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Renford Reese

Abstract

This article briefly compares the prison system in the United States with progressive correctional systems in the world, before pivoting to discuss the lessons learned from the author's development of the Prison Education Project (PEP). PEP has expanded educational opportunities for inmates in 12 Californian correctional facilities. With the assistance of 800 university student and faculty volunteers, PEP has serviced approximately 5,000 inmates in these facilities since 2011. By providing academic, life skills and career development programming, PEP aims to educate, empower and transform the lives of incarcerated individuals. This article is a summary of the development of PEP, examining programme outcomes and highlighting implementation, fundraising and branding strategies. The robust spirit of volunteerism is also a central component of the discussion, with the phenomenon of "reciprocal reflex" at the heart of the PEP volunteer experience. This reflex ignites the passion and gratitude of both volunteers and inmates. The volunteers learn just as much as they teach, and the inmates teach just as much as they learn. The fact that each group shows deep gratitude to the other for the learning experience creates an exciting symbiotic loop and an esprit de corps which inspires and empowers all involved. The "reciprocal reflex" leads to lifelong learning. This article captures the intricate dynamics of how PEP has evolved into the largest volunteer-based prison education programme of its kind in the United States.

Keywords

Prison education Lifelong learning Volunteering

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References

1. Messemer, J. E. (2003). College programs for inmates: The post-Pell grant era. Journal of Correctional Education, 54(1), 32-39.

2. SPS (Singapore Prison Service). (2016). Enhancing inmates' employability to prevent re- offending. 2016 Singapore Prison Service Annual statistics release. Singapore: SPS. Retrieved 5 December 2017 from http://www.sps.gov.sg/docs/default-source/in-the-news-(news-release)/sps-annual-stats-release-for-2016-(14-feb-2017)_for-upload.pdf?sfvrsn=2 .

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature, and UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning 2017

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Renford Reese This article briefly compares the prison system in the United States with progressive correctional systems in the world, before pivoting to discuss the lessons learned from the author's development of the Prison Education Project (PEP). PEP has expanded educational opportunities for inmates in 12 Californian correctional facilities.

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Access the essential membership for Modern Managers

What makes a truly exceptional leader? Chances are we've all encountered them at some point in our careers: those leaders who stand out above the rest. Those who bring out the best in every one of their team members, and who consistently strive for greatness.

Take Molly for example. Everyone respects Molly. She inspires and encourages her team members, while expecting and demonstrating the highest standards. In return, her people are fiercely loyal, and they're highly successful - as individuals, and as a team. In short, Molly is a Transformational Leader.

By contrast, other leaders in the organization report that their people seem disengaged. They experience high staff turnover, and their results are often disappointing. So, what does Molly do that other leaders don't?

To begin with, Molly regularly reminds her team members of the purpose of their work. And she knows that she's a role model for her team, so she acts with integrity in all of her working relationships.

In this article and video, we'll explore what transformational leadership is, and discover what it takes to become a transformational leader.

What Is Transformational Leadership?

Leadership expert James MacGregor Burns introduced the concept of transformational leadership in his 1978 book, "Leadership." He defined transformational leadership as a process where "leaders and their followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation." [1]

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Watch this video to learn the definition of Transformational Leadership. Explore the theory behind this leadership style, and discover the characteristics of transformational leaders.

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Servant leadership

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Introduction

Recent marketing literature has begun to nurture from a new, very incipient perspective, the social values-driven Marketing 3.0 paradigm ( Kotler et al., 2010), which proffers the idea that customers are increasingly seeking solutions to their own concerns and are interested in building a better world. Such understanding involves purchase decisions on the basis of fulfilling social and ethical values (e.g., social justice, human welfare, environmental sustainability; Shaw et al., 2005; Hollenbeck and Zinkhan, 2010). In other words, in this new millennium, driven by the Marketing 3.0. paradigm, which entails a more human-centric perspective, customers look to products and services to meet their own needs in parallel with fulfilling spiritual, social and moral values ( Kotler et al., 2010). The extent to which a product or service provides freedom of choice, independence as well as benevolence, social justice, equality and environmental responsibility is becoming more and more crucial for customers when making purchase choices ( Martínez-Cañas et al., 2016), especially in a developed world, where consumption appears to have become an end in itself, through which customers find a voice to promote a better society ( Vrontis and Thrassou, 2007). Furthermore, customers are increasingly showing concerns about the effects of their purchase choices not only for themselves, but also for broader society ( Harrison, 2005; González and Fernández, 2016), which represents a strong embracement of transcendent motives in their actions. In other words, in addition to making purchase decisions with an eye on external benefits gained (i.e., extrinsic motivation) or the pleasure acquired from the purchase decision itself (i.e., intrinsic motivation), customers are more and more concerned about whether their purchase decisions contribute to solving the problems of someone else (i.e., transcendent motives). In effect, in the current millennium, customers are more and more worried about whether others, both known or unknown, meet human good, such as truth, beauty, work, friendship, life, and dignity, such that their purchase decisions' impact on others is carefully calculated ( Martínez-Cañas et al., 2016).

In accordance with the described scenario, in which customers are demanding that businesses act in a socially responsible manner ( Vrontis and Thrassou, 2007), it is of no surprise that managers are beginning to think of new customer-focused strategies to engage with the modern customer today ( González and Fernández, 2016). One of these interesting strategies to appeal to the customer in the current social values-driven Marketing 3.0 era is the development of servant leadership in service units -work units which are in close contact with customers-. While leadership is deemed a central aspect to orientate service units' mission and values toward a greater involvement and co-responsibility with broader society, servant leadership is the unique leadership approach which, as captured by its name, focuses on serving others ( Liden et al., 2014), including the least privileged in society ( Greenleaf, 1977). Servant leadership's concerns extend beyond the organization itself to meet the well-being of followers, customers, other stakeholders, and society in a wider sense ( Greenleaf, 1977; Barbuto and Wheeler, 2006). Their profound responsibility to serve others and contribute to the larger society is central in undertaking such leadership approach ( Liden et al., 2014). In addition it purports to show followers how to fulfill the business mission of serving broader society, ( Graham, 1991). Indeed, according to Greenleaf (1977), the first to coin the term after reading the Journey to the East by Herman Hesse, one of the central tenets of the servant leadership approach is that serving others entails encouraging others to do the same, so that they become servant leaders.

It is of no surprise then that this leadership approach results in an appropriate strategy to improve customer service ( Brownell, 2010; Wu et al., 2013). When servant leadership is present in service units, employees of such work units are more likely to provide genuine care to customers and, in turn, authentic, high-quality customer service ( Brownell, 2010). This process is possible because it is highly characteristic of servant leaders to fuel a cycle of service within their service units; servant leaders are role-models of servant behavior which, in turn, is mirrored by followers ( Hunter et al., 2013). Therefore, under the influence of servant leaders a service climate, i.e., workers' perception that internal practices, procedures, and behaviors support the provision of quality service- is likely to emerge. Furthermore, by shaping service climates, servant leaders should contribute to the enhancement of customer service performance, i.e., the workers' proficiency in undertaking the core parts of their service role to provide high-quality customer service. This finds support in service-linkage research ( Wiley, 1996; Pugh et al., 2002; Schneider et al., 2005), which is concerned with finding the links between employees and customers in service firms -where the boundaries between both agents are fairly permeable-. According to this perspective there must be specific drivers which link employees' perceptions of various inter-organizational practices to customer perceptions, and some studies have argued that service climate is the bridge, the missing link between what happens inside -procedures, practices-, and what happens outside -customers' perceptions- ( Schneider et al., 2002; Hong et al., 2013). In fact, prior research has linked service climate to perceptions of service quality ( Gracia et al., 2010), and service performance ( Liao and Chuang, 2007).

It seems then that servant leaders in the new millennium, which depicts a scenario where customers are more concerned about how to contribute to build a better world, might play a role in improving customer service performance; however, such influence might occur by fostering and shaping service climates within their service units. To the best of our knowledge, this particular point has not yet been addressed in existing research. Therefore, this study pursues two main objectives. First, we will investigate whether servant leadership might be a suitable leadership strategy to improve customer service performance, as a measure which captures service units' emphasis on service quality. Second, and more importantly, we examine the mediating effect of service climate between servant leadership and customer service performance. These relationships will be analyzed at the work unit level via spanning service units. The work unit, rather than the individual, is the building block of organizations, today ( West and Markiewicz, 2004) and permits managers to work closely with followers on a daily basis. Service units in service, tourism firms, i.e., hotels, represent suitable units of analysis for uncovering the influence of servant leadership on service climate and service customer performance.

Theory and Hypotheses Development

The Nature of Servant Leadership

With its strong, unique focus on serving others ( Wu et al., 2013; Liden et al., 2014), servant leadership offers unique aspects which can enhance the quality of service provided to customers. Greenleaf (1977, p. 27) coined the concept of servant leadership, though he failed to give a formal definition, and described the phenomenon of servant leadership as:

The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that other people's highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to administer, is this: Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they benefit or at least not be further deprived?

