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I selected to include this video, featuring Allan Luke, as my first portfolio entry because as a budding educator, it is important for me to begin to identify my "default mode", and continue to challenge myself to step outside my comfort zone in order to continue my growth in the teaching profession.  Similarly to Luke's position as a lifelong basketball player to becoming a U12 coach, I am looking forward to developing my prior knowledge and experiences as a former English language learner as I now teach English language learners from diverse backgrounds.

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In teaching Grade 6 this past year, I administered EQAO testing for the first time in my career. As such, I had to become familiar with the guidelines for English language learners as they also partook in the writing of literacy and numeracy tests. Not only was it important to adjust how ELLs prepared to write the tests, but ensuring that all permitted accommodations were in place for my students made a great difference in their levels of comfort and ease during testing periods.

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An important facet of teaching English language learners is building a relationship with the student so they feel comfortable to be vulnerable and open to learning the language of their new home country. ELLs come to our classroom with a rich background of culture and language, and it is our job to acknowledge and respect these students' stories. One way of empowering these students in sharing their stories is providing the opportunity to curate dual-language picture books that can be shared with the class. These examples are ones I would use to model a similar task with my future ELL students.

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Since my years in undergrad where I first learned about Canada's true history with its Indigenous peoples, I have become incredibly passionate about learning more about how to reshape what I know, and how I understand my positionality in relation to First Nations, Métis and Inuit peoples. Considering that Indigenous students in my classroom may not speak English, it is critical to find strategies that allow for the meaningful acquisition of English while simultaneously placing a great deal of respect on the preservation of their native language. This document is one that spoke to me because it shares effective practices that combine literacy with Indigenous ways of learning and knowing.

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Although I had previously heard of the distinction between academic and social English, "BICS" and "CALP" were unfamiliar acronyms.  The intricate relationship between BICS and CALP is one that I find interesting because it is one that I saw in several of my students this past year.  Simply by overhearing conversations with their peers, and even what was shared during whole-class discussions, I would have never known that students' CALP was still developing.  This table, from Colorin Colorado, provided meaningful examples to show the difference between BICS and CALP that often comes to light in student work. Working alongside students to improve their content-based, topic-specific vocabulary through guided and shared writing would significantly improve how effectively they are able to express their ideas, both orally and through writing.

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Even before I started Teachers' College, I had several volunteering experiences in schools, so I was able to learn a lot about how different classrooms in different schools and school boards functioned on a daily basis.  It was during this time that I really realized that each student has their own story.  Personal to the student is their cultural background, traditions and norms, their familial relationships, their hobbies, interests, and so much more.  More so than any other article I have read in this whole course, I was touched by Rusul Alrubail's article on Empowering ELLs with Digital Stories. Throughout this course, we have learned that a critical point of success for a student is when they have been given the opportunity to share about themselves in ways that are meaningful and relevant. Rusul's article focused on a digital story by her student, Oleksii, who is from Ukraine. Considering that Ukraine is considered to be a "tech hub" in Europe, I could see how this could be the perfect medium for Oleksii to present his story. After watching his video (and totally understanding all of the humour), I realized how this tool could be effective for ELLs at any grade level. With the right program and setting, students could be given an opportunity to shine through digital storytelling.

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For my inquiry in this module, I decided to focus on trauma-informed teaching.  Not only did I want to discover more about how I, as a mainstream classroom teacher, could best integrate trauma-informed teaching tools and strategies in my daily practice, but I also wanted to see "what else is out there" in terms of welcoming, nurturing, and teaching students who have experienced, or are currently experiencing trauma in their lives.  I stumbled upon this article by Joan Miles and Mary-Catherine Bailey-McKenna, who reported on the LEAD program. Based in Calgary, this specialized, yet temporary classroom setting has been structured to address four core stressors in ELLs' lives -- resettlement, acculturation, isolation and of course, trauma. This breakdown gave me a well-rounded picture of the elements of a child's life that I should be paying attention to, even as a classroom teacher. Employing evidence-based practices on a day-to-day basis, even prior to the arrival of an ELL in my classroom.

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A concept that is so important when teaching English language learners is scaffolding.  This teaching practice allows for a gradual release of responsibility, beginning with guided practice and modelling, moving forward to shared practice with the teacher and/or peers, and continues with independent work.  ELLs require scaffolding much like non-ELLs, and it is up to the teacher to continuously monitor student progress so readiness can be determined.

This video, presented by TEFL, shows a teacher using a competitive game to engage her students in consolidating their learning about vocabulary associated with time. By the end of the video, students are running the game themselves, which shows that in a comfortable and nurturing environment, ELLs can take risks in their learning and thrive as a result.

