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Deforestation, climate change, & restoring our forests globally 

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Deforestation, climate change, & restoring our forests globally 

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Video from 'Our Planet' by David Attenborough: https://www.ourplanet.com/en/video/how-to-restore-our-forests/

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After centuries of clearing forest find out from Sir David Attenborough why we could soon have more Forest than any of us have ever known.

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'Environmental chemical residue': Pesticides & antibiotics polluting streams across Europe, threatening wildlife & human health

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'Environmental chemical residue': Pesticides & antibiotics polluting streams across Europe, threatening wildlife & human health

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"More than 100 pesticides and 21 drugs were detected in the 29 waterways analysed in 10 European nations, including the UK.
A quarter of the chemicals identified are banned, while half of the streams analysed had at least one pesticide above permitted levels.
The researchers said the high number of pesticides and drugs they found meant complex mixtures were present, the impact of which was unknown. Pesticides are acknowledged as one factor in plummeting populations of many insects and the birds that rely on them for food.
Scientists say the contamination is dangerous for wildlife and may increase the development of drug-resistant microbes."

- Guardian news article, April 2019: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/apr/08/pesticides-antibiotics-polluting-streams-europe-wildlife

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Pesticides and antibiotics polluting streams across Europe

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Wildlife and human health are threatened say scientists as Syngenta accepts 'undeniable demand' for change

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Botanical Society of the British Isles

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JNCC Vascular plant red data list for Great Britain 

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JNCC Vascular plant red data list for Great Britain 

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This report has been produced as part of the JNCC Species Status Assessment project. The remit was to assess the status of the vascular plants throughout Great Britain.

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Protecting Scottish biodiversity (RBGE projects) 

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Protecting Scottish biodiversity (RBGE projects) 

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Alpine Blue Sow-thistle (Cicerbita alpina)

https://stories.rbge.org.uk/archives/27788

Whorled Solomon's Seal (Polygonatum verticillatum)

https://stories.rbge.org.uk/archives/27648

Woolly willow (Salix lanata) - montane willow

https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2017-07/Enhance%20opportunities%20for%20species%20to%20disperse%20-%20Montane%20willows%20-%20FINAL%20pdf%203.pdf (SNH)

Arran whitebeam (Sorbus arranensis)

https://stories.rbge.org.uk/archives/13616

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List of Endangered Plants - Earth's Endangered Creatures

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Endangered animals of the world captured in photos, videos, and more.

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THEME 5: THREATENING FACTORS OF PLANT DIVERSITY

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THEME 5: THREATENING FACTORS OF PLANT DIVERSITY

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Although a number of native plant species which are a focus of conservation work in Scotland are not considered endangered in global terms, it is still important to protect these native wild populations, in order to protect genetic diversity, ecosystems and habitats, and as part of our natural heritage:

Alpine Blue Sow-thistle (Cicerbita alpina)

Whorled Solomon's Seal (Polygonatum verticillatum)

Marsh saxifrage (Saxifraga hirculus)

Sticky catchfly (Silene viscaria)

Woolly willow (Salix lanata) - montane willow

Arran whitebeam (Sorbus arranensis)

Common causes of some of these species declining, particularly in the highlands, are:

Grazing, preventing regeneration of new plants and eventually causing habitat-change

Loss of habitat (Montane species may also be affected by climate change)

Conservation action plans focus on elements such as:

Ex-situ conservation

Restoration and translocation

Nature conservation agencies working on landscape-scale projects also consider how grazing can be reduced in some areas, to allow natural regeneration.

RBGE, Scottish biodiversity: https://www.rbge.org.uk/science-and-conservation/scottish-biodiversity/
- Conservation genetics: https://www.rbge.org.uk/science-and-conservation/genetics-and-conservation/molecular-ecology/conservation-genetics/
- Translocation and restoration: https://www.rbge.org.uk/science-and-conservation/scottish-biodiversity/translocation-and-restoration/
- Scottish plant conservation programme (Target 8): https://www.rbge.org.uk/collections/nursery/target8/

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Katharine Hayhoe (Guardian news article, Jan 2019): https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/06/katharine-hayhoe-interview-climate-change-scientist-crisis-hope

Professor Sandy Tudhope (University of Edinburgh), on corals as the key to understanding climate change (Science Scotland): http://www.sciencescotland.org/feature.php?id=208

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IPCC: Intergovernmental panel on climate change

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IPCC: Intergovernmental panel on climate change

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The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change.

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IPCC — Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Public policy (Scotland) in response to human-caused climate change 

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Public policy (Scotland) in response to human-caused climate change 

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Climate change (Scotland) Act 2009:
https://www.keepscotlandbeautiful.org/climate-change/scotlands-response-to-climate-change/

Scottish Greens: 'We need action now to prevent climate change becoming unmanageable' (2018): https://greens.scot/blog/we-need-action-now-to-prevent-climate-change-from-becoming-unmanageable

Carbon Brief analysis: How Scotland plans to meet its climate change targets (2018): https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-scotland-plans-climate-change-targets

Scotland's Environment: Changing climate: https://www.environment.gov.scot/our-environment/climate/changing-climate/

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Weather observations, climate change and plants: RBGE weather station and phenology project 

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Weather observations, climate change and plants: RBGE weather station and phenology project 

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Some scientific institutions, such as botanic gardens, collect site-specific weather observations. The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh's (RBGE) weather station has been used for daily observations since 1956.
https://www.rbge.org.uk/science-and-conservation/rbge-weather-station/

Archived weather data can be found here: https://www.rbge.org.uk/science-and-conservation/rbge-weather-station/rbge-weather-station-archived-data/

The RBGE's current phenology programme has been running since 2002. Over 500 plants (156 species) are monitored regularly,  recording the initiation and duration of flowering and leaf development for each species. Studying the annual life cycle of these plants over time will help us to better understand plant responses to climate, what climatic parameters they are sensitive to, and whether climate change leads to changes in their annual life cycle (shifts in phenology).

Phenology is the study of recurring seasonal events, such as flowering and leaf fall in plants and hibernation and migration in animals.

