The Expanse" series, while various Jovian moons provide settings for "Cloud Atlas," "Futurama," "Power Rangers," and "Halo," among many others. In the movie "Men in Black" when Agent J - played by Will Smith - mentions he thought one of his childhood teachers was from Venus, Agent K - played by Tommy Lee Jones - replies that she is actually from one of Jupiter's moons.

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Jupiter is the fifth planet from our Sun and is, by far, the largest planet in the solar system - more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined. Its iconic Great Red Spot is a giant storm bigger than Earth, and has raged for hundreds of years.

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NASA Website

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Mars is a dusty, cold, desert world with a very thin atmosphere.

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NASA Website

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Earth—our home planet—is the only place we know of so far that’s inhabited by living things.

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NASA Website

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Venus is the second planet from the Sun and is Earth's closest planetary neighbor. It's one of the four inner, terrestrial (or rocky) planets, and it's often called Earth's twin because it's similar in size and density. These are not identical twins, however - there are radical differences between the two worlds.

Venus has a thick, toxic atmosphere filled with carbon dioxide and it's perpetually shrouded in thick, yellowish clouds of sulfuric acid that trap heat, causing a runaway greenhouse effect. It's the hottest planet in our solar system, even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. Surface temperatures on Venus are about 900 degrees Fahrenheit (475 degrees Celsius) - hot enough to melt lead. The surface is a rusty color and it's peppered with intensely crunched mountains and thousands of large volcanoes. Scientists think it's possible some volcanoes are still active.

Venus has crushing air pressure at its surface - more than 90 times that of Earth - similar to the pressure you'd encounter a mile below the ocean on Earth.

Another big difference from Earth - Venus rotates on its axis backward, compared to most of the other planets in the solar system. This means that, on Venus, the Sun rises in the west and sets in the east, opposite to what we experience on Earth. (It's not the only planet in our solar system with such an oddball rotation - Uranus spins on its side.)

Venus was the first planet to be explored by a spacecraft - NASA's Mariner 2 successfully flew by and scanned the cloud-covered world on Dec. 14, 1962. Since then, numerous spacecraft from the U.S. and other space agencies have explored Venus, including NASA's Magellan, which mapped the planet's surface with radar. Soviet spacecraft made the most successful landings on the surface of Venus to date, but they didn't survive long due to the extreme heat and crushing pressure. An American probe, one of NASA's Pioneer Venus Multiprobes, survived for about an hour after impacting the surface in 1978.

More recent Venus missions include ESA's Venus Express (which orbited from 2006 until 2016) and Japan's Akatsuki Venus Climate Orbiter (orbiting since 2016).

NASA's Parker Solar Probe has made multiple flybys of Venus. On Feb. 9, 2022, NASA announced the spacecraft had captured its f irst visible light images of the surface of Venus from space during its February 2021 flyby.

As Parker Solar Probe flew by Venus in February 2021, its WISPR instrument captured these images, strung into a video, showing the nightside surface of the planet. Credit: NASA/APL/NRL

In June 2021, three new missions to Venus were announced. NASA announced two new missions, and ESA announced one:

VERITAS: NASA's VERITAS, or Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy, will be the first NASA spacecraft to explore Venus since the 1990s. The spacecraft will launch no earlier than December 2027. It will orbit Venus, gathering data to reveal how the paths of Venus and Earth diverged, and how Venus lost its potential to be a habitable world.

DAVINCI: NASA's DAVINCI mission will launch in the late 2020s. After exploring the top of Venus's atmosphere, DAVINCI will drop a probe to the surface. On its hour-long descent, the probe will take thousands of measurements and snap up-close images of the surface. The probe may not survive the landing, but if it does, it could provide several minutes of bonus science.

EnVision: ESA has selected EnVision to make detailed observations of Venus. As a key partner in the mission, NASA is providing the Synthetic Aperture Radar, called VenSAR, to make high-resolution measurements of the planet's surface features.

Go Farther

Everything you need to know about Venus.

Venus In Depth

Ten Things to Know About Venus
Pop Culture

Because it's so bright and easy to see in the sky, Venus has played a role in popular culture since ancient times, inspiring writing and song:

It was called the most beautiful star in the sky by Homer, author of "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey" - two of the oldest and most important works in Greek literature.

More recently, Venus became a popular venue for 20th-century science fiction writers, including Edgar Rice Burroughs ("Pirates of Venus," 1934); Arthur C. Clarke ("Before Eden," 1961); and C.S. Lewis ("Perelandra," 1943).

Australian author Shirley Hazzard won the 1980 National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction with her book, "The Transit of Venus," about two orphaned sisters. American author John Gray used the planet and its masculine counterpart to explain relationships in his 1992 book "Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus."

A song called "Venus" was teen idol Frankie Avalon's first No. 1 hit when it topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1959. A decade later, a different song called "Venus" by the Dutch rock band Shocking Blue topped the charts in several countries. In 1986, British pop group Bananarama had a No. 1 hit in the U.S. with their cover of the song.

More recently, Venus has been a backdrop for video games such as Transhuman Space, Battlezone, and Destiny. And in the Disney animated film "The Princess and the Frog," Ray the firefly falls in love with Venus, "the evening star," as he has mistaken it for another firefly.

Kid-Friendly Venus

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Venus is the second planet from the sun and our closest planetary neighbor.

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NASA Website

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Planet Mercury Overview Mercury-the smallest planet in our solar system and nearest to the Sun-is only slightly larger than Earth's Moon. Its surface is covered in tens of thousands of impact craters. From the surface of Mercury, the Sun would appear more than three times as large as it does when viewed from Earth, and [...]