Such description clarifies two core aspects of the servant leadership strategy. First, servant leadership extend their service approach to the various stakeholders, including employees, customers, and society in general ( Graham, 1991; Wu et al., 2013); these leaders even raise strong concerns focused on improving the well-being of the least privileged in society. As such, because the servant leader's area of concern extends beyond the business organization and includes the broader social environment ( Brownell, 2010), these leaders demonstrate a high level of social responsibility for the well-being of society in general ( Reinke, 2004). Second, servant leadership prioritizes the fulfillment of others' needs above their own personal needs ( Greenleaf, 1977), and inspire followers to develop intelligently, be creative and self-manage in order to serve others ( Liden et al., 2008). As a result, because servant leaders practice this "service" mindset in all aspects of their lives ( Liden et al., 2008), the principle of serving others above serving oneself is unlikely not to radiate out toward followers' mindsets, attitudes, and behaviors. In effect, servant leaders encourage their followers to develop servant behaviors that will benefit all stakeholders ( Liden et al., 2008; Sendjaya et al., 2008), thus ensuring that the strategies and decisions they opt for will offer a positive legacy to society ( Barbuto and Wheeler, 2006). Because servant leaders are constantly searching out benefits to society ( Searle and Barbuto, 2011), they are likely to inspire related servant attitudes in their followers to do their best to the benefit of all stakeholders, including customers. Thus, by developing a deep level of identification with the behavior carried out by their servant leaders ( Zhang et al., 2012), employees should take personal responsibility for providing assistance and worth to customers, and thus provide services which are authentic and of superior quality ( Brownell, 2010).

Servant Leaders and Customer Service Performance

One of the key characteristics that sets service companies apart from those which produce goods is the simultaneous nature of service production and consumption, which, in many cases, results in consumer participation in the co-creation of the service ( Bowen and Schneider, 1988). As such, the experience provided to the consumer upon receiving services is as important as, or even more important than, the product offered to the consumer ( Bowen and Waldman, 1999). This has led to a paradigm shift for service companies when defining (customer service) performance, moving away from a focus on behavior evaluation to achieve organizational objectives ( Campbell et al., 1993), toward a greater focus on behavior developed by the worker himself/herself, which is geared toward serving and helping the customer with the goal of providing high-quality service ( Liao and Chuang, 2004).

This change of perspective means that the worker maintains direct and ongoing contact with the customer, thus increasing uncertainty as to how to interact with the customer, as in many cases the customer demands an immediate solution ( Skaggs and Galli-Debicella, 2012). In these circumstances, the development of leaders who offer their workers both guidance and common sense, and who consistently cover all of his workers' needs, is vital for improving workers' performance ( McGrath, 1962; Morgeson et al., 2010). As such, given that servant leadership develops social responsibility when serving both workers and customers ( Mahembe and Engelbrecht, 2014), servant leadership in managerial roles appears to be a key element to generate a higher level of customer service performance ( Chen et al., 2015). In effect, servant leaders possess impressive conceptual abilities for offering workers direction, support and clarity in solving day-to-day problems ( van Dierendonck, 2011). These aspects help workers cultivate a precise understanding of their changing environment and develop individual and group skills ( Hu and Liden, 2011). Some of these skills are, for example, more creative performance ( Neubert et al., 2008), independence and self-confidence ( Liden et al., 2008), which facilitates behavior which is spontaneous and useful in meeting customer demands without needing any type of supervision ( Chen et al., 2015).

The positive relationship between servant leadership and customer service performance can be explained using the social exchange theory (SET, Blau, 1964; Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005). SET theory indicates that social relationships are based on norms of reciprocity ( Gouldner, 1960), where people look to maintain psychological balance in their social interactions, returning "favors" to those who have demonstrated proactive and positive tendencies toward them. Accordingly, when servant leaders in service units put their workers first, and display a service attitude and sincere concern for covering workers' needs of personal and professional growth ( Greenleaf, 1977), they create a psychological imbalance in workers' relationships with these leaders. In a bid to benefit these leaders, workers might engage in service behaviors, directed to benefit the service unit, by superbly attending, for example, to customers' needs. These behaviors, might also be impregnated with servant leaders' strong emphasis in meeting the well-being of others, including customers and broader society, as these workers should become servants to an even greater extent according to Greenleaf (1977). As such, the display of such behaviors in encounters with customers should result in high-quality services, particularly in the present environment, in which customers are more and more needful of signals showing that the products and services they consume contribute to building a better society. Various studies support this relationship. While Netemeyer et al. (2005) recognize the better the leader-worker relationship, the stronger the impact is on the relationships maintained between workers and customers, other studies confirm a positive relationship between servant leaders and workers, which, in turn, translates into better worker-customer relationships and higher quality of service provided to customers ( Jaramillo et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2015; Ling et al., 2016). Formally:

Servant leadership is directly, positively related to customer service performance.

Servant Leaders and Service Climate

Leadership is one of the most important factors in the process of climatic formation ( Kozlowski and Doherty, 1989). Supervisors who model their leadership approach to all of their workers represent significant influences in forming the climate and providing it with content ( Mayer et al., 2007). As such, servant leaders, by maintaining a service attitude oriented to meet both workers and customers' needs ( Wu et al., 2013), are active agents in forming a service climate within the work units to which these leaders belong ( Walumbwa et al., 2010). In effect, service climate, defined as "employee perceptions of the practices, procedures, and behaviors that get rewarded, supported, and expected with regard to customer service and customer service quality" ( Schneider et al., 1998, p. 151), is likely to emerge in service units which are led by servant leaders, as explained by social learning theory (SLT, Bandura, 1977, 1986).

Social learning theory contends that individuals learn the appropriate behavior by observing and emulating values, attitudes and behaviors of attractive, credible role models ( Bandura, 1977, 1986). Managers become these influential referents ( Mayer et al., 2012) because they embody proximity, frequent social interaction, and formal authority ( Merton, 1957; Sutherland and Cressey, 1970), which makes it easier for them to garner attention and convey attractive information. As such, workers, through observing supervisors' behaviors in a day-to-day work setting, are likely to engage in imitative behaviors ( Hall and Lord, 1995), which can be further intensified whenever workers perceive their leaders to be in possession of qualities they consider to be attractive ( Neubert et al., 2008; Mayer et al., 2012).

Servant leaders capture such attractiveness as they offer guidance and direction to workers and, by being humble, loving, empathetic, and servant ( Sun, 2013), manifests sincere concern for satisfying the needs of both workers and customers ( Wu et al., 2013). Imitative behavioral trends are highly probable in workers who are led by servant leaders, who will manifest behaviors that are similar to those of their leaders ( Hunter et al., 2013), behaviors which are oriented to serve broader society by developing people committed, in turn, to serve society ( Sims, 2005). This service-oriented behavior, developed by workers, results in a phenomenon of contagion ( Bono and Ilies, 2006) among all members of the service unit which inspires a continuing service cycle ( Hunter et al., 2013), a service-oriented culture ( Liden et al., 2014) and, overall, a greater service climate ( Walumbwa et al., 2010). The result is the creation of a work environment where members of the service unit share social behavioral norms, aimed first and foremost at offering high-quality service ( Schneider et al., 2002). Accordingly, we propose:

Servant leadership is directly, positively related to service climate.

Service Climate and Customer Service Performance

Organizational theorists emphasize the importance of the organizational climate in determining employees' attitudes and behaviors ( Schneider et al., 2013). In accordance with the social information processing theory (SIP, Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978), employees collect the various messages released by their work units and utilize this information for decision making issues. Employees usually tend to adapt their feelings, attitudes, and behaviors according to what they perceive in their immediate work environment ( Van Dyne et al., 1995). Therefore, the organizational climate, understood as the shared perceptions regarding policies, procedures, and practices ( Schneider, 1990) which signal how things ought to be done and what behaviors are proper in the work environment ( Liao and Chuang, 2007), represents an important influence on employees' performance ( Schneider and Barbera, 2014). In fact, depending on the specific dimension the organizational climate emphasizes, a number of studies have revealed its significant influence on specific behavioral outcomes regarding areas such as safety (i.e., Zohar and Luria, 2004), ethics (i.e., Deshpande, 1996), innovation ( Anderson and West, 1998) or service (i.e., Schneider et al., 2009). This is because such specific climates represent the best source of cues to interpret events, undertake proper attitudes, and understand behavioral expectations concerning the different areas or dimensions emphasized.

In the particular case of service climate, it helps employees internalize that excellent service is expected, desired, and rewarded; it also represents a strong motivational force to deliver the best service in day-to-day activities ( Liao and Chuang, 2007; Liao et al., 2009). Such perception is important in the service context, where services are produced and delivered in real time by unit employees ( Ehrhart et al., 2011); in such contexts, the more customers perceive service quality is central for employees, the better their service experience ( Schneider and White, 2004). This is not surprising as this specific climate emphasizes service quality to a great extent, so as a result, it should have a direct impact on service outcomes ( Schneider, 1990) such as customer service performance. Indeed, employees highly engaged and sharing common perceptions about providing good quality of service to customers should perform well with customers ( Salanova et al., 2005). This should occur because of social learning mechanisms ( Bandura, 1977, 1986) as well as because perceptions that a high value for service is the tone, which should provide meaning to work and make employees enjoy their jobs to a greater extent ( Hong et al., 2013). Earlier empirical research has consistently revealed that service climate enhances customer service performance ( Borucki and Burke, 1999; Liao and Chuang, 2004, 2007; Salanova et al., 2005; Ehrhart et al., 2011; Hong et al., 2013). Thus, we predict:

Service climate is directly, positively related to customer service performance.