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100s OF HOW-TO VIDEOS FOR THE TEFL CLASSROOM Our practical, easy-to-understand videos offer a variety of helpful features so you can watch the video one day, and use it in your classroom the next!

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Throughout this course, I feel that I have experienced immense professional growth.  Upon enrolling, I knew that my goal was to become more well-versed to serve the ever-evolving populations in our schools, and by learning more about English language learners, I feel that I can now reach more students and ascertain their growth and progress.  The resources, tools and strategies I have acquired in the past several weeks are ones that I will ensure to continuously reference as I develop lessons, activities and assessments for years to come.

As I revisited tasks that I completed in previous modules, I can see that I have learned so much.  In my KWL chart, it was my goal to learn more about conducting initial diagnostics (--> STEP program), effectively differentiating lessons and assessments(--> scaffolding, alternative assessment methods), and welcoming students from refugee backgrounds in the mainstream classroom (--> trauma informed practices).

When looking back at my vision for ELLs, I remain rooted in the notions that each child has great potential to be successful. With a clear direction for intervention and instruction, evidence-based practices, and a true respect for each student's story, I believe that I can support ELLs through their journey of living in a new country and learning a new language in a safe, holistic and nurturing classroom community.

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Throughout this module, we discussed the importance of scaffolding students' learning in literacy.  We were tasked with selecting a meaningful text that could be used as part of a scaffolded activity, but also focuses on an ecological issue.  Stewardship of the environment is a value that my school board takes very seriously, and respect for the land is a sacred part of many cultures.  Of any task, I really enjoyed reading through my colleagues' posts for this topic the most.

One text that I feel that I will use in my teaching practice is titled "The Water Princess" by Susan Verde.  I love that Peter Reynolds illustrated the book, and that the story reflects such universal issues - safe water and water preservation.

(Thanks for sharing, Stacey!)

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From Grade 7 to Grade 12, I was enrolled in a private school.  In the Intermediate elementary years, not only did we learn about reading and writing, but grammar was its own subject.  Yes - we received a grammar mark on our report card.  When I first started at the school, I was immediately included in grammar tutoring because the textbook with hundreds of pages in it was just too daunting.  Needless to say, I became a bit of a grammar and proofreading "nut" over the years.

While I've come to realized that grammar in writing and oral communication isn't everything, it is still something that should be paid attention to, and taught. What I liked most about this article was the references to the types of feedback we tend to provide (e.g., "Awkward"), and that this is not the solution when teaching ELLs.

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Keith Folse addresses the fact that the focus of traditional teacher training will not suffice in preparing teachers for the increasing numbers of ESL students in U.S. schools. See "An Interview With Keith Folse," Essential Teacher, October 2009.

K-12 teachers have taken extensive coursework in math, language arts, science, or other content areas and received training for working with elementary, middle, or secondary students. However, these two traditional teacher training areas will not suffice in preparing teachers for the large number of English language learners (ELLs) in K-12 schools in the United States. Today's teachers have a new responsibility-providing English input for ELLs-which means that all teachers in U.S. schools should know about aspects of English, including grammar, that impede ELLs. If teachers are to serve as models of English for ELLs, then they must know the types of problems ELLs have and be able to address them. This article presents information on English grammar that ELLs need to be taught-by default-by their non-ESL-trained teachers.

What Is ESL Grammar?

No area of second language learning has been the subject of as much practical interest as grammar teaching (Borg & Burns, 2008)-but what is ESL grammar and how is it different from the grammar that native speakers study in school?

Native speakers of English already speak the language fluently, but they study the formal rules of the language. For native speakers, the term grammar is often synonymous with learning labels, such as predicate nominative or fragments, as well as lists of errors to avoid. Thus, native speakers learn the eight parts of speech, the difference between lie and lay, and the meanings of lose and loose. They also learn not to say it don't, me and you are, or you should have went. (Correct forms are it doesn't, you and I are, and you should have gone.)

