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As a species of drama tragedy can be defined only in the most general terms, such as Aristotle’s ‘the imitation of an action that is serious . . . withincidents arousing pity and fear’. His Poetics attempts a classification of the elements proper to tragedy but, despite his inductive methodology, few Greek tragedies conform to his model. However, his concept of hamartia, the act of the hero which initiates the fatal process, suggests a basis for a more developed theory of tragedy. This hamartia may be anything from a mistake over identity to deliberate crime or sin, but is always horrifyingly out of proportion to the consequences of pain and destruction. The act of the hero, an individual ‘better than ourselves’, opens a gap in the fragile fabric of morality and civilization through which the primeval forces of anarchy and destruction pour. Tragedy is a dramatization of an individual’s sense of life and society as constantly under threat from the arbitrary chances of fate and humanity’s own innate savagery.

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Totalitarianism
Identity
Language
Propaganda

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Characterization is a literary device that is used step-by-step in literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage in which the writer introduces the character with noticeable emergence. After introducing the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then, as the story progresses, the thought-processes of the character.
Approaches:
Direct and explicit
Indirect and implicit

Source: https://literarydevices.net/characterization/

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The technical formula of the well-made play, developed around 1825 by the French playwright Eugène Scribe, called for complex and highly artificial plotting, a build-up of suspense, a climactic scene in which all problems are resolver and which has a happy ending.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/art/well-made-play

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It is the author’s use of Humphrey to give the reader or audience an emotional break from the tension and heavy mood of q serious tragic plot. For example: holy morons characters, clever dialogues and funny scenes.

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It takes place when the reader knows something’s that the characters don’t.

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It is a narrative technique that exhibits the thoughts, feelings and impressions passing through the mind of a character. It is usually interchanged with “stream of consciousness” although the latter is a more general term. Interior monologues encompass several forms: dramatized inner conflicts, self analysis, imagined dialogue and rationalization.

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The term used in modern narratology for ‘point of view’; that is, for the kind of perspective from which the events of a story are witnessed. Events observed by a traditional omniscient narrator are said to be non‐focalized, whereas events witnessed within the story's world from the constrained perspective of a single character are ‘internally focalized’. The nature of a given narrative's focalization is to be distinguished from its narrative ‘voice’, as seeing is from speaking.

Source:http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095825880

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A division of a poem consisting of two or more lines arranged together as a unit. More specifically, a stanza usually is a group of lines arranged together in a recurring pattern of metrical lengths and a sequence of rhymes.

The structure of a stanza (also called a strophe or stave) is determined by the number of lines, the dominant metre, and the rhyme scheme. Thus, a stanza of four lines of iambic pentameter, rhyming abab, could be described as a quatrain.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/art/stanza

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Lighting: the placement, intensity, and color of lights to help communicate environment, mood, or feeling.

Scenery: the theatrical equipment, such as curtains, flats, backdrops, or platforms, used in a dramatic production to communicate environment.

Sound: the effects an audience hears during a performance to communicate character, context, or environment.

Sound devices: in literature, use of repetition and parallel structure, using words or phrases more than once for emphasis.

Sound elements: music, sound effects, actors’ voices.

Costumes: clothing and accessories worn by actors to portray character and period.

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Scenery, costume, lighting and sound are all major elements of theatres.

Scenery: the large painted pictures used on a theatre stage to represent the place where the action is.

Costume: fancy-dress costume a set of clothes worn in order to look like someone or something else, especially for a party or as part of an entertainment.

Lighting: the arrangement of lights used in a room, house, theatre, etc.

Sound: the activity of recording and broadcasting sound such as from a performance of music or for a film.

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-Love
-Class
-Reputation

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Comedy is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in its tone, mostly having a cheerful ending. The motif of this dramatic work is triumph over unpleasant circumstance by creating comic effects, resulting in a happy or successful conclusion. Thus, the purpose of comedy is to amuse the audience.
5 types of comedy:
- Romantic comedy.
- Comedy of humors.
- Comedy of manners.
- Sentimental comedy.
- Tragicomedy.