Changes in the annual life cycle of plants can have profound consequences for ecological processes, forestry, agriculture, food security, and the global economy.

https://www.rbge.org.uk/science-and-conservation/genetics-and-conservation/global-environmental-change/phenology/

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from the Met Office UK.
See also:
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/metofficegovuk/pdf/research/ukcp/ukcp18-headline-findings.pdf
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/collaboration/ukcp?mediaid=87933&filetype=pdf

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Adaptation Scotland: Climate change FAQs

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Adaptation Scotland: Climate change FAQs

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Frequently-asked questions about climate change from Adaptation Scotland

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Adaptation Scotland :: Climate change FAQs

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UKCIP's role is to help organisations find out how they will be affected by climate change. In 2003, UKCIP began a pilot project to engage business sectors in the process of building capacity within the sector on climate change impacts and adaptation called 'A changing climate for business'.

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Climate projections for the next century indicate that the climate trends observed over the last century will continue and intensify over the coming decades. We can expect future changes in climate to be far greater than anything we have seen in the past.

Key long-term climate change trends for Scotland are:

Weather will remain variable, it may become more variable

Typical summer is hotter and drier

Typical winter / autumn is milder and wetter

Sea level rise

We can also expect to see:

Increase in summer heat waves, extreme temperatures and drought

Increased frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events

Reduced occurrence of frost and snowfall

(based on UKCP09)

MetOffice UK Climate Projections:

The UK Climate Projections 2009 (UKCP09) indicate that our average climate will become warmer throughout the year, with this few degrees of temperature creating conditions unlike anything in Scotland today. The projections also indicate that rainfall is likely to become even more seasonal, with an average summer becoming drier, while autumn and winter become wetter.

Adaptation Scotland - trends & projections: https://adaptationscotland.co.uk/why-adapt/climate-trends-and-projections
- Future projections: https://adaptationscotland.co.uk/why-adapt/climate-trends-and-projections/future-climate-projections-scotland

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Historical climate data and observations have allowed climate scientists to discern patterns of changes and make reliable projections about the ways in which our climate will continue to change in the future.

We are already seeing evidence of Scotland’s climate changing.
"The last century has been a period of rapid climate change across Scotland. In particular, records show that over the last few decades:

temperatures have increased - with the last decade the warmest ever since records began;

rainfall patterns have changed - with increased rainfall and more heavy downpours over the last 30 years;

we have been impacted by extreme weather events;

sea-level is rise is accelerating;

and there have been fewer days with frost and snow cover."

Adaptation Scotland: The Past - climate trends: https://adaptationscotland.co.uk/why-adapt/climate-trends-and-projections/past-climate-trends-scotland

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Climate change records, Scotland & rest of the UK (rUK)

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Climate change records, Scotland & rest of the UK (rUK)

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The Meteorological 'Met' Office keeps records of climate and weather patterns across the UK, in some cases archived data dates as far back as 1760s.

Climate anomoly maps: These are maps of UK temperature and rainfall anomalies from 1910 to present day. They provide a simple visualisation of variations and changes in UK climate over the last 100 years. Each map presents the difference of the observed temperature or rainfall for that month, season, or year from the long term average: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate-anomalies/#?tab=climateAnomalies

Climate averages - these show long-term averages, based on standard 30-year periods, which describe the UK climate: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate

Anomoly graphs: These show the monthly variation (from mean) of temperature, rainfall and sunshine for the selected year: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/summaries/anomalygraphs

UK regional climate summaries: These use data to describe the climate of each of the 11 regions of the UK, e.g. east Scotland: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/regional-climates/es

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Wet woodlands, Scotland (environmental stresses & habitats)  

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Wet woodlands, Scotland (environmental stresses & habitats)  

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This is woodland on wet acidic to neutral soils, widespread across Scotland in a variety of situations such as flushed slopes, wet hollows, valley floors and the edges of wetlands, rivers, streams and lochs.

Alder, birch and willow are usually the main tree species present, but many other trees and plants can be found. The ground vegetation is very varied and can include large grasses, sedges, rushes, herbs and mosses. Epiphytic bryophytes and lichens can be abundant and diverse.

As wet woods can be hard to access, they’re often unmanaged and probably represent some of our most ‘natural’ native woods, with a really ‘wild’ feel about them.

Wet woodland occurs on poorly drained or seasonally wet ground on a range of soil types, from nutrient-rich mineral to acid, nutrient-poor organic soils.

By their nature, they occur mainly as:

small woods or localised patches in larger woods on floodplains

successional habitat on fens, mires and bogs, along streams and hillside flushes, and in peaty hollows

Wet woods present in Scotland include special priority-conservation habitat types such as alluvial forests and bog woodland.

Wet woodland combines elements of many other ecosystems, so is an important habitat for many taxa. The high humidity favours growth of mosses and liverworts (bryophytes). And a large number of invertebrates are associated with the tree species found here.

Dead wood within this woodland type can be frequent, and its association with water provides specialised habitats not found in dry woodland types. For example, the fly Lipsothrix nigristigma is associated with log jams in streams. Otters often find cover and make breeding sites in wet woodland.

SNH: https://www.nature.scot/landscapes-and-habitats/habitat-types/woodland-habitats/wet-woods
JNCC: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/ProtectedSites/SACselection/habitat.asp?FeatureIntCode=H91E0

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Coastal saltmarsh, Scotland (environmental stresses & habitats)

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Coastal saltmarsh, Scotland (environmental stresses & habitats)

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Coastal saltmarsh is vegetated soil, sand or shingle in the intertidal zone. It forms in sheltered environments at the head of bays and inlets, where plants are flooded twice a day by high tides.  The vegetation is mainly a mixture of grasses, rushes and herbs, many of which have a fleshy growth form.  Bryophytes are no more than sparse and lichens are rare.

Saltmarsh occurs on most Scottish coasts – with by far the largest areas in the Solway Firth. Scotland has 7,076 hectares of saltmarsh, 77.4% of which lie within Sites of Special Scientific Interest.

Scottish saltmarshes contain a range of northern species such as:

saltmarsh flat-sedge (Blysmus rufus)

slender spike-rush (Eleocharis uniglumis)

the rare Eleocharis parvula – discovered in the Cromarty Firth in 1999

Fucus cottonnii, a tiny seaweed – this is contained in a short, closely grazed turf that’s typical of saltmarshes in the north-west

SNH: https://www.nature.scot/landscapes-and-habitats/habitat-types/coast-and-seas/coastal-habitats/saltmarsh ;//www.nature.scot/priority-habitat-coastal-saltmarsh

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Blanket bogs, Scotland (environmental stresses & habitats) 

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Blanket bogs, Scotland (environmental stresses & habitats) 

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Blanket bog is a community of deep peat (> 50cm deep) where the main source of water and nutrients is rain and snow.  The peat is acid and varies from saturated with water to drier and fibrous.