Servant Leaders-Customer Service Performance: The Mediation of Service Climate

According to linkage research (i.e., Wiley, 1996; Schneider et al., 1998; Wiley and Brooks, 2000; Pugh et al., 2002), there are internal elements of the work environment which can be strongly linked to critical external performance outcomes. Service climate is one of these internal elements which recent research has identified as the bridge between the work environment -as perceived by employees- and critical, external performance success factors oriented to the customer (e.g., customer service performance, Hong et al., 2013). This is important because it permits managers to apply an indirect approach, by focusing on more easily manageable internal aspects (e.g., leadership), to encourage customer service-minded behavior ( Solnet, 2007), which can be conducive of better customer service perfomance.

Looking into internal elements, servant leadership implies an environmental stimulus ( Hu and Liden, 2011) which is built upon service values based on genuine concern for and loving care of others ( van Dierendonck, 2011; Hunter et al., 2013). Such stimulus should germinate, grow and propagate within the collective, because drawing on SLT ( Bandura, 1977, 1986) workers feel attracted to imitate such attractive leaders by engaging in similar servant behaviors ( Liden et al., 2014). Hence, servant leadership within service units should be associated with the shared perception that interpersonal relationships rest upon such service values, which should help shape a climate fostering helpful behavior oriented to offer high quality service (i.e., Walumbwa et al., 2010). Servant leaders foster climates which send clear messages that egotistical behavior is not tolerated ( Liden et al., 2014), and service spirit is strongly encouraged ( Liden et al., 2008).

Looking at external performance outcomes, various studies have revealed clear positive effects of service climate on customers ( Bowen and Schneider, 2014), such as, for example, customer service (e.g., Schneider and Bowen, 1985), customer satisfaction (e.g., Schneider et al., 1996), and customer loyalty (e.g., Salanova et al., 2005). This is because in scenarios where service climate is perceived, workers share the understanding that the behavioral norms and expectations are to prioritize the needs of others ( Liden et al., 2014), specifically, customers, which encourages employees' strong engagement in high-quality service behavior directed to the customer ( Liao and Chuang, 2007). Such a service climate is ignited through a spillover process spreading service attitudes and behaviors which should be noted in employee-customer interactions. With customers perceiving employees to be warm, in a good mood, and willing to dedicate time to understand their needs, customers get a good feeling about the service received. Such good feelings would also be nurtured as long as these influenced servant workers show strong concern for building a better society -which is an increasing concern of customers, today ( Vrontis and Thrassou, 2007)-. In other words, by observing workers who behave in this way, customers should enjoy such an awesome experience that they should feel that a high quality service has been received ( Hong et al., 2013).

Overall, by combining both internal and external perspectives, we contend that because servant leaders enhance service climate within their service units ( Walumbwa et al., 2010), these leaders improve the quality of service that workers offer to customers ( Ling et al., 2016). In other words, by drawing on the broad existing body of linkage research ( Wiley, 1996; Schneider et al., 1998; Wiley and Brooks, 2000; Pugh et al., 2002), we contend that service climate is the bridge between servant leadership and customer service performance. Thus, we propose:

Service climate mediates the relationship between servant leadership and customer service performance.

This last hypothesis combined with the previous ones make it possible to summarize our research model as displayed in .

Method

Sample and Procedure

In order to test these relationships, we conducted surveys to gather data in Spain's hospitality industry, which is likely to attract managers who are servant leaders. Customer service of the utmost quality is key for success of companies in this sector, so servant leadership strategies could make an important difference and be common in these circles ( Wu et al., 2013).

In an effort to minimize common method bias (CMB), and social desirability bias (SDB), we selected the most fitting participants for all our study constructs ( Podsakoff et al., 2003). Firstly, workers were selected to measure the extent to which their supervisors can be portrayed as using a servant leadership strategy. Secondly, service climate was measured by using both workers' ratings and supervisors' ratings, as it allows us to minimize the same-source bias problem ( Ostroff et al., 2002) and thus have a more objective indicator of the phenomena. Finally, customer service performance was assessed by the hotel general manager, not by service units' supervisors who might give biases responses. Accordingly, we designed three different questionnaires for each target respondent (i.e., hotel general manager, service unit supervisor, service unit worker). We pilot tested each questionnaire with a convenience sample of 3 general managers, 10 supervisors, and 25 workers in 3 hotels, respectively, which confirmed the clarity, comprehension, readability, and suitability of the items included. Surveys' cover letters for each target respondent indicated absolute anonymity, and noted that only aggregated data would be utilized for research purposes.

Once consent was gained from the general managers at 185 hotels, each located in a distinct Spanish historical site, data from 247 service units (three members per unit at a minimum) which were in close contact with customers (e.g., reception desk, restaurant) could be gathered. Both supervisor and workers' responses were collected per each service unit; in total 840 responses were received -the response rate was high, around 77%-. As to collection of data concerning each unit's customer service performance, hotel general managers were also surveyed; in total 185 responses were obtained. Data were collected at specific sites in each establishment, which helped us ensure that each survey was paired with its corresponding service unit and hotel.

As further countermeasures for the CMB and SDB issues, the design of the survey was based on recommendations raised by Podsakoff et al. (2003) and Conway and Lance (2010). For example, the survey's cover letter highlighted the fact that there were no correct or incorrect answers, thanked participants in advance for being honest, and noted that all responses would remain anonymous. Participants did not have to share their names, job titles or employers' names in the survey. Furthermore, the cover letter clearly stated that the results were for academic purposes only, thus reducing SDB ( Nancarrow et al., 2001). Lastly, when designing the survey ( Podsakoff et al., 2003), we worked to ensure a psychological separation between predictors and outcome variables, to keep them from seeming related. We also used distractor elements and utilized items that were simple, focused and concise.

Measures

The survey was conducted in Spanish. Brislin's (1980) back-translation procedure was conducted to our mediator and independent variable, and no meaningful differences between the two translations from and to English were noticed. An exhaustive analysis, according to MacKenzie et al.'s (2005) criteria, showed that all our measures contained highly correlated indicators; in other words, our survey included reflective measures in all cases.

Data Analysis

We utilized partial least squares via Smart PLS 3.2.6 ( Ringle et al., 2015) to test our hypotheses. Such an impressive and potent statistical procedure ( Chin et al., 2003) makes the causal analyses of complex situations possible ( Henseler et al., 2009). As a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach, it is also suitable for testing mediation hypotheses ( James et al., 2006). Also, PLS does not make it necessary to demand assumptions concerning the distribution of the variables ( Henseler et al., 2009). As recommended, our PLS analysis used 5,000 subsamples to generate standard errors and bootstrap t-statistics with n-1 degrees of freedom (where n is the number of subsamples) to evaluate statistical significance of path coefficients ( Henseler et al., 2009).

We tested the hypotheses at the unit level of analysis, using a sample of 247 service units ( n = 247). To run our SEM model at the unit level, our servant leadership variable was formed by ratings provided by service unit workers which were averaged to yield service unit-level scores. Likewise, our service climate variable was constructed using ratings provided by the supervisor and workers of each service unit, that were averaged together to obtain unit-level scores. Finally, our criterion variable, customer service performance, was created based on ratings provided by the general manager of the hotel to which each service unit belonged to.

Hypotheses Testing

The variance associated with our control variables was practically non-existent as and reveals. Only service unit level of education was significantly, positively related to service unit's customer service performance (β = 0.10, p < 0.10), thus suggesting the importance of considering this aspect when configuring the workforce of service units. and contain findings concerning our hypotheses, as well. Contrary to our expectations concerning H1, servant leadership was not directly related to customer service performance (β = -0.03, not significant, and ), so our H1 could not be supported. However, we found support for H2 and H3, because servant leadership related directly, positively to service climate (β = 0.65, p < 0.001, and ) and service climate was directly, positively related to customer service performance (β = 0.33, p < 0.001, and ). Thus, while servant leadership was not found to influence customer service performance directly, our findings reveal that servant leadership is an important antecedent of service climate, which, in turn, impacts customer service performance, in clear support of H2 and H3, respectively.

To test H4, regarding the indirect effects of servant leadership on customer service performance, we adopted Preacher and Hayes's (2004) approach. In a bootstrap test with 5,000 subsamples ( Hayes, 2009; Preacher and Hayes, 2004), the indirect effect was significant ( b = 0.20, p < 0.01), and zero was absent from the 99% bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap confidence intervals (CI lower level = 0.11; CI upper level = 0.31). The evidence of significance of this indirect effect suggests that mediation exists ( Preacher and Hayes, 2004) and provides the empirical basis to analyze the mediation effect ( MacKinnon et al., 2002). For the mediation test, we used Tippins and Sohi's (2003) four-criterion procedure -which includes Baron and Kenny's (1986) criteria- but applies to SEM better because it compares an unmediated model with a mediated model to find significant differences () and test if these four statistical conditions are met. The first criterion was met because the mediated model accounted for more variance in consumer service performance than the unmediated model ( and ). Also, in line with H2, servant leadership related positively, directly to service climate, which offered support for the second requirement for mediation. Likewise, our results confirmed the third condition, because service climate had a significant, positive, direct effect on customer service performance, which was also medium in size ( R ² = 0.11; ). Finally, according to the fourth condition, there was a significant positive effect of servant leadership on customer service performance in a model in which the mediator was excluded (β Unmediated Model = 0.19, p < 0.01), but dropped to null when the mediator was added, implying full mediation (β Mediated Model = -0.03, n.s.) (See ). In summary, although this mediation effect was small in size ( f ² ≥ 0.02; ) ( Cohen, 1988), our results reveal that service climate mediates the relationship between servant leadership and customer service performance, prominently. Thus, the positive impact of servant leadership on customer service performance is not direct, but indirect, through enhancing service climate, in full support of H4.