ESL grammar is different. Just as ELLs have a pronunciation accent when they speak, their English also has a grammar accent, that is, a set of grammar usages that do not sound like English spoken by a native speaker. Some errors are easily corrected, whereas others may take years to fix. Some errors are minor, and others render the ELL's message incomprehensible. Here are eight examples of common grammar errors that ELLs make (Folse, 2009):

1. She was born on 1988. (prepositions)

2. I have lived in Paris from 2000 to 2005. (verb tenses, especially present perfect)

3. There is no game today because the coach called off it. (phrasal verbs)

4. How many homework do we have? (count and noncount nouns)

5. Many parents avoid to give sweets to their children. (gerunds vs. infinitives)

6. She should helps you. (modals)

7. Siberia has a substantial number of nature resources. (word forms)

8. Where were you when the accident was happened? (passive voice)

Native-English-speaking teachers can easily correct these errors, but they usually have no idea how to explain why these incorrect structures are not possible. This inability is normal because native speakers never make these errors and are therefore never taught any rules for these structures. Test yourself now: Why do we say in 1988, not on 1988? (Explanations of this and the other seven errors are provided at the end of this article.)

ELLs have heard on Monday, on my birthday, on June 12, so on 1988 is a logical extension. If an ELL asks, "Why do you say in 1988, not on 1988?" native speakers typically give diversionary answers such as "It doesn't sound right" or "We don't say that in English." Neither of these explanations exemplifies good teaching because neither gives a reason-considering that the ELL specifically asked why. At times, native speakers often resort to the emergency answer "It's an exception" until the student replies, "Which one is the exception: in or on?" Clearly, most native speakers are not prepared to explain these English grammar structures to ELLs.

Native speakers acquire their language through years of exposure and natural practice, and if ELLs had extensive time for English exposure, they would pick up English naturally, too. However, most do not have that time. They must function in English soon, with some ELLs even taking a high-stakes exam within a few months. Many ELLs are not exposed to English at home, and when they are in class with other ELLs, exposure to native speaker English may be limited. By default, classroom teachers are often ELLs' main providers of English input, and the language in a kindergarten song or a science teacher's explanation becomes an important source of English input.

How Lack of ESL Grammar Knowledge Affects K-12 Teachers and ELLs

When teachers do not know ESL grammar issues or how to explain them, it can have negative consequences for ELLs. In assessing an ELL's paper, for example, a teacher may circle mistakes, commenting, "Pay attention to your English," "Too many errors," or worse yet, the trite and useless "Awkward." These frustrating comments explain nothing and exemplify poor teaching. Telling students to pay attention to their English when the teacher in fact cannot explain the error fails to help students learn anything useful.

Teachers may be so distracted by these errors, even though they are a natural and predictable part of second language acquisition (Ellis, 1994), that they cannot accurately assess a student's knowledge of content because the ELL's grammar accent hinders the comprehensibility of his or her answers. Teachers who have become more aware of typical ELL errors are better able to focus on content-science, history, math-and not be negatively swayed by grammar errors. However, teachers can only ignore these errors if they first know about them. ELL grammar errors can, but should not, impact ELL assessment in content areas. For example, an ELL's answer on a science test should be judged by its science content and not its verb errors or incorrect article usage.

In my teacher training courses on assessing writing, I give preservice teachers a short example of a passage written by an ELL to practice assessing ELL writing. They are first instructed to circle all the errors. They are then told to cross out errors that they cannot explain. Unfortunately, the result is a paper with most of the circled areas crossed out. Most teachers cannot explain the errors, and because teachers teach what they know, they therefore never teach ELLs about pertinent grammar issues. After making these mistakes repeatedly, ELLs who get no negative feedback or effective error correction will eventually assimilate, or fossilize (Ellis, 1994), these incorrect structures, so lack of teacher intervention-teaching-can have serious consequences.

Another example of the importance of knowing ESL grammar involves judging the level of a reading passage. Teachers frequently ask about the grade level of certain reading material. Although this calculation is not difficult to determine for native-English-speaking readers, it is quite a messy determination for ELLs. For native speakers, the factors taken into account when calculating the reading difficulty of a passage include the number of sentences in a paragraph, of words in each sentence, and then of syllables in each word. However, this emphasis on counting, especially the number of syllables in a word, does not work as well in determining ELL readability. With this system, for example, the wordtolerate would be judged more difficult than its equivalent put up with, which is an idiomatic phrasal verb. However, my experience is that an ELL, especially a Romance language speaker, would have few problems with tolerate but struggle with put up with. Because the three words in the phrasal verb put up with are frequent, basic, and monosyllabic, this verb would be judged easier to read for native speakers. Yet the meaning of put up with is not equal to the meanings of the individual constituents put, up, and with.

If these criteria are not sufficient for judging readability, then what is? I recommend examining the vocabulary and grammar of the passage. Teachers familiar with ESL grammar points can scour a passage to examine its ESL grammar. There are many aspects of ESL grammar that contribute to the readability of a passage, but three typical areas are verb tenses, phrasal verbs, and reduced forms.