Found across the Scottish uplands, blanket bog occurs mostly in northern and western areas with gentle slopes and poor drainage. It is a type of peatland found in only a few parts of the world with cool, wet and, usually, oceanic climates. Under these conditions, bog mosses and other bog plants break down very slowly to gradually form a layer of peat.

Peat depth varies from 50cm to 3m on average, but depths of up to 8m aren’t uncommon.

Scotland has so much wet ground as:

our position at the edge of the Atlantic Ocean means we get a lot of rain

our rocks, soils and landforms stop rainwater from draining away quickly

Peat develops in these regularly wet conditions and in turn holds more water. This encourages more bog plants, which results in more peat being laid down.

Blanket bog is one of Scotland’s most common semi-natural habitats, covering some 1.8 million hectares – 23% of our land area. Scotland holds a significant amount of the European and world resource of this rare habitat.

Blanket bog dominates our rolling moorlands, especially in the North Highlands, Western Isles, and Northern Isles.

SNH: https://www.nature.scot/landscapes-and-habitats/habitat-types/mountains-heaths-and-bogs/blanket-bog
JNCC: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-6325
Peatland biodiversity: (IUCN) http://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/sites/www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/files/images/ReviewPeatlandBiodiversity%2CJune2011Final.pdf

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Theme 2: Environmental stress factors; adaptation & tolerance of plants 

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Theme 2: Environmental stress factors; adaptation & tolerance of plants 

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In a number of habitat types across Scotland, environmental stress factors shape the specialised plant communities which live there and are adapted to these particular abiotic parameters:

Blanket bog (wetland / flooding & acidic soils) - Blanket bog is open, unwooded habitats on deep peat

Saltmarsh (intertidal flooding and salinity) - Saltmarsh is a type of vegetation dominated by higher plants that is regularly inundated by salt water (intertitidal). Hosting a community of salt-tolerant (halophyte) wetland plants.

Wet woodlands (flooding) - woodland on wet acidic to neutral soils in a variety of situations such as flushed slopes, wet hollows, valley floors and the edges of wetlands, rivers, streams and lochs.

Open mosaic habitat on previously developed land (OMHPDL) 'brownfield' habitats - Soil in open mosaic habitats can be heavily polluted by previous industry. Plant communities suited to these types of environment are usually pioneer species - see 'Theme 1 - habitats' above.

Additionally, temperature (cold stress) is a major factor in which plant communities grow in the highlands and northern parts of Scotland (e.g. Caledonian forest). And while grazing (biotic factor) by both wild and farmed animals has prevented the regeneration of some woodland habitats, it has been essential to maintaining others (e.g. lowland meadows).

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Cereals and grains are still grown as part of Scottish agriculture - particularly in the lowland and borders areas - including:

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Barley (Hordeum vulgare)

These are staples of local diet, particularly for bread. However, in recent years, changing weather patterns have caused some difficulties for farmers harvesting these grains - particularly wetter rainy weather and storms during the summers. These can cause challenges for farmers to ensure grains are ripened well and harvested before storms and heavy rains flatten crops.
Historically in Scotland, traditional small-scale farming 'crofting' would have relied instead on growing oats (Avena sativa) - particularly in the highlands, islands and west coast - as a crop more suited to Scotland's northern climate, which is colder and rainier, with a shorter growing season compared with England.

Fruit & vegetables (NB. culinary rather than botanical distinction):
In addition to horticulture of a variety of fruits grown domestically (e.g. apples, pears, raspberries, strawberries), there is an increasing popularity in Scotland for gathering - 'foraging' - wild hedgerow fruits, for preserves, liqueurs, and medicinal remedies. For example, blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), blaeberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), crap apple (Malus sylvestris), mulberry (Morus nigra), sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), hawthorn berries (Crataegus monogyna), rosehip (Rosa canina), quince, elderberries (Sambucus nigra), damsons (Prunus domestica subsp. interstitia) and sloes (Prunus spinosa).

Plantlife: Hedge fruit (below): https://www.plantlife.org.uk/download_file/force/1248/311
Woodland Trust - foraging guide: https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/visiting-woods/things-to-do/foraging/

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Plant resources 2: Christmas tree species:  

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Plant resources 2: Christmas tree species:  

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Tree species which are decorated as Christmas trees in Scotland are usually conifers, including:

Nordmann fir (Abies nordmanniana)

Blue spruce (Picea pungens)

Fraser fir (Abies fraseri)

Lodgepole pine

and Scots pine (Pinus silvestris)

Factors in the popularity of particular Christmas tree species seem to include: fast-growing, shape, smell, and whether or not needles drop prolifically once the tree has been cut and brought indoors. It can take up to 10 years for a tree to become full saleable size. Over 8 million real trees are purchased over the festive period across the UK (2016) - mostly fresh-cut trees.

However smaller living pot-grown trees are also becoming more popular. Also 'rent & return' Christmas trees (same species as above - see video below, Primrose Vale farm), where trees are grown in special pots that can be dug up and replanted year after year. In urban areas and smaller homes, some people choose to have winter foliage and cut plant material, evergreens, vines and berried branches (e.g. holly, ivy, rowan branches, dogwood stems) as wreaths or other flower arrangements - as an alternative to full-sized Christmas trees.

See more:
Forestry & Land Scotland, Christmas trees: https://forestryandland.gov.scot/visit/christmas-trees/pick-your-perfect-christmas-tree
Christmas tree farming in Scotland (Guardian news): https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/ng-interactive/2016/dec/07/christmas-tree-farming-in-scotland-photo-essay-eden
Rent a Christmas tree (BBC article & video): https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-35092589

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This company offers customers a way of using the same real tree year after year.

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In addition to native plants being used as: foods, beverages, flavouring and spices, they have also historically been used widely in Scotland for a variety of other uses - again, especially in the highlands where availability of other resources were often scarce - and plants used for a specific purpose would vary depending on local species and varieties. For example..

Willow (Salix spp.) and Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria) - amongst other plant materials - used for basketry

Nettle (Urtica dioca) stems used for fibres woven into fabrics, used like flax

Many plants were also used for a very wide range of plant-based dyes.

(Kenicer)

The use of and experimentation with different plants for pigments and inks, and fibres for paper, continues today in botanical art in Scotland. See below, Shaggy inkcap by Fran Thomas (SBAC) - painted in natural ink from the autodigested inkcap fungus.