Discussion and Conclusion

Theoretical Contributions

In the service industry, the quality of employee-customer interactions is deemed a critical aspect to gain excellent customer service performance. Such encounters often represent the only contact customers have with the organization, so managers should manage these interactions properly ( Solnet, 2007). However, although traditional control mechanisms can help manage such interactions (i.e., reward and punishment systems, incentives), it is not enough to control every conscious or unconscious word, gesture and attitude employees may show. With this study we provide new strategies far less based on control mechanisms as helpful in approaching customers properly, especially in the current times in which customers are increasingly social-aware. Specifically, we contributed to showing how the generation and development of servant leadership behaviors in managerial roles within service units leads to higher customer service performance, if only because servant leadership enhances service climate. It is important because it sends the clear message to managers that what they do in their day-to-day worklife, including attitudes, gestures, words, behaviors, matters to the point of enhancing service climate, and, in turn, customer service performance of their service units.

In this study we focused on the mediating role of service climate in this relationship as a broad body of prior research, known as linkage research (i.e., Wiley, 1996; Schneider et al., 1998; Wiley and Brooks, 2000; Pugh et al., 2002), has highlighted its significant role as the bridge which links employee perceptions of internal factors with important external criterion measures of outcomes such as quality of employee-customers interactions. The results confirmed the key role of service climate in linking servant leadership to customer-servicer performance. As we expected, service climate mediated the relationship between servant leadership of managers and the service unit's customer service performance and did it in a complete way, as the direct effect of servant leadership disappeared when service climate was included. Such a finding is in line with and qualifies prior research (i.e., Salanova et al., 2005) as it puts on the table that one specific leadership strategy, i.e., servant leadership, which is gaining increased attention over the years ( van Dierendonck, 2011), is powerful in enhancing service climate, through which customer service performance can be ultimately improved. Servant leadership is unique in capturing servanthood, genuine concern in the growth of others, including workers, customers and the least privileged in society; this leadership approach shows care for social order as well as compassion and justice ( Sims, 2005), which fits the rationales behind the values-driven Marketing 3.0 paradigm ( Kotler et al., 2010). Hence, our study contributes to existing literature by highlighting the critical personal aspects (i.e., servanthood) managers should exhibit in their attitudes, values and behaviors, to shape a service climate which truly has an outstanding impact on customer service performance, especially in this new millennium in which customers are increasingly social aware.

Practical Implications

The results of the present study allow us to suggest several implications from a practical, managerial perspective. For example, managers can use the knowledge in this research to note how important the leadership strategy they show is, and which aspects should be emphasized to improve customer firm performance. Specifically, managers should exhibit genuine servant behaviors, including genuine interest in serving workers, customers and broader society. To this end, the strategic plan managers can implement is twofold. First, training programs focused on coaching managers in the area of the servant leadership philosophy could be useful, even though the interest in developing a servant leadership approach should come from the inner self ( Ling et al., 2016). Indeed, servant attitudes and behaviors can be learnt, as well ( Brownell, 2010), so by implementing training programs which enable more empathetic disposition and stronger concern about needs of others to be shown, managers could learn to develop servant leadership. Second, human resource managers should emphasize servant leadership traits when hiring new managers. Using personality tests involving specific items which evaluate personal aspects such as honesty, servanthood, stewardship or empathetic orientation ( Hunter et al., 2013) could help find the right candidate for the position of manager.

In addition, managers should not ignore the important role of shaping a service climate within their service units to gain excellent customer service performance. Servant leadership, and its focus on serving others over and above oneself is principal in shaping such a service climate, and can involve, in turn, the design and implementation of a number of processes as described next. For example, servant managers should make sure that a human resources practices system oriented to both support workers in their day-to-day interactions with customers and provide these contact workers with the relevant knowledge and skills to succeed (by offering a high quality service) is properly implemented. Also, this system should serve: (a) to send clear information concerning standards of customer service to be provided, (b) to educate employees about how to perform in employee-customers encounters, properly, and (c) to design two-way communication channels which make managers realize problems and needs of employees in their daily tasks, and personal interactions with customers. Overall, managers should devote time and energy to serve contact workers, including providing due resources to approach customers, properly, so workers can share the idea that all the functioning of their specific service units focus on service quality, and thus emphasize a strong service climate.

Limitations and Further Research

Our findings must be considered in light of some limitations. Some stem from our research design. One limitation is, for example, that because our investigation was designed in a cross-sectional manner, we cannot offer strong causal inferences, so future research should include longitudinal designs to address our causality inferences more precisely. Also, our study was conducted in the customer service-oriented hospitality industry of historical sites situated in a specific cultural context (i.e., Spain); hence, future studies interested in generalizing our findings to other industries and cultural contexts should design cross-cultural studies spanning various, distinct service industries. Furthermore, although we collected our data by three different ways (employees, supervisors, hotel general managers), which improves data reliability, and minimizes CMB to a great extent ( Podsakoff et al., 2003), future research could include customers to evaluate the dependent variable in our investigation (customer service performance), as well as aspects such as customer satisfaction and quality of service. In this connection, future research interested in advancing our findings could also ask customers about their system of values, by utilizing scales such as the Rokeach's (1973) or Schwartz's (1994) values surveys; this could help test if the servant leadership-customer service performance is contingent upon customers who are more or less socially aware.

Another important limitation is that we examined service climate as a relevant mediating variable between servant leadership and customer service performance, but other mechanisms might explain this relationship, as well. For example, employee service unit identification has been recognized as having an important role in gaining good employee-customer interactions and customer satisfaction ( Solnet, 2007). Chen et al. (2015), find that this variable and other social identity factors (i.e., service unit self-efficacy) might have to do something in this relationship. Future research could evaluate the mediating role of such social identity variables in our relationship, and test whether service climate increases customer service performance via igniting higher service unit self-efficacy and employee identification. Also, a multilevel analysis which evaluates, within our research model, the influential role of individual-level variables that are often enhanced by servant leadership (e.g., service attitude, altruistic behavior) represents an appealing area for future research.

Finally, we examined the influential role of servant leadership of supervisors within service units. This choice was made on the basis that this is the person with whom workers spend more time and interact most, which allowed us to investigate the effects of servant leadership on service climate and customer service performance, more accurately. However, some other studies have also demonstrated positive effects of general managers' servant leadership on valuable organizational outcomes ( Peterson et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2016). Thus, an interesting area of future research is to examine the trickle-down effect of servant leadership within the organization, and test the combined positive effects of servant leadership in the various hierarchical levels on both service climate and customer service performance, and at either the service or organization unit level.

In short, our investigation provides key insights about new strategies, i.e., servant leadership, to gain customer service performance in a new era in which customers are more concerned about building a better society. This research also reveals the mechanisms, i.e., service climate, by which servant leaders boost such customer service performance in service units, and provides a map for avenues of appealing, ongoing research.

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New Strategies in the New Millennium: Servant Leadership As Enhancer of Service Climate and Customer Service Performance

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In a world in which customers are increasingly looking for solutions to their own concerns on how to make a better globalized world, new organizational strategies are emerging to approach the customer in the current third millennium. Servant leadership, ...

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Why Do Some People Become Great Leaders?

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Why do certain people become great leaders? Leadership theories seek to answer this question and usually fit into one of eight basic types.

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The concept of leadership has been well-researched since the antiquated times. Over the years, the studies have yielded a plethora of works and data relevant to transactional and transformational leadership (TL). There are numerous definitions of such leadership that have come to light however these definitions have always been debatable. Most scholars agree that the concept of leadership does not ascribe to one specific definition. Burns[ 1, 2] however, provided the following definition of leadership in his landmark publication, leadership: "Leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the values and the motivations - the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations - of both leaders and followers. Moreover, the genius of TL lies in the manner in which leaders see and act on their own and their followers' values and motivations." This is reflected throughout history as the evolvement of many leaders has left lasting marks and impressions upon the world. Well-known leaders such as Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Winston Churchill, Adolph Hitler, Josef Stalin, Mahatma Ghandi, and Martin Luther King, Jr. endowed superior qualities that differentiated them from followers. The TL traits possessed by these leaders are having definite link with some of the constructs of emotional intelligence (EI) of inspired others to become devoted followers who were committed to their cause. Leadership in this sense is an aspect of power, but unlike power, leadership is inseparable from followers' needs and goals.[ 2]

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ITS RELEVANCE

Many researchers have been working in the area of EI and its important constructs. Some of the important works are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

Salovey and Mayer[ 3] first introduced the concept of EI as a type of social intelligence, separable from general intelligence. According to them, EI is the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and use the information to guide one's thinking and actions. It has been brought that EI is the common element that influences the different ways in which people develop in their lives, jobs, and social skills; handle frustration; control their emotions; and get along with other people. It has been found that the difference between a simply brilliant person and a brilliant manager is due to a person's EI.

Bardzill and Slaski[ 4] found that organizational leaders must recognize the importance of EI behavior and reward it actively. Positive reinforcement of an EI environment ensures the development of a service - orientated climate. Emotional elements underlie the dynamics of many aspects of modern organizations, and the role of EI should be considered while devising organizational policies, processes, and procedures.

Welch[ 5] said that EI enables teams to boost their performance. In an era of teamwork, it is essential to figure out what makes teams work. His research has shown that just like individuals, the most effective teams are the EI ones and that any team can improve and attain higher levels of EI. In his study, teams with identical aggregate intelligence quotient (IQ) were compared, and it was found that teams with high levels of EI outperformed teams with low levels of EI by a margin of two to one.