Source: https://literarydevices.net/comedy/

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Free indirect style (free indirect speech or free indirect discourse) is a narrative style which requires some explanation and unpicking, since it is subtle and sometimes difficult to spot in a work of fiction.
Free indirect style is when the voice of a third-person narrator takes on the style and ‘voice’ of one of the characters within the story or novel.

Source: https://interestingliterature.com/2018/09/19/a-short-introduction-to-free-indirect-style/

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"Unities, in drama, the three principles derived by French classicists from Aristotle’s Poetics; they require a play to have a single action represented as occurring in a single place and within the course of a day. These principles were called, respectively, unity of action, unity of place, and unity of time".
Source: https://www.britannica.com/art/unities

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Narratives.
"Fabula refers to the chronological sequence of events in a narrative". It is a term "originating in Russian formalism and employed in narratology that describes narrative construction.
fabula is the chronological order of the events contained in the story. The word was first used in this sense by Vladimir Propp and Viktor Shklovsky.The fabula is "the raw material of a story".

Sources: https://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/narratology/terms/fabula.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabula_and_syuzhet

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Foot, rhyme and metre

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The role of women
The postcolonial other
Love
Madness

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Passion
Love
Death
Treason

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Opression
Dystopia
Class system
Love

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Ambition
Treason
Chain of being

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Madness, science, playing God

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Horror fiction
The ethical limits of science
The "other"

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Love
Money
Luxury
Tragedy

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Loyalty - Fame - Bravery

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The analysis of a literary work, unlike that of a chemical compound or mathematical equation, often engages the subjective interpretation of the reader. For centuries, scholars, academics and critics have fought over the terms and methods of literary analysis. These divergent views have resulted in the founding of several famous schools of thought, fifteen of which are summarized here.

American Pragmatism:

Responding to the European model of Scientific Empiricism and Rationalism championed by Kant, Descartes and Locke, the Pragmatic school was the first American contribution to philosophy. Led by the philosopher / psychologist William James and writer Ralph Waldo Emerson, the American pragmatics valued the importance of gaining knowledge through experience rather than intuition.

Russian Formalism:

One of the first schools of literary theory to attempt to systematize literary analysis, specifically by drawing a line between â€œartâ€ and â€œnot artâ€ and coming up with a precise definition of literature, Russian formalism paved the way for the American New Criticism and Structuralist movements with its scientific, detached approach to literary analysis. Boris Eichenbaum was one of its most outspoken advocates and prominent theorists.

Marxism:

Besides founding a political party and societal philosophy, Marxâ€™s groundbreaking criticism of social institutions led to the Marxist school of literary analysis, which interpreted works of literature based on class relations, social conflict, and other ideological issues. French Marxist theorist Louis Althusser is perhaps the most well known proponent of the Marxist school. One of his most important contributions was the concept of â€œinterpellationâ€ as the means by which individuals are turned into capitalist subjects.

Psychoanalysis:

Whereas the Marxists borrowed theories and terms from political philosophy, the school of psychoanalytic literary theory turned instead to psychologist Sigmund Freud and his method of treating patients afflicted with neuroses. Taking cues from his seminal The Interpretation of Dreams, and writings on neuroses and the unconscious mind, psychoanalytic interpretations attempt to decode the psyche of the author by inferring the psychological states of the characters and symbolism in the text.

New Criticism:

Led by poet/author T.S. Eliot and critic Cleanth Brooks (whose book The Well Wrought Urn is said to have begun the movement), the New Critical school pioneered â€œ close reading,â€ or paying close attention to the formal aspects of the text rather than its emotional impact on the reader or the authorâ€™s own aims (termed the â€œpathetic fallacyâ€ and â€œintentional fallacy,â€ respectively, and avoided like the plague). The focus on the objective structural relationships within the work influenced the later schools of structuralism, post-structuralism and deconstruction.

Structuralism:

As the name implies, the core idea of structuralism is that that the underlying structural relationships of a text are deeply intertwined with the workâ€™s deeper meaning. To understand a work, one must therefore take it apart piece by piece in order to see its underlying principles. Linguist Ferdinand de Saussure wrote specifically about how the signifier-signified relationship creates meaning in language. Post-structuralist and post-modernist critics however later rejected the idea that one can systematically study the structure of a literary work.