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Coprinus comatus (Shaggy inkcap)_Fran Thomas

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THEME 4: PLANTS AS RESOURCES FOR THE FUTURE

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THEME 4: PLANTS AS RESOURCES FOR THE FUTURE

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Key reference sources (used throughout): 

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Key reference sources (used throughout): 

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Books on herbal medicine:

*Atkins, Rosie et al 'Herbs: The Essential 21st Century Guide' (Rodale, 2006)

*Bartram, Thomas 'Bartram's Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine' (Robinson, 1998)

*Chevallier, Andrew 'Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine' (DK, 2016)

Kenicer, Gregory 'Scottish Plant Lore: An Illustrated Flora' (Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, 2018)

Podlech, Dieter, 'Herbs and Healing Plants of Britain and Europe' (Collins, 2008)

Websites:

Plants for a Future (PFAF): https://pfaf.org/user/Default.aspx

Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) online catalogue of digitised herbarium specimens: https://data.rbge.org.uk/search/herbarium/

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2 alcoholic drinks consumed in Scotland, and their plant source material:

Regional craft gins

Myrica ale

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2 spices commonly used in Scotland, and their origins...

Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum syn. C. verum; also C. cassia)

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Research on medicinal properties of Yarrow 

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Research on medicinal properties of Yarrow 

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"Despite its many applications and long historical medicinal use - and its similarity in purpose to German chamomile (Matricaria recutita) - yarrow has been poorly researched in terms of clinical trials. However, a better understanding of yarrow's chemical constituents helps to explain and support some of the herbal actions and traditional medicinal uses: The herb and its volatile oil have been shown to be anti-inflammatory; the azulenes are also anti-allergenic. The sesquiterpene lactones are bitter and have anti-tumour activity. Achilleine and the flavonoids help arrest internal and external bleeding; the flavonoids may be responsible for yarrow's antispasmodic action. Laboratory studies indicate that yarrow dilates blood vessels, thereby lowering blood pressure. It works, in part, like conventional medicines known as ACE inhibitors, which are commonly prescribed for high blood pressure."

(Chevallier, 2016, p.56)

'Assessment report on Achillea millefolium' - European Medicines Agency (2011): https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-achillea-millefolium-l-herba_en.pdf

'Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.): A Neglected Panacea? A Review of Ethnobotany, Bioactivity, and Biomedical Research' - by Wendy L. Applequist, Daniel E Moerman (2011): https://www.academia.edu/4469270/Yarrow_Achillea_millefolium_L._A_Neglected_Panacea_A_Review_of_Ethnobotany_Bioactivity_and_Biomedical_Research1

'A review on phytochemistry and medicinal properties of the genus Achillea' - By S. Saeidnia, AR. Gohari, N. Mokhber-Dezfuli, and F. Kiuchi (2011): https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3232110/

Achillea millefolium: An overview - Topic on Science Direct: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/achillea-millefolium

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Plants for a Future (PFAF) profile of Achillea millefolium: https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Achillea+millefolium

RBGE herbarium, digitised specimen of Achillea millefolium (UK, 1977): http://data.rbge.org.uk/herb/E00091435

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Herb 2: Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) - ID card & medicinal uses 

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Herb 2: Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) - ID card & medicinal uses 

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Video: A year in the life of an Elder tree (Woodland Trust, on YouTube): https://youtu.be/ZIEhrkjwkCQ

Plants for a Future (PFAF) profile of Elder: https://pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Sambucus+nigr

Herbarium specimen from Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE): http://data.rbge.org.uk/herb/E00894515

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Research on medicinal properties of Elder: 

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Research on medicinal properties of Elder: 

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Inhibition of several strains of influenza virus in vitro and reduction of symptoms by an elderberry extract (Sambucus nigra L.) during an outbreak of influenza B Panama. - By Zakay-Rones Z., Varsano N, et al (1995): https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9395631

A Review of the Antiviral Properties of Black Elder (Sambucus nigra L.) Products' - by Randall S Porter, Robert F Bode (2017): https://www.academia.edu/33355701/A_Review_of_the_Antiviral_Properties_of_Black_Elder_Sambucus_nigra_L._Products'Advanced research on the antioxidant and health benefit of elderberry (Sambucus nigra) in food – a review' - by Andrzej Sidor, Anna Gramza Michalowska (2014) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280266365_Advanced_research_on_the_antioxidant_and_health_benefit_of_elderberry_Sambucus_nigra_in_food_-_a_review

'Biological Effects and Clinical Applications of Dwarf Elder (Sambucus ebulus L): A Review' - by Marzie Jabbari, Babak Daneshfard, et al (2017): https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2156587217701322

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THEME 2: COMPLEXITY OF PLANT BIOGEOGRAPHY

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THEME 2: COMPLEXITY OF PLANT BIOGEOGRAPHY

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Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). Botanical illustration by Sarah Howard (SBAC), 2018.

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Botanical illustration by Morna Henderson, from Scottish Botanical Art Collective's (SBAC) 'Flora Scotia' exhibition, 2018. Showing: Smooth meadowgrass (Poa pratensis), Ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolate), Bird's foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)

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from Buglife.org

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THEME 1 (PLANT DIVERSITY): HABITATS OF SCOTLAND 

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THEME 1 (PLANT DIVERSITY): HABITATS OF SCOTLAND 

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Although not high in biodiversity  - in terms of species-richness of vegetation - upland heathland is a notable habitat and valuable for nature conservation because they are so rare in the world. The extensive landscapes where almost all of the vegetation is some form of heathland are more common in Scotland than elsewhere in Europe.

This habitat occurs on acid substrates in a cool upland climate. The dry and damp heaths characteristically occur on free-draining, nutrient-poor, podsolised mineral soils. Upland heathland occurs in mosaics with blanket bog, acid and calcicolous grasslands, flushes and springs. It can also occupy woodland glades; and with increasing altitude it gives way to montane heaths and snowbeds.

Find out more:

SNH Upland Heathland profile: https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2018-02/Priority%20Habitat%20-%20Upland%20Heathland.pdf

- https://www.nature.scot/priority-habitat-upland-heathland

JNCC (includes NVC classification of upland heath types): http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-6326

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Upland heathland is unwooded habitat dominated by the dwarf shrubs ling Calluna vulgaris, bilberry Vaccinium spp., crowberry Empetrum nigrum, bell heathers Erica spp., bearberry Arctostaphylos spp. or gorse Ulex spp., either alone or in mixtures. It occurs on substrates that range from thin, stony, well-drained mineral soils to peat up to half a metre deep. Dry and wet Upland heathland also include a sparse array of other species such as grasses, sedges and their allies, and herbs. Liverwort-rich damp Calluna and Vaccinium heaths in the west Highlands, include an array of rare oceanic liverworts.