Turner[ 6] stated that EI is the softer component of the total intelligence and that it contributes to both professional and personal lives. Traditional IQ is the ability to learn, understand and reason. It is now thought to contribute only 20% to one's success, whereas emotional quotient (EQ), which is the ability to understand oneself and interact with people, contributes 80%. EQ is critical to effective leadership. IQ has been linked to job performance and were a key element in recruitment. However, EQ is evident in the leaders'/managers' ability to retain their positions and be successful in their roles. The fact is that most firms hire for intelligence (IQ) and sack because of attitude (EQ).

Vakola et al.[ 7] presented that EI contributes to a better understanding of the affective implications of a change of policy in an organization. More specifically, they claimed that employees with low control of emotions react negatively toward the proposed changes since they are not well equipped to deal effectively with the demands and the affective consequences of such a stressful, emotionally expensive procedure.

LINKAGES BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

One of the most prominent developments in the investigation of EI and TL is the confirmation of its utility for increasing organizational satisfaction, commitment, and effectiveness. Empirical research by Masi and Cooke[ 8] compared the impact of TL and transactional leadership on follower motivation, empowerment, and commitment to quality. They found TL tends to empower and motivate followers while transactional leadership, which focuses on rewards or the threat of withholding rewards (Bass and Avolio[ 9]), tends to suppress follower commitment to both quality and productivity.

Bass and Avolio[ 10] proposed that the four dimensions, which comprise TL behavior are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual simulation, and individualized consideration. Copper[ 11] showed that the trustworthiness is an important element in a leader's makeup as shown in the previously described study. Without trust, much time and effort are spent on nonproductive activities because leaders feel compelled to draw up procedures in great detail, even for simple transactions. Innovation will stop when subordinates do not trust the leaders. Creativity will vanish if the sense of trust in an organization is lost and if people are preoccupied with protecting their backs.

It has been found that transformational behaviors on the part of leaders promote empowering cultural norms, high levels of subordinate motivation, commitment to quality, and enhanced productivity. It was seen that empowering cultural norms of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) promotes constructive and achievement-oriented behaviors by members. Such norms are associated with basic values and shared assumptions emphasizing the significance of organizational members' roles and collaboration through motivation rather than by competition. Motivation in this context is the extrinsically stimulated "extra effort" on the part of subordinates inspired by transformational leaders. Transformational leaders enhance the OCB of followers through motivation.

Palmer et al.[ 12] found that the inspirational motivation and individualized consideration components of TL are significantly correlated with the ability to both monitor and manage emotions in oneself and others. According to Brief and Weiss,[ 13] transformational leaders feel excited, enthusiastic and energetic, thus energize their followers. Transformational leaders use strong emotions to arouse similar feelings in their audiences. Kark and Shamir[ 14] suggested that transformational leaders can have a dual effect, exerting their influence on followers through the creation of personal identification with the leader and social identification with the work unit, and that these different forms of identification can lead to differential outcomes.

RECOMMENDED MODEL OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Based on the various literature survey, it is established that constructs of EI such as self-awareness, empathy and motivation have direct positive co-relation with TL traits such as individual influence, individualized consideration and inspirational motivation. It is thereby inferred that more EI competent leader will be able to influence his followers with his individual personality and motivate them very well. Also with enhanced EI competency the empathy will be more pronounced, and he can give individualized consideration to his followers. The model is depicted pictorially in the following diagram.

CONCLUSION

Having reviewed a considerable number of papers, it is observed that TL has definite positive correlation with EI barring few exceptions. As per various studies carried out in varied environments reveal that emotionally competent leaders at various levels of management are more successful in their organization and they are able to transform the people and work culture by their individual personality traits and inspirational motivating power. Some of the inferences are listed below:

EQ is critical to TL

EI is a stronger predictor of job performance and OCB

Leaders having higher EI show better quality of work performance

TL enhances organizational performance while few contradict this

Four dimensions, which comprise TL behavior are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual simulation, and individualized consideration

Transformational leaders are frequently motivated to go beyond the call of duty for the benefit of their organization

Transformational behaviors of leaders promote empowering cultural norms, high levels of subordinate motivation, commitment to quality and enhanced productivity

Transformational leaders feel excited, enthusiastic and energetic, thus energize their followers. Transformational leaders use strong emotions to arouse similar feelings in their followers through EI competency.

REFERENCES

1. Leithwood K, Jantzi D, Steinbach R. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open University Press; 1999. Changing Leadership for Changing Times. [ Google Scholar]

2. Burns JM. New York: Harper and Row; 1978. Leadership. [ Google Scholar]

9. Bass BM, Avolio BJ. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press; 1994. Transformational leadership development: Manual for the Multifactor leadership Questionnaire. [ Google Scholar]

13. Brief AP, Weiss HM. Organizational behavior: Affect in the workplace. Annu Rev Psychol. 2002;53:279-307. [[ PubMed] Google Scholar]

14. Kark R, Shamir B. The dual effect of transformational leadership primary relational and collective selves and further effects on followers In B.J. 2002 Aug [ Google Scholar]

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Establishing linkages between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The concept of leadership has been well-researched since the antiquated times. Over the years, the studies have yielded a plethora of works and data relevant to transactional and transformational leadership (TL). There are numerous definitions of such leadership that have come to light however these definitions have always been debatable.

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New York court: Firing a teacher for social-media "vent" was "shockingly" unfair - Google Search

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Apr 30, 2012 ... NYS Court of Appeals: DOE Loses The Appeal of 90-days Suspension For Teacher Colleen McGraham. City School Dist. of the City of New York v McGraham ..... to article 10 of the Family Court Act and Social Services Law § 384 -a. ...

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Meanwhile, college instructors are increasingly in precarious employment situations. This may help explain the degree of Facebook venting. Some of the instructors whom undergraduates call "professor" are actually graduate students whose future in the profession is uncertain. Many others are adjuncts earning far less than schoolteachers, and without benefits or job security. Instructors can feel powerless, and at the beck and call of students who imagine anyone teaching at a college has endless time and energy for their concerns. The system can put instructors on edge, and in an antagonistic relationship with their students. Demands that might be reasonable of a tenured professor with his or her own office may come across as entitled.

But as hilarious as student-anecdotes can be, and as justified (if misdirected) the grievances, instructors should, resist the urge to share these tales online. Students will find them. Privacy settings-assuming an instructor has thought to use them - are not ironclad. Errors that make for funny quotes - especially those involving inadvertent innuendo-are that much more likely to be shared. Even when no name is given, students who come across these posts will know who they are. This may not only impact their experience of this one class, but also sour them on school more generally. What student wants to think that every time they make a mistake on an exam, the result is a lower grade plus your teacher having a good laugh about it? A mistake "liked" by dozens of your teacher's friends? How many students would be thick-skinned enough to laugh along as an instructor and colleagues used his or her mistakes as a pretext to lament the state of Western civilization?

And there may be an unpleasant class component as well, especially at the college level. The very students likely to feel least culturally prepared for university life are the ones whose missteps-in terms of glaring errors in so-called common knowledge, but also in how to interact with professors-are likely to provide the most entertaining material for a Facebook post. Instructors may not consider this, and may think what they're mocking is just the ignorance of today's youth.

The responsibility here should not fall entirely on teachers themselves. Administrators should set clear guidelines about this kind of sharing, given how many otherwise stellar instructors (many of whom are relatively new to social media) regularly mock their students online. Departments can and sometimes do set guidelines, but more need to follow suit. A lack of explicit boundaries in this area will only lead to more unnecessary shaming of ordinary student behavior, and, conversely, more punishments of instructors for posts they might never have guessed would be a problem. Teachers are often over-policed as it is, wary of being photographed drinking wine or having racy private photos on their own phones for fear of losing their jobs. The focus should shift away from condemning teachers for existing as adults in their spare time, and onto addressing directly school-related social-media insensitivity.

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When Teachers Talk About Their Students on Facebook

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Meanwhile, college instructors are increasingly in precarious employment situations. This may help explain the degree of Facebook venting. Some of the instructors whom undergraduates call "professor" are actually graduate students whose future in the profession is uncertain. Many others are adjuncts earning far less than schoolteachers, and without benefits or job security.

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Angelo State University - Library Online Resources

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Unauthorized use is prohibited; Usage may be subject to security testing and monitoring; Misuse is subject to criminal prosecution; No expectation of privacy except as otherwise provided by applicable privacy laws.

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Gregory A. Aarons, Ph.D.

Abstract

Objective

Leadership in organizations is important in shaping workers' perceptions, responses to organizational change, and acceptance of innovations, such as evidence-based practices. Transformational leadership inspires and motivates followers, whereas transactional leadership is based more on reinforcement and exchanges. Studies have shown that in youth and family service organizations, mental health providers' attitudes toward adopting an evidence-based practice are associated with organizational context and individual provider differences. The purpose of this study was to expand these findings by examining the association between leadership and mental health providers' attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice.

Methods

Participants were 303 public-sector mental health service clinicians and case managers from 49 programs who were providing mental health services to children, adolescents, and their families. Data were gathered on providers' characteristics, attitudes toward evidence-based practices, and perceptions of their supervisors' leadership behaviors. Zero-order correlations and multilevel regression analyses were conducted that controlled for effects of service providers' characteristics.