Verb Tenses

Beginning-level passages tend to use present, present progressive, and past tenses because the forms and usages are easier. Passages of intermediate difficulty might include present perfect tense, especially when irregular verb forms such as have written or have lit are used. Present perfect is one of the most difficult parts of ESL grammar because both the form and usage are complicated. ELLs know have as "own or possess," not as an auxiliary verb, and the requisite past participle forms can be confusing (I've gotten a new pet is not the same as I've got a new pet). In addition, present perfect tense can be used for a past event (I have lived in Japan before), a current event (I have lived here since 2007), and a future event (After you have lived here for a month, you can get a driver's license). ELLs are rightfully confused by a verb tense that can seemingly be used for any time: the past, the present, and the future. More advanced passages might contain past modals such as must have gone or shouldn't have taken, which are especially problematic because the meaning of past modals does not always overlap with that of present forms.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and an additional part (called a preposition or particle): call off (a meeting), look up (a word), take over (a company). Common verbs in phrasal verbs are bring, come, get, look, make, and take, which may combine with particles such as up, down, in, out, on, off, away, back, and over. (For more detailed info on phrasal verbs, see Folse, 2004, pp. 5-8; Folse, 2009, pp. 210-223.)

There are three reasons that ELLs may have trouble deciphering the meaning of a sentence with phrasal verbs. First, phrasal verbs are often idiomatic. ELLs cannot deduce the meaning of a phrasal verb by studying its individual constituent words. For example, the meaning of come up with (an answer) has no connection to the meanings of come, up, orwith. Second, a phrasal verb may be separated by a multiword object: The coach called all seven of the season's games with tough Division Three schools off. In answering the reading comprehension question How many of the games were played? ELLs have to know that call and off are actually one unit for meaning even though they are separated by 11 words. (Phrasal verbs can be separated or not when the object is a noun: She called off the meeting or She called the meeting off. However, separation is obligatory when the object is a pronoun: She called it off, never She called off it.) Third, phrasal verbs are usually polysemous, so ELLs have to consider multiple meanings. For example, take up can mean "collect" (she took up the exams), "begin something new" (I took up tennis in 2000), "discuss" (We'll take that up tomorrow), "shorten" (He took up my pants), "defend" (My brother took up for me), or "occupy space" (The car takes up most of the garage).

Reduced Forms

Advanced passages are replete with reduced forms that native speakers have no problem deciphering, such as Coins minted in Denver bear a D. To ELLs, minted looks like the main verb because it occurs just after the subject and ends in -ed, a common verb ending, but the complete sentence is Coins that are minted in Denver bear a D. (The ESL grammar rule is that the combination who/that/which + be may be dropped in English without altering meaning.) Advanced passages also have sentences that begin with reduced adverb clauses that originally meant "because." For example, with Distraught from his company's performance, the president resigned, the original sentence was Because he was distraught from his company's performance, the president resigned. Native speakers have an easier time understanding these reductions than ELLs do, yet most native speakers cannot explain why these reductions are allowable. (For an overview on full and reduced adjective clauses, see Folse, 2009, pp. 193-209.)

Logically, teachers teach what they know. For K-12 teachers to teach ESL grammar issues, they must know what ESL grammar is and which areas of English grammar are especially problematic for ELLs. This new knowledge can empower K-12 teachers to be better sources of English input for all ELLs, leading to better teaching and better learning.

Explanations:

1. We use in with years and on with days. 2. We use simple past tense for a past completed action and present perfect for an action that began in the past but still continues. 3. Noun objects of phrasal verbs may or may not be separated (called the game off; called off the game), but pronoun objects must be separated (called it off). 4. Noncount nouns have no plural form and use much, not many. 5. The verb avoid is followed by a gerund (-ing form). 6. Modals (can, could, should, will, etc.) are followed by the simple form of the verb. 7. The adjective form of nature is natural. 8. Happen is intransitive and therefore has no passive voice.

References

Borg, S., & Burns, A. (2008). Integrating grammar in adult TESOL classrooms. Applied Linguistics 29, 456-482.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Folse, K. (2004). Vocabulary myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Folse, K. (2009). Keys to teaching grammar to English language learners: A practical handbook. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Keith Folse ( keith.folse@gmail.com) is a TESOL faculty member in the Department of Modern Languages at the University of Central Florida, in the United States.

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Why K-12 Teachers Need to Know About ESL Grammar Issues

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Keith Folse addresses the fact that the focus of traditional teacher training will not suffice in preparing teachers for the increasing numbers of ESL students in U.S. schools. See "An Interview With Keith Folse," Essential Teacher, October 2009.