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Most Scottish examples of lowland meadows are on well-drained neutral soils in the agriculturally-enclosed lowlands, with grassy swards (about 20-50 cm tall) and an abundance of herbs. Up to 35 or more plant species may occur in a 2m X 2m sample.

Unimproved, species-rich grassland is one of our rarest habitats, and the continued use of traditional farming practices is required to maintain it.

Find out more:
Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) : https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2018-02/Priority%20Habitat%20-%20Lowland%20Meadows.pdf

- https://www.nature.scot/landscapes-and-habitats/habitat-types/farmland-and-croftland/lowland-grassland

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC): http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-2097

- Guide to types of species-rich grasslands (SNH 2010): https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/Publication%202011%20-%20Guide%20to%20types%20of%20species-rich%20grassland.pdf

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Habitat 3: Lowland meadow (unimproved grassland

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Habitat 3: Lowland meadow (unimproved grassland

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Lowland meadows are meadow areas that haven’t been heavily fertilised ('unimproved grasslands') and are still full of flowers, rushes, sedges, mosses and a wide variety of wildlife. They are often notable for the summer colours of plants such as purple thyme and knapweeds, yellow rattle and primroses, and white eyebrights and oxeye daisies.

Photo (c) Plantlife

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"The tree and bush species of old hedgerows were and to some extent still are relicts from older forest and scrub borders, showing the local deciduous forest composition at least 100–200 years ago."

https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view (p.40)

Find out more:

https://www.nature.scot/priority-habitat-hedgerows

https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view (p.40, p.50)

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Hedgerows are very important in providing corridors of semi-natural and structurally and floristically varied habitat within extensive lowland farmland areas which are otherwise of very limited ecological value.

It has been estimated that the length of hedges in Britain has decreased by more 25% over a few decades.

Photo (c) Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH)

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Habitat 1: Open mosaic habitat on previously developed land (OMHPDL)

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Habitat 1: Open mosaic habitat on previously developed land (OMHPDL)

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"Open mosaic habitats with varying stages of natural succession are scarce in the over-managed and farmed countryside. In an urban setting brownfields can be used as ‘stepping stones’ to allow movement and mixing of animals and plants across an area."

(Macadam, 2011).

Find out more:
- Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH): https://www.nature.scot/priority-habitat-open-mosaic-habitats-previously-developed-land

- Buglife: https://www.buglife.org.uk/sites/default/files/Identifying%20open%20mosaic%20habitat.pdf

- Macadam & Bairnier, 2012: 'Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challanges: Brownfields: oases of urban biodiversity' https://www.glasgownaturalhistory.org.uk/urban_bio/macadam.pdf

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Habitat 1: Open mosaic habitat on previously developed land (OMHPDL) - urban 'brownfield' site 

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Habitat 1: Open mosaic habitat on previously developed land (OMHPDL) - urban 'brownfield' site 

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'Open mosaic habitats' are a patchwork of bare, previously disturbed ground and some vegetated areas, often on ex-industrial sites. They can support diverse plant species, and be a valuable habitat for invertebrates and birds.

" With the loss of natural habitats in the wider countryside through agricultural intensification and development, wild areas within the urban environment have become crucial to the survival of many increasingly threatened species in the UK."

(Macadam & Bairnier, 2012)

Photo of Fallin' Bing, Buglife Scotland, (c) Scott Shanks

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JNCC report No.247, 1995: The Habitats Directive
Atlantic Biogeographical Region
- More detailed technical report

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Theme 3: Climate change - What is happening to biodiversity in the Atlantic biogeographic region?

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Theme 3: Climate change - What is happening to biodiversity in the Atlantic biogeographic region?

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"2.1 Climate change
The climate of the Atlantic biogeographical region is so strongly coupled to the oceanic conditions and to conditions in the central and southern Europe. It is generally expected that increases in temperature will continue, humidity will remain high and that occurrence of heavy storms and other extreme weather may increase.

Several species have already shown changes in their behaviour which may be a result of ongoing climate change, such as migratory species moving northwards earlier and returning later than previously. Others do no longer migrate or they do not winter as far to the south as earlier. Also more visiting species come to this part of Europe from northern Asia or from the western parts of the Atlantic Ocean. The reasons are debated; factors under study include strong winds, changes in orientation systems etc.

Butterflies show a similar trend as some of the birds, appearing flying earlier (adults) and having more generations than before. There are examples of new species having quickly established in new areas, indicating great sensitiveness to warmer climatic conditions."

- From EEA report: p.50, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view

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Wet woodland - environmental stresses & plant adaptation: Alder

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Wet woodland - environmental stresses & plant adaptation: Alder

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The common alder (Alnus glutinosus) is spread over all Europe. It also occurs in the Atlantic region along all rivers, watercourses and in swamps. It has a binding capacity for nitrogen by the use of bacteria and can exist under low oxygen regimes.
p.38, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view

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Priority species & habitats for conservation action across Scotland:

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Priority species & habitats for conservation action across Scotland:

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"The Atlantic biogeographic region is not rich in endemics and the overall number of species is relatively limited. As generally is the case in Europe the numbers of plants and animal species generally decrease from the south to the north."

- p.41, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view

Habitat types can have nature conservation value in biodiversity terms, not just for their species-richness and levels of endemic species (found nowhere else in the world), but also

where habitats are globally or regionally rare (e.g. Caledonian relic forest, existing only in Scotland)

habitats which support rare or endangered species

Conservation action in Scotland focuses not just on endemic species, but also:

Keystone species - capable of modifying the habitats and ecosystems they are found in

Indicator species - whose population status tends to indicate the health of the wider habitat or ecosystem

Flagship species - who act as an 'icon' for their wider habitat or ecosystem

Such tree, plant & cryptogam species in Scotland include:

Aspen

Dwarf birch

Common juniper

Northern cranberry

Grass of Parnassus

Scottish primrose

Yellow rattle

Small cow wheat

Cladonia lichens

Rusty bog moss

Western featherwort (liverwort)

Waxcaps

Eelgrasses (group of seagrasses)

You can find out more about priority species for conservation action in Scotland from the Scottish Wildlife Trust here: https://scottishwildlifetrust.org.uk/scotlands-wildlife/priority-species/

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We champion specific conservation action for a number of priority species.