Deconstruction:

As described by French philosopher Jacques Derrida in his 1967 essay "Of Grammatology," deconstruction is the rigorous analysis of a workâ€™s logical structures with the goal of uncovering key contradictions or oppositions which subvert the logical coherence of the entire work, therefore rendering a single interpretation of a work impossible. The complex nature of deconstruction often fails to translate well into non-academic circles; the term â€œdeconstructionâ€ is often used as a catch-all term basically equivalent to â€œanalysisâ€ despite having a much more specific meaning.

Post-modernism:

Although you'll often hear that the only constant in post-modernist theory is that no one can agree on its definition, most agree that it came into existence mid-way through the 20th century as a reaction to the " post-modern condition." Post-modernity is defined by the lack of a unifying "master narrative," which leads to works with multiple disagreeing narrators, or " meta-narratives "-stories about the telling of a story.

Post-Structuralism:

With post-modernist works and critics questioning the assumption that structural relationships can be fruitfully studied, it was inevitable that the deathblow to structuralism was on the way. Derrida's paper, "Structure, Sign and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences," undermined the idea of a stable signifier-signified relationship in a post-modern world, where God no longer exists as a Transcendental Signified. Roland Barthes' "The Death of the Author" similarly demolished the once-stable relationship between author, narrator and character.

Post-colonialism:

Shortly after the upheaval caused by post-modernism to traditional methods of literary interpretation, Edward Said's critique of Western Imperialism and its cultural ramifications in his book " Orientalism " gave birth to post-colonial criticism. The principal aim of post-colonial literary studies is to examine how the exploitation of indigenous civilizations by the Western imperial powers (mainly the US and UK) affected the literature from both the colonizing and the colonized nations.

Feminist Theory:

Taking a cue from post-colonial studies about the effects of inequality and second-citizen status on artistic output, the feminist school of literary theory examines the consequences of the social construction of gender in literary works, and the role gender plays in the writing, reading and interpreting of literature. Virginia Woolf's " A Room of One's Own," which explains the necessary prerequisites for an independent woman to produce good writing, is one of the earliest examples of feminist criticism.

Queer Theory:

One of the newest schools of literary theory, queer theory branched off of feminist theory in its examination of gender roles, replacing the masculine/feminine dichotomy with a continuum featuring 100% masculine at one extreme and 100% feminine at the other, and including every value in between. Michel Foucault was one of the first authors to explore the many faces of sexuality in his four-part work "The History of Sexuality."

New Historicism:

Founded by Shakespeare scholar Stephen Greenblatt, New Historicist critics attempted to bring back historical and anthopological approaches that had been discarded by Russian Formalist and American New Critics nearly a century earlier. New Historicist critics examine primary source materials (such as political treatises and newspaper articles written at the time of the work's publication) and prevailing social mores and political ideologies to infer the societal elements that may have influenced the author in the creation of the work.

Cultural Studies:

Like New Historicist critics, Cultural critics examine the sociocultural context in which a work was written in order to understand influences and meanings invisible from a non-contextualized reading. Cultural critics separate themselves from New Historicists by going to the opposite extreme of the New Criticists: rather than finding a middle ground, they argue that a work must be interpreted entirely as a function of the culture that produced it. This leads to critical readings of Star Trek alongside reiews of Ulysses and other interesting juxtapositions-the distinction between high art and low art no longer applies.

Reader Response:

Reader Response critics reject one of the central tenets of the New Critical school that dominated American literary theory for decades. They claim that the reader's intellectual and emotional reaction to the work is as ripe for anaylsis as the text itself. The reader's interpretation of the text is influenced by his or her personal background, and thus reading is not a passive experience of objective reality but an active interaction between reader and author through the medium of the written word. Reader response critics such as Louise Rosenblatt investigate the elements that are involved in this crucial interaction.

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The analysis of a literary work, unlike that of a chemical compound or mathematical equation, often engages the subjective interpretation of the reader. For centuries, scholars, academics and critics have fought over the terms and methods of literary analysis. These divergent views have resulted in the founding of several famous schools of thought, fifteen of which are summarized here.

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Do  you associate these concepts with poetry, drama or narratives like novels and short stories? Use the right colour to include them in the padlet and comment on them.

1. Fabula    Macarena

2. Well-made play   Agostina

3. Sjuzet