Results

Both transformational and transactional leadership were positively associated with providers' having more positive attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practice, and transformational leadership was negatively associated with providers' perception of difference between the providers' current practice and evidence-based practice.

Conclusions

Mental health service organizations may benefit from improving transformational and transactional supervisory leadership skills in preparation for implementing evidence-based practices.

There is growing momentum and pressure to move evidence-based mental health interventions into real-world practice settings ( 1- 5). Most of these practice settings involve a relationship between a clinical or case management supervisor and practitioners who provide services. Often in community settings the clinical supervisor also supervises work activities, including conducting performance appraisals and other human resource functions. Leadership is important in these activities. Recent work has also demonstrated that mental health service providers' attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice are associated with organizational context (for example, structure and policies) and individual provider differences (for example, education and experience) ( 6, 7). Yet, although leadership is held to influence the adoption of innovations, such as evidence-based practices ( 8), there has been little research on the association between leadership of the mental health supervisor and staff attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice. However, some more general leadership studies have been conducted.

Leadership research is pervasive in the organizational literature, and studies in mental health services suggest that leadership is important for both for the organizational process and for consumer satisfaction and outcomes ( 9- 11). Glisson and Durick ( 11) found that higher levels of positive leadership in human service organizations were associated with higher levels of organizational commitment. In a study on mental health services for youths, organizational climate mediated the association of leadership and working alliance ( 12). Higher levels of positive leadership were associated with a more positive organizational climate, which was in turn associated with higher positive clinician ratings of working alliance. Thus there are links between leadership, organizational and clinical process, and consumer satisfaction and outcome. However, research is needed that examines the effect of leadership on attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practices in mental health service settings.

Transformational and transactional leadership are two well-studied leadership styles that have been assessed by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) ( 9, 13, 14). Transformational and transactional leadership span both cultural and organizational boundaries ( 15) and have been assessed and validated in numerous studies ( 16- 26). Leadership studies with the MLQ have also been conducted in mental health and other public-sector organizations ( 9, 14, 27- 29), health care settings ( 30), and service settings. A given leader may exhibit varying degrees of both transformational and transactional leadership. The styles are not mutually exclusive, and some combination of both may enhance effective leadership.

Transformational leadership is akin to charismatic or visionary leadership ( 31). Transformational leaders inspire and motivate followers ( 32, 33) in ways that go beyond exchanges and rewards. Transformational leadership operates especially well in close supervisory relationships, compared with more distant relationships ( 23), and closer supervision is often more typical in mental health settings. This close relationship may be typical of a supervisor-supervisee relationship and is also captured in the notion of "first-level leaders" ( 34), who are thought to be important because of their functional proximity to supervisees in an organizational setting. Transformational leadership is thought to increase the follower's intrinsic motivation ( 35) through the expression of the value and importance of the leader's goals ( 31, 36).

In contrast, transactional leadership is based more on "exchanges" between the leader and follower, in which followers are rewarded for meeting specific goals or performance criteria ( 37- 40). Rewards and positive reinforcement are provided or mediated by the leader. Thus transactional leadership is more practical in nature because of its emphasis on meeting specific targets or objectives ( 41- 43). An effective transactional leader is able to recognize and reward followers' accomplishments in a timely way. However, subordinates of transactional leaders are not necessarily expected to think innovatively and may be monitored on the basis of predetermined criteria. Poor transactional leaders may be less likely to anticipate problems and to intervene before problems come to the fore, whereas more effective transactional leaders take appropriate action in a timely manner ( 39).

A transactional leadership style is appropriate in many settings and may support adherence to practice standards but not necessarily openness to innovation. A transformational leadership style creates a vision and inspires subordinates to strive beyond required expectations, whereas transactional leadership focuses more on extrinsic motivation for the performance of job tasks ( 39, 44). Thus it is likely that transformational leadership would influence attitudes by inspiring acceptance of innovation through the development of enthusiasm, trust, and openness, whereas transactional leadership would lead to acceptance of innovation through reinforcement and reward.

In summary, leadership is important to consider in relation to acceptance of innovations and to work attitudes, perceptions, behavior, service quality, and client outcomes. Because leadership is associated with organizational and staff performance, we propose that it is likely to influence mental health providers' attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practices. Although leadership is prominent in our model of implementation of evidence-based practices ( 7), few studies have examined transformational and transactional leadership and mental health providers' attitudes. Finally, no studies have examined leadership and attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practices in mental health services for youths.

In understanding organizational predictors of attitudes toward evidence-based practices, it is also important to consider and control for individual-level variables, such as providers' demographic characteristics. A recent review suggests that demographic characteristics and attitudes can be influential in the willingness to adopt and implement an innovation ( 45). For example, receptivity to change can be an important determinant of innovation success ( 46, 47). Rogers ( 8) asserted that having more formal education, as well as favorable attitudes toward change and science, are associated with increased adoption of an innovation. Educational attainment is positively associated with endorsement of evidence-based treatment services, adoption of innovations, and attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practices ( 6, 48- 50). In specialty mental health clinics, compared with professional providers, interns report having a more positive attitude toward using evidence-based assessment protocols ( 51) and toward adopting evidence-based practices ( 6). Because there is a link between organizational characteristics, individual differences, and attitudes toward work, these factors should be included in studies of attitudes toward evidence-based practice.

The purpose of the study presented here was to examine the association of transformational and transactional supervisor leadership with service providers' attitudes toward evidence-based practices. We hypothesized that more positive transformational leadership would be associated with more positive attitudes toward implementing evidence-based practices, as evidenced by greater openness, greater sense of appeal of evidence-based practices, and lower perceived divergence of usual practice with evidence-based practices. We also hypothesized that transactional leadership would be associated with more positive attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice, given requirements to do so.

Methods

Participants

Participants were providers of mental health clinical and case management services who took part in a larger study of organizational issues affecting the provision of mental health services to children, adolescents, and their families in San Diego County, California ( 6). Organizational and individual participation rates were high (94 and 96 percent, respectively). Data were collected between November 21, 2000, and September 19, 2001. Of the 322 providers in the larger study, 19 participants (5.9 percent) were missing data on at least one of the variables in the set of analyses used in this study, resulting in a final sample of 303 providers working in 49 publicly funded mental health programs for youths.

Table 1 shows demographic characteristics for individual-level nominal and continuous variables in the study. A total of 245 respondents (81 percent) were full-time employees. Primary disciplines included marriage and family therapy (103 participants, or 34 percent), social work (99 participants, or 33 percent), psychology (65 participants, or 21 percent), psychiatry (five participants, or 2 percent), and "other" (for example, criminology, drug rehabilitation, education, or public health; 31 participants, or 10 percent). There were fewer interns than professional staff in the service system (26 percent compared with 74 percent). The mean±SD age of respondents was 35.7±10.5 years. Seventy-six percent were female. Sixty-five percent were Caucasian, 15 percent were Hispanic, 7 percent were African American, 6 percent were Asian or Pacific Islander, 1 percent were Native American, and 7 percent were another race or ethnicity. (Percentages total more than 100 percent because of rounding.)

Table 1

Variable

N

%

Gender

Staff

Education level

Race or ethnicity

Measures

Provider survey

The provider survey incorporated questions about providers' demographic characteristics, including age, sex, education level, professional status (intern or professional), and job tenure (time working in the present employment setting) ( 6). Providers' education level was assessed with ordered categories from low to high: attainment of some college, college graduate, some graduate work, master's degree, and doctoral degree (Ph.D., M.D., or equivalent). Intern status indicated whether the respondent was an intern or an employed professional. Professional status was coded as 0 for staff and as 1 for interns.

Attitudes toward evidence-based practice

The Evidence-Based Practice Attitude Scale (EBPAS) ( 6) was used to assess mental health providers' attitudes toward evidence-based practice. The EBPAS is a brief, 15-item measure with four subscales assessing attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practices. The four EBPAS sub-scales represent four theoretically derived dimensions of attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practices: appeal, requirements, openness, and divergence. Total scores on the EBPAS were also calculated.

The score on the appeal subscale represents the extent to which the provider would adopt an evidence-based practice if it were intuitively appealing, could be used correctly, or was being used by colleagues who were happy with it. The score on the requirements subscale assesses the extent to which the provider would adopt an evidence-based practice if it was required by an agency, supervisor, or state. The score on the openness subscale assesses the extent to which the provider is generally open to trying new interventions and would be willing to try or use evidence-based practices. The score on the divergence subscale assesses the extent to which the provider perceives evidence-based practices as not clinically useful and less important than clinical experience. The total score on the EBPAS represents one's global attitude toward adoption of evidence-based practices. The overall Cronbach's alpha reliability for the EBPAS was good (α=.77), and subscale alphas ranged from.90 to.59. The EBPAS validity is supported by associations of EBPAS scales with both individual provider-level attributes and organizational characteristics ( 6, 48). All responses for the EBPAS were scored on a 5-point scale, ranging from 0, not at all, to 4, to a very great extent.

Leadership

The MLQ 45-item Form 5X was used to assess the providers' perceptions of supervisors' transformational and transactional leadership behaviors ( 52). Transformational leadership was assessed with four subscales of idealized influence (eight items, α=.87), inspirational motivation (four items, α=.91), intellectual stimulation (four items, α=.90), and individual consideration (four items, α=.90). Transactional leadership was assessed with four subscales detailing leadership styles, including contingent reward (four items, α=.87), laissez-faire (four items, α=.83), active management by exception (four items, α=.74), and passive management by exception (four items, α=.82). Providers were asked to judge the extent to which their immediate supervisor engaged in specific behaviors measured by the MLQ. Each behavior was rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 0, not at all, to 4, to a very great extent.