These animals, plants and fungi have been selected because they fall into one or more of these categories:

Endemic species - they are found nowhere else in the world;

Keystone species - they are capable of modifying the habitats and ecosystems they are found in;

Indicator species - their population status tends to indicate the health of the wider habitat or ecosystem;

Flagship species - they act as an icon for their wider habitat or ecosystem;

Conservation action - we are taking targeted action on our wildlife reserves, or through wider partnership projects, to improve their status.

Find out which species are on the list...

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Priority Species | Scottish Wildlife Trust

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We champion specific conservation action for a number of priority species.

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Environmental stresses: Bogs (Atlantic region)

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Environmental stresses: Bogs (Atlantic region)

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Mires and bogs
"Due to the high humidity, the [Atlantic] region is still relatively rich and has been even richer in mires and bogs. Soils are poorer in the Atlantic region than in most other regions: many areas are sandy, and nutrients have been leached out by the humidity over hundreds of years. Where there is low or slow natural drainage this taken together with the relatively low temperatures have resulted in vast formations of deep peat soils over large areas. Here organic matter has accumulated over centuries. This is in contrast with the faster processes in for instance the Mediterranean region.

"What remains of mires, bogs and fens today is only a fragment of the enormous areas that existed 200 years ago. Ireland has had and still has the largest proportion of peatlands in Europe (more than 16 % of the territory), but only 20 % of this is left intact (220 000 ha). All natural peatlands in the Netherlands have been lost, the United Kingdom have only 10 % of its former blanket bogs and 2 % of its raised bogs (IPCC, 2000). Similar decreases have taken place in France, Germany and Denmark in this region. The reasons for the decrease are mainly: drainage and cultivation, afforestation, peat excavation, nutrient induced decomposition or combustion."

Bogs
"The heavy rainfall and low evaporation of the Atlantic Region has also encouraged the formation of characteristic blanket bog and raised bog habitats. The UK and Ireland host some of the largest and most significant tracts of blanket bogs in Europe. This is however only a fraction of what originally existed. Up to 90% has already been lost through large-scale extraction, afforestation and drainage schemes."

"Bogs are acidic mires with peat development. They occur in the northwestern part of the [Atlantic] region and are dominated by bog-mosses (Sphagnum spp.), sedges (such as Carex spp. and Eriophorum spp.) and heathers (Calluna vulgaris and Erica tetralix). Insectivorous plants such as sundews (Drosera spp.) are characteristic of the nitrogen-poor conditions.

"There are several bog types, [including raised bog and blanket bog] dependent on how water and nutrients are brought to the bog. This depends on topography, substrate, humidity and air borne substances. The most widespread bogs are oligotrophic humid peatlands with a limited number of plant species. They often occur in connection with heathlands, forests or dunes.

"The extremely slow process of raised bog formation and growth can only take place under conditions with no airborne influx of nutrients and no ground- or surface water influx. It further requires a high level of precipition. The time span needed for such natural restoration is several hundred years."

- p.20, 21, 22, 23: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view
- p.8-9, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/biogeos/Atlantic.pdf

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EEA report, 2008: 'Biogeographical regions in Europe: The Atlantic region – mild and green, fragmented and close to the rising sea'
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view

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Influences on biodiversity in the Atlantic region

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Influences on biodiversity in the Atlantic region

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The main influences on biodiversity in the Atlantic region are:

climate change (temperature, precipitation)

urbanisation and tourism

intensive agriculture, with decreased grazing

land-reclamation and land restoration

Other important influences are:

afforestation and changing tree composition

change in and exploitation of wetlands

contaminants

alien invasive species

The impacts of the latest glaciation, and the intensive use of the land for centuries combine to characterise the ecosystems and the species composition of the Atlantic region.

"Despite the very favourable climate conditions, the number of species present is relatively low in the region [compared with e.g. Meditteranean region] and there are very few endemic species except in the most southern parts. Some species are still considered naturally on the move from south to north, expanding their range. This may already be enhanced by the rising temperature and milder winters experienced in the region during the last decades."

- p.9-10, from 'Biogeographical regions in Europe: The Atlantic region – mild and green, fragmented and close to the rising sea' - EEA report, 2008: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view

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Environmental stresses: Intertidal mudflats and salt meadows (Atlantic region)

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Environmental stresses: Intertidal mudflats and salt meadows (Atlantic region)

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Some typical coastal habitats of the Atlantic region are the intertidal mudflats and salt meadows.
"These develop in the more sheltered locations around the coast, for instance, at the mouth of an estuary or behind barrier islands and sandbanks. The large tidal range and important salinity gradient create a rapid succession of halophytic vegetation up the shoreline. Sparsely covered mudflats eventually give way to a more diverse type of vegetation in the salt marshes. Centuries of grazing by domestic livestock has contributed further to this diversity."

"The coastal salt meadows support specific halophytic species such as sea Aster (Aster tripolium), mud rush (Juncus gerardii), sea arrow grass (Triglochin maritima) and glasswort (Salicornia spp.)."

"The complex mosaics of mudflats and saltmarshes are also of great importance for wildlife. Although low in species diversity, the intertidal mud supports dense populations of invertebrates, resulting in an extremely high overall biomass. This, in turn, attracts huge numbers of overwintering and staging waders and wildfowl."

p.8-9, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/biogeos/Atlantic.pdf
p.16, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/biogeographical-regions-in-europe/the_atlantic_region.pdf/view

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from Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH)

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Status of UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) priority species, Status of UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) priority habitats, Condition of protected sites - National Indicator, Information provision, Condition of notified species, Condition of notified habitats, Extent and composition of greenspace

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Status of UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) priority species, Status of UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) priority habitats, Condition of protected sites - National Indicator, Information provision, Condition of notified species, Condition of notified habitats, Extent and composition of greenspace

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from the European Environment Agency (EEA, 2009): https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/climate

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Ecosystems and habitats of the Atlantic region 

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Ecosystems and habitats of the Atlantic region 

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from the European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/platform/knowledge_base/143_atlantic_region_en.htm

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Ecosystems & habitats of the Atlantic region

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Key characteristics of the Atlantic biogeoraphic region 

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Key characteristics of the Atlantic biogeoraphic region 

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Area:

"The Atlantic Region stretches from the top of the United Kingdom and Ireland down to the northern shores of Spain and Portugal, encompassing all of the Netherlands and parts of Germany, Denmark, Belgium and France along the way."

Climate:

Mild winters, cool summers, predominantly westerly winds and moderate rainfall throughout the year - due to the oceanic climate.

Nowhere is more than 300 km away from the sea

Coastline & marine environment:

This region includes over half of Europe’s long, indented coastline and two of the most productive seas in the world: the North Sea and North-east Atlantic Ocean.

Varied and dynamic coastline, rich in habitats and species.

The Gulf Stream, which travels right up to the north coast of Scotland and Norway, brings warm currents all year round and a rich supply of nutrients from the Caribbean.

In the shallower waters of the continental shelf and the North Sea, this creates an ideal environment for a wide array of marine organisms from plankton, crustaceans, bivalves and fish to seabirds and mammals at the top of the food-chain.

Waterbirds and waders also flock to the area in large numbers to escape the harsh conditions of the arctic north and to find shelter in the nutrient-rich coastal wetlands of the Atlantic and North Sea coast.

The North-east Atlantic is one of the richest oceans in the world, but it is also one of the most heavily used; it is under constant pressure from overfishing, pollution, abstraction and shipping traffic.

Habitats & biodiversity:

Altogether, 117 habitat types listed in the Habitats Directive (just over half ) are found in the Atlantic Region. The large number reflects the area’s clement climate and rich soils, its close association with the Continental and Mediterranean regions which share the same habitats, and, in particular, its long and diverse coastline.

52 plants and 81 animal species listed in the Habitats Directive are found in the Atlantic region.

The Atlantic region is best known for its abundant marine life, including harbour seals, bottlenose dolphins and harbour porpoises. But It is also home to many listed species of bats and invertebrates, ranging from rare butterflies and dragonflies to land snails such as the tiny Desmoulin’s whorl snail (Vertigo angustior) and molluscs such as the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera durrovensis).

Many of the listed flora species are closely associated with typical Atlantic habitats. Festuca summilusitanica is only found in the Northern Iberian coastal heaths and the early gentian (Gentianella anglica) in the chalk grasslands of the UK. The rare petalwort (Petalophyllum ralfsii) is confined to new wind-formed damp hollows of dynamic dune systems and cannot survive in over-stabilised dunes.

The rate of endemism in the Atlantic area is the lowest of all the biogeographical regions and is generally restricted to the northern Iberian Peninsula.

Landscape, human exploitation, habitat loss, fragmentation & biodiversity:

Biodiversity of the Atlantic region has been reduced by the long history of human exploitation, which has created a heavily altered and often degraded environment.

Under natural conditions, forests would have been the dominant habitat but these have been systematically cleared since the Middle Ages.

Topography: Much of the land is flat and low-lying

Intensive agriculture and modern production systems cover a significant part of the countryside, benefitting from the long growing seasons. The landscape is predominantly agricultural, with heavily urbanised areas.

Many natural and semi-natural habitats now only exist as isolated, fragmented patches in an otherwise mostly artificial landscape.

Pollution from heavy pesticide or fertiliser use and industrial effluents is also a significant problem for environment and biodiversity.

Population density & human pressure:

The Atlantic Region is one of the most heavily populated and intensely managed areas in Europe. Over 100 million people live and work in the area (almost a quarter of the EU population).

Outside the capital cities of Paris, London, Brussels or Amsterdam, human densities can still reach 360 inhabitants/km² in certain areas.

This puts massive pressure on the natural environment and presents a particular challenge for the conservation of rare species and habitats.

Discover more:
- http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/platform/knowledge_base/143_atlantic_region_en.htm
- http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/biogeog_regions/atlantic/index_en.htm

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Atlantic Biogeographical Region - European Commission

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Established in 1964, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species has evolved to become the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species.

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Re-forestation to ameliorate carbon emissions & climate change

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Re-forestation to ameliorate carbon emissions & climate change

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Analysis suggests that massive restoration of the world's forests could balance the last 10 years of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Independent news article, 18/2/2019

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Replenishing the world's forests on a grand scale would suck enough carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to cancel out a decade of human emissions, according to an ambitious new study.

Scientists have established there is room for an additional 1.2 trillion trees to grow in parks, woods and abandoned land across the planet.

If such a goal were accomplished, ecologist Dr Thomas Crowther said it would outstrip every other method for tackling climate change - from building wind turbines to vegetarian diets.

Lack of accurate information meant for years experts severely underestimated the number of trees on Earth.

Combining data from ground-based surveys and satellites, Dr Crowther and his colleagues arrived at a figure of three trillion - over seven times more than a previous Nasa estimate.

The same approach, using machine learning and AI to analyse the enormous data set, allowed the researchers to predict the number of trees that could feasibly be planted in empty patches around the world.

Dr Crowther said undervaluing trees means scientists have also been massively underestimating the potential for forests to combat climate change.

Project Drawdown, a group that compares the merits of different emission-cutting techniques, currently places onshore wind power and improved recycling of fridges and air conditioners at the top of its list.

If rolled out on a realistic scale, each of these techniques would cut over 80 gigatons of emissions, while growing forests languishes in 15th place with a saving of just 18 gigatons.

New research undertaken by Dr Crowther has used the 1.2 billion figure to estimate the potential scale of carbon capture that could be achieved by planting trees, and reveal their true potential.

"There's 400 gigatons now, in the 3 trillion trees, and if you were to scale that up by another trillion trees that's in the order of hundreds of gigatons captured from the atmosphere - at least 10 years of anthropogenic emissions completely wiped out," he said.

While the exact figures are yet to be released, he said trees had emerged as "our most powerful weapon in the fight against climate change". Dr Crowther discussed his findings at the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) meeting in Washington DC.

Full restoration of all sites identified is clearly unrealistic, but tree planting is increasingly being recognised as a critical activity to preserve life on Earth.

The United Nations initially ran a project known as the Billion Tree Campaign, but in light of Dr Crowther's findings this has been renamed the Trillion Tree Campaign. It has already seen 17 billion trees planted in suitable locations around the world.

"We are not targeting urban or agricultural area, just degraded or abandoned lands, and it has the potential to tackle the two greatest challenges of our time - climate change and biodiversity loss," said Dr Crowther.

"It's a beautiful thing because everyone can get involved. Trees literally just make people happier in urban environments, they improve air quality, water quality, food quality, ecosystem service, it's such an easy, tangible thing."