Survey procedure

A program manager was contacted at each program, and the study was described to him or her in detail. Permission was sought to survey service providers who worked directly with youths and families. For participating programs, providers' survey sessions were scheduled at the program site at a time designated by the program manager. Surveys were administered to groups of providers. The project coordinator or a trained research assistant administered providers' surveys and was available during the survey session to answer any questions that arose. A few surveys were left for completion for providers who did not attend the survey sessions. Such surveys were either mailed back in a prepaid envelope or picked up by a research assistant. Participants received a verbal and written description of the study, and informed consent was obtained before the survey. Participation in the study was voluntary, and all participant responses were confidential. This study was approved by the appropriate institutional review boards.

Analyses

Pearson product-moment correlation analyses were first conducted to examine associations of transformational and transactional leadership and individual-level covariates with the dependent variables-that is, EBPAS scores representing attitudes toward evidence-based practices. Next, regression analyses were conducted in order to examine the associations of leadership with scores on each of the four EBPAS subscales and total scores on the scale while the analyses controlled for the effects of individual provider characteristics. Because providers were nested within mental health programs, resulting in potential dependency of responses within program, multilevel analyses were conducted to control for the effects of the nested data structure ( 53- 55). All regression analyses were conducted by using the Mplus analytic software, which accounted for the nested data structure ( 56). Because hypotheses were directional, one-tailed significance tests were used.

Results

As shown in Table 2 , correlation analyses showed a pattern of results supporting the hypothesis that ratings of higher levels of positive leadership would be associated with more positive attitudes toward evidence-based practice. Specifically, transformational leadership was significantly positively associated with scores on the EBPAS subscales of appeal, openness, and requirements and EBPAS total scores. Transactional leadership was significantly positively associated with scores on the EBPAS subscales of openness and requirements and EBPAS total scores. Next, a regression analysis was performed for each EBPAS subscale and one for the overall scale.

Table 2

Variable

Age

Sex

Educa Tion

Intern

Job tenure

Transform Ational leadership

Transac tional leadership

Appeal

Open ness

Require ments

Diver gence

Age

Sex

−.186***

Education

.383*

.037

Intern

−.148**

.094

.146*

Job tenure

.430***

−.051

.155**

−.165**

Transformational leadership

−.137**

.001

−.043

.131**

−.135**

Transactional leadership

−.053

−.125

−.157**

.099

−.040

.545***

Appeal

.002

.125*

.153**

.141*

−.054

.130*

.109

Openness

−.026

.030

−.063

.072

−.156**

.238***

.327***

.445***

Requirements

−.09

.017

−.084

.105

−.074

.233***

.218***

.329***

.195***

Divergence

.161**

−.035

.014

−.113*

.128*

−.108

.019

−.074

.045

−.179**

EBPAS total score

−.109

.760

−.016

.168**

−.161**

.288***

.264***

.710***

.631***

.723***

−.449***

All regression analysis results are shown in Table 3 . Neither a transformational nor a transactional leadership style was significantly associated with scores on the EBPAS appeal subscale. In regard to provider characteristics, higher scores on the appeal subscale were associated with being female, having a higher educational attainment, and being an intern. Predictors accounted for 7.4 percent of the variance in scores on the appeal subscale.

Table 3

Appeal

Openness

Requirements

Divergence

Total

Variable

Coef.a

SE

z

Coef.a

SE

z

Coef.a

SE

z

Coef.a

SE

z

Coef.a

SE

z

Age

.001

.004

.167

.007

.005

1.557

−.001

.005

−.264

.008

.005

1.633

.000

.003

−.146

Sex

.193

.074

2.605**

.133

.089

1.498

.047

.137

.344

.019

.077

.245

.088

.065

1.346

Education

.104

.044

2.362**

−.024

.041

−.574

−.052

.052

−1.004

−.013

.041

−.318

.01

.032

.318

Intern

.122

.069

1.750*

.033

.092

.362

.148

.137

1.081

−.119

.086

−1.383

.106

.064

1.653*

Job tenure

−.011

.009

−1.190

−.039

.013

−3.030**

−.005

.015

−.355

.011

.016

.694

−.016

.008

−1.984*

Transformational leadership

.052

.047

1.104

.063

.059

1.063

.164

.073

2.234*

−.112

.051

−2.189*

.098

.034

2.854**

Transactional leadership

.115

.080

1.438

.360

.075

4.817**

.174

.124

1.400

.116

.093

1.247

.133

.072

1.835*

Transactional leadership was significantly positively associated with scores on the EBPAS openness subscale. This indicates that providers who reported that immediate supervisors exhibited more transactional leadership behaviors endorsed greater general openness toward adoption of evidence-based practices. Job tenure was significantly negatively associated with scores on the openness subscale, indicating that providers who worked at their program for longer periods scored lower on the openness subscale. Predictors accounted for 14.0 percent of the variance in scores on the openness subscale.

Transformational leadership was significantly positively associated with scores on the requirements subscale. This finding indicates that providers who worked with supervisors who they rated higher on transformational leadership were more willing to adopt evidence-based practices if required to do so. There was also a marginal effect (p=.081) suggesting that transactional leadership was associated higher scores on the requirements sub-scale. Predictors accounted for 7.7 percent of the variance in EBPAS total scores.

As hypothesized, transformational leadership was negatively associated with the scores on the EBPAS divergence subscale. This finding indicates that providers who worked with supervisors who exhibited more transformational leadership behaviors were less likely to perceive a gap between their current practices and evidence-based practices. Predictors accounted for 5.1 percent of the variance in scores on the divergence subscale.

Finally, both transformational and transactional leadership were positively associated with total scores on the EBPAS. This finding supports the proposed hypothesis and indicates that providers who rated their supervisor higher on transformational and transactional leadership were more open to adopting evidence-based practices. In regard to demographic variables, being an intern was positively associated and job tenure was negatively associated with more positive attitudes toward evidence-based practices. Predictors accounted for 13.4 percent of the variance in total scores on the EBPAS.

Discussion

The main finding of this study is that more positive leadership ratings were associated with more positive attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice. This is congruent with the notion that leadership is important in the adoption of innovations across a range of organizational contexts and technologies ( 8, 57, 58). However, across all EBPAS sub-scales and the total scale on the EBPAS, predictors accounted for about 5 to 14 percent of variance in subscale and total scores. This suggests that although leadership is associated with providers' attitudes toward evidence-based practices, additional factors should be considered. In the study presented here both transformational and transactional leadership were associated with attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practices.

Transformational leadership was positively associated with scores on the requirement subscale and total scores on the EBPAS scale and negatively associated with scores on the divergence subscale. It is likely that supervisors who exhibit more positive transformational leadership behaviors engender attitudes in subordinates that would lead subordinates to greater openness to adopting new technologies or practices. This finding is clearly in keeping with the definition of transformational leadership as inspiring commitment to and enthusiasm for the leader and willingness to follow the leader's vision. Consistent with this definition is the finding that transformational leadership was associated with the total EBPAS score, indicating that inspirational and motivational leadership may engender open attitudes.

Also of interest is the finding that higher transformational leadership was associated with lower perceived divergence of evidence-based practices and usual practices. It is likely that this finding indicates a general distrust of change and practices that are perceived as different from usual care where leadership is suboptimal. These findings suggest that having a positively perceived local opinion leader to introduce and guide change in practice may facilitate receptivity to change in providers' behavior ( 59). Consistent with the above findings, transactional leadership was positively associated with scores on both the openness subscale and the total EBPAS scale. This suggests that leadership styles that appropriately reinforce positive work behaviors may lead to a greater sense of trust in the supervisor-supervisee relationship and lead to greater openness toward adopting evidence-based practices.

Some limitations of this work should be noted. First, this study assessed providers' attitudes rather than actual uptake of evidence-based practices. There are a number of factors likely to influence not only attitudes toward evidence-based practices but also actual implementation. Indeed, a leader's attitude toward evidence-based practice may influence staff attitudes, and leaders' attitudes were not assessed in this study-instead, providers rated their perception of their supervisors' leadership behaviors. Second, this is a cohort study, and although it is intuitively appealing to suggest that supervisor leadership precedes staff attitudes, such an inference is not warranted on the basis of the correlational nature of this study.

Third, this study involved public-sector mental health providers, and results may not generalize to other contexts or provider groups. However, this concern is somewhat mitigated to the extent that the findings presented here are consistent with the literature on leadership and organizational change. Fourth, five regression models were estimated, and thus inflation of type I error rates could be a factor in this set of analyses. Fifth, providers' ratings of their supervisors' leadership was assessed in the study presented here. However, other organizational variables may also be related to providers' attitudes toward evidence-based practices ( 48). Finally, the focus of leadership was not assessed. That is, it is unknown in the study presented here the degree to which supervisors promoted the use of evidence-based practices. This leaves us with findings regarding general, rather than specific, effects of transformational leadership.

Further studies are needed to examine the extent to which supervisors' transformational and transactional leadership that was focused specifically on improving attitudes and implementation of evidence-based practices would lead to greater, lesser, or different associations with providers' attitudes and ultimately, with evidence-based practice implementation fidelity and client outcomes.