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Massive restoration of world's forests would cancel out a decade of CO2 emissions, analysis suggests

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Replenishing the world's forests on a grand scale would suck enough carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to cancel out a decade of human emissions, according to an ambitious new study. Scientists have established there is room for an additional 1.2 trillion trees to grow in parks, woods and abandoned land across the planet.

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Projects to conserve plant communities within Caledonian pinewoods

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Projects to conserve plant communities within Caledonian pinewoods

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"Over the last two decades, there has been welcome enthusiasm for revitalising Scotland’s Old Caledonian pinewoods. Management has focused on the regeneration of pine trees within the few remaining natural woods and creating ‘new native woodlands’, but with relatively little attention being paid to the wider plant community of these woods, especially the characteristic pinewood ground flora. Sadly many of these have suffered declines over the last century.
- Building on the work of the Cairngorms Rare Plants Project, our new Cairngorms Important Plant Area Project - covering both arctic-alpine flora and Caledonian pinewood – aims to secure the future of these habitats."

Plantlife Scotland

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from Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH)

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Climate change impacts in Scotland | Scottish Natural Heritage

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Climate influences the landform processes that shape Scotland's mountains, rivers and coasts, and maintain our habitats, ecosystems and landscapes. Thus climate change will affect the dynamics of these processes, and in turn the rocks, landforms and soils upon which plants, animals and humans live.

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Geology and soil substrates play key roles in determining the vegetation and habitat types in different parts of Scotland.

"Scotland has a wide variety of different soil types. This is because our soils are created from a wide variety of rocks and sediments by a range of processes controlled by the climate and where the soil sits in the landscape. As a result, Scotland’s soils tend to have more organic matter and be more acidic than soils in the rest of the UK."

- from Scotland's Soils: https://soils.environment.gov.scot/soils-in-scotland/
- Scotland's soils map: http://map.environment.gov.scot/Soil_maps/?layer=1

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Explore Scotland's habitat types and land use (click on the link and add map data layers)

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Theme 3: Wild plants migrating due to climate change (Step 1 activity)

"In the Andes, the longest continental mountain range in the world, located in south America, tree species are ‘on the run’, trying to move to ground of higher altitude. They are shifting roughly 2.5 to 3.5 vertical meters a year on average, but in fact they need to migrate more than 20 vertical feet (7 meters) a year!"

- Answer: 2. Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

Theme 4: Fossil fuels, green energy & biofuels (Step 1 activity):

"The threat of climate change and the knowledge that it is related to CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels has led scientists to look for alternatives for our energy needs, that is in the cultivation of biofuel crops."

- Answer: Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

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--> Plants & climate change: PlantAreas comparison (theme 3 report)

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--> Plants & climate change: PlantAreas comparison (theme 3 report)

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>> Compare your PlantArea with PlantAreas of your co-learners. Look for differences or similarities in terms of climate change.
>> Present your summary/findings in clear text (50-70 words)

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Theme 2 (history): Alexander von Humboldt, 'Cosmos', and phytogeography

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Theme 2 (history): Alexander von Humboldt, 'Cosmos', and phytogeography

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Alexander von Humboldt is often referred to as the 'father of phytogeography'. Learn more about him and his multi-volume treatise 'Cosmos'. Write a comment about this important work (its concept, the motivation offered to the scientific community etc).

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Habitat types in the Atlantic biogeographical region

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Habitat types in the Atlantic biogeographical region

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'Natura 2000' habitats and species in the Atlantic region (2018).

This annex reference lists habitats and species for which member states have an obligation to designate Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) as part of the Natura 2000 network. It's a useful overview of habitat types found in the Atlantic biogeographical region, and also in UK more specifically. Some of these habitat types (including Caledonian forest) are found only in Scotland.
- From https://bd.eionet.europa.eu/activities/Natura_2000/chapter2 (EEA, 2018)

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Habitat types in the Atlantic region_Natura2000(EEA,2018)

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Atlantic biogeographical region - Europe's western fringe

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Atlantic biogeographical region - Europe's western fringe

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from the European Commission 2009 (Natura 2000)

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Map of the Atlantic biogeographic region

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Map of the Atlantic biogeographic region

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Scotland is part of the Atlantic biogeographic region.

This European Environment Agency (EEA) map of the Atlantic biogeographic region, shows 'Natura 2000' sites - a network of SACs (special areas of conservation) and SPAs (special protection areas) for the conservation of priority habitats and species across the European Union. ('Natura 2000', EEA map 2008)

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Each of the biogeographic regions of the world has its own characteristic blend of vegetation, climate and geology. Biogeographical regions represented in Europe are:

The Arctic biogeographical region

The Boreal biogeographical region

The Anatolian region

The Continental biogeografical region

The Mediterranean biogeografical region

The Alpine Region

The Atlantic Region

The Black Sea Region

The Macaronesian biogeographical region

The Pannonian region

The Steppic Region

The map below notes Scotland's location, within the Atlantic region.

Looking at Europe from the perspective of biogeography incorporates the fields of: biology, taxonomy, ecology, evolution studies, geography, and climatology. It helps us to better understand the distribution of plant & animal species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geologic time. Biogeography is important in understanding the factors that allow taxa to survive or thrive in particular regions of the world, and to protect world's natural habitats.

Refs:
- Biogeographic regions & map from European Environment Agency (EEA) report, 2002: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909

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Selected herbal remedies & plants used medicinally in Scotland

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Selected herbal remedies & plants used medicinally in Scotland

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Within Scotland, plant-based medicine today follows the western European tradition of herbal medicine and includes many non-native plants, some of which have been imported and used here since the Middle Ages.

However, some regionally-specific native plant remedies and traditions are also preserved - including Gaelic & Scots names of plants, and a distict tradition of Scottish highland herbal medicine.

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Explore more characteristic native plantlife and habitats of Scotland online through original botanical art from the Scottish Botanical Art Collective (SBAC). Flora Scotia was an original botanical art exhibition, created by artists living & working in Scoland, to celebrate its diverse and beatiful native flora (2018, at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh).

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Lecanora gangaleoides, Tephromela atra, Porpidia albocaerulescens, Aspicilia leprosescens, Candelariella vitellina, Ochrolechia parella, Ramalina cuspidata - Lichens, © Claire Dalby

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Herb 1: Elder (Sambucus nigra) identification card & medicinal uses

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Herb 1: Elder (Sambucus nigra) identification card & medicinal uses