One of the strengths of the study presented here is that it focused on real-world mental health service providers working in community-based, publicly funded mental health programs. In that respect, this work differs from studies of manualized interventions focusing on more traditional psychotherapy practices with doctoral-level clinicians ( 60, 61). In the public behavioral health care system, a majority of providers in the workforce in community settings across the United States do not have doctoral-level educations, and these essential providers will likely be agents of widespread delivery of evidence-based interventions. Thus, although this study took place in one large county, the results are likely to generalize to other similar settings. Additional research is needed in order to determine if these findings can be replicated.

This study also adds to the evidence base for the construct validity of the EBPAS. Previous work provided preliminary validation of the EBPAS; our findings support the notion that attitudes may be affected not only by the context within which providers deliver mental health services but also by the leader-staff interactions and exchanges in the workplace that can affect job performance and organizational citizenship ( 62- 64). This suggests that leadership development targeted at improving the organizational change process could be considered before or concurrent with evidence-based practice implementation.

Providers in the study presented here were predominantly female, and a majority of public-sector providers of youth mental health services are female. Leadership and subordinate perceptions and relationships may be affected by the sex of the leader or follower. For example, gender affects leadership style, and effective leadership involves a balance of positive feminine and masculine characteristics ( 65). Female leaders may also be rated higher on interpersonal aspects of transformational leadership ( 66). It appears that in understanding leadership effects, gender of the leader and follower should be considered, but the extent to which these factors are at play in mental health services and evidence-based practice implementation requires further study.

As with providers in other types of services, those who provide youth and family services are often highly committed to their work and clients. Leadership is important in work interactions and in shaping organizational culture to support change and innovation ( 67). Attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice may be influenced to the extent that leaders are effective in communicating and getting support for a vision that includes the adoption and use of evidence-based practices. Transactional leadership may also help in rewarding and reinforcing behaviors that support the vision.

Working in the public sector brings special challenges for organizations implementing evidence-based practices. For example, the need for obtaining or renewing contracts and securing funding is an ongoing concern. At the local level, implementing evidence-based practices within an existing contract may mean renegotiating statements of work and defining what services can be reimbursed. National reimbursement policies may not be aligned with the provision of some evidence-based practices. These and other related concerns can lead to challenges for leaders in communicating how a vision of improved or changed services fits, or does not fit, with the day-to-day roles, duties, and tasks fulfilled by providers. Stronger leadership should help to mitigate some of the stresses of day-to-day operation of services and improve managers' ability to lead change.

Particular attention should be paid to the perceptions and attitudes of public-sector providers and their supervisors. There have been recent calls for renewed attention to workforce development ( 68, 69). More effective leadership is one mechanism by which first-level leaders ( 34), such as program managers, can work with their staff to improve the workplace and the ability of programs to respond to the need for change in perspective and process that accompanies implementation of evidence-based practices. It is these first-level leaders who generally have the responsibility for managing and monitoring change. Attention to the relationships between the managers and their staff in public-sector mental health programs will be necessary to address the challenges of workforce development and evidence-based practice implementation.

Conclusions

Although leadership functions may vary by organizational level or discipline ( 70, 71), the study presented here suggests that the supervisor-supervisee dyad is a potentially important point of influence in affecting attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice. However, in order to change attitudes and practice, leaders must persevere in the change process, and multiple hurdles to change should be expected and allowed for ( 72- 76).

Behavioral health services organizations often deal with change as a function of internal initiatives or in response to external demands. Leaders at different organizational levels often spearhead or manage such changes. Although this study deals with attitudes toward evidence-based practice, it also relates to organizational change in general. Organizational context, individual provider differences, and type and complexity of the evidence-based practice to be implemented must all be considered ( 77). Leadership at the supervisor-supervisee level is important in management of change, as this is a frequent point of contact, influence, and shared meaning in organizations. Because of the complexity of organizations, providers, and clients, there is no single factor or correct approach for implementation of evidence-based practices in behavioral health service organizations. However, the study presented here provides some guidance in improving our understanding of how leadership may influence providers' attitudes. The link between attitudes and actual implementation of evidence-based practices has yet to be confirmed, however.

This study adds to the evidence that leadership is one factor that can affect the implementation of evidence-based practices in behavioral health services. This study provides additional evidence that multiple factors in the service context are important in understanding attitudes toward evidence-based practice ( 4, 6, 7, 75, 78). Leadership geared toward promoting adoption of innovation and change is critical to the success of implementing evidence-based practices. Further work is needed to identify who will benefit from improved leadership skills, how best to train and apply leadership skills, and when in the process of evidence-based practice implementation to provide training and development for effective leadership.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by grant MH-001695 from the National Institute of Mental Health. The author thanks the program managers, supervisors, clinicians, and case managers who participated in this study.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Transformational and Transactional Leadership: Association With Attitudes Toward Evidence-Based Practice

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Leadership in organizations is important in shaping workers' perceptions, responses to organizational change, and acceptance of innovations, such as evidence-based practices. Transformational leadership inspires and motivates followers, whereas ...

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Empirical prison classroom

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Being a school principal is balanced between being rewarding and being challenging. It is a difficult job, and like any job, there are people that are just not cut out to handle it. There are certain characteristics of a highly effective principal that some people do not possess. Besides the obvious professional requirements needed to become a principal, there are several traits that good principals possess allowing them to do their job successfully. Each of these characteristics manifests themselves in the daily duties of a principal. A highly effective principal will possess each of the following seven qualities.

This is a characteristic that every principal must possess. The principal is the instructional leader of their building. A good leader has to take responsibility for the successes and the failures of their school. A good leader puts the needs of others in front of their own. A good leader is always looking to improve their school and then figures out how to make those improvements no matter how difficult it might be. Leadership defines how successful any school is. A school without a leader will likely fail, and a principal who is not a leader will find themselves without a job quickly.

If you don't like people you shouldn't be a principal. You have to be able to connect with each person that you deal with on a daily basis. You have to find common ground and earn their trust. There are so many groups of people that principals deal with daily including their superintendent, teachers, support staff, parents, students, & community members. Every group requires a different approach and individuals within a group are unique in their own right. You never know what is going to walk into your office next. People come in with a variety of emotions including happiness, sadness, and anger. You have to be able to deal with each of those situations effectively by connecting to the person and showing them that you care about their unique situation. They have to believe that you will do whatever you can make their situation better.

This is especially true with your students and your teachers. You can't be a pushover, meaning that you let people get away with mediocrity. You have to set expectations high and hold those you are in charge of to those same standards. This means that there will be times when you have to reprimand people and likely hurt their feelings. It is a part of the job that isn't pleasant, but it is necessary if you want to run an effective school. At the same time, you must offer praise when it is appropriate. Don't forget to tell those teachers who are doing an extraordinary job that you appreciate them. Don't forget to recognize those students who excel in the areas of academics, leadership, and/or citizenship. An outstanding principal can motivate using a combination of both of those approaches.

Nothing can take away your credibility faster than being inconsistent in how you handle similar situations. While no two cases are exactly the same, you have to think about how you have handled other similar situations and continue on that same track. Students, in particular, know how you handle student discipline, and they make comparisons from one case to the next. If you are not fair and consistent, they will call you out on it. However, it is understandable that history will influence a principal's decision. For example, if you have a student who has been in multiple fights and compare them to a student who has only had one fight, then you are justified in giving the student with multiple fights a longer suspension. Think all your decisions through, document your reasoning, and be prepared when someone questions or disagrees with it.

Each day presents a unique set of challenges and being organized and prepared is essential to meeting those challenges. You deal with so many variables as a principal that lack of those will lead to ineffectiveness. No day is predictable. This makes being organized and prepared an essential quality. Each day you still have to come in with a plan or a to-do list with the understanding that you will probably only get about one-third of those things done. You have to be prepared for just about anything. When you are dealing with that many people, there are so many unplanned things that can occur. Having policies and procedures in place to deal with situations is part of the necessary planning and preparation to be effective. Organization and preparation will help reduce stress when you are dealing with difficult or unique situations.

You never know when an angry student, a disgruntled parent, or an upset teacher is going to walk into your office. You have to be prepared to deal with those situations, and that starts with being an exceptional listener. You can disarm most difficult situations simply by showing them that you care enough to listen to what they want to say. When someone wants to meet with you because they feel wronged in some way, you need to hear them out. It doesn't mean that you let them bash another person continuously. You can be firm on not letting them belittle a teacher or student, but allow them to vent without being disrespectful to another person. Be willing to go the next step in helping them resolve their issue. Sometimes that might be mediating between two students who have had a disagreement. Sometimes it might be having a discussion with a teacher to get their side of a story and then relaying that to the parent. In any case, it all begins with listening.

Education is ever-evolving. There is always something bigger and better available. If you are not attempting to improve your school, you simply are not doing your job. This will always be an on-going process. Even if you have been at a school for fifteen years, there are still things you can do to improve the overall quality of your school. Each individual component is a working part of the larger framework of the school. Each of those components needs to be oiled every once in a while. You may have to replace a part that is not working. Occasionally we are even able to upgrade an existing part that was doing its job, but something better was developed. You never want to be stale. Even your best teachers can get better. It is your job to see that no one gets comfortable and that everyone is working to improve continuously.

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7 Defining Characteristics of a Highly Effective School Principal

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Being a school principal is balanced between being rewarding and being challenging. It is a difficult job, and like any job, there are people that are just not cut out to handle it. There are certain characteristics of a highly effective principal that some people do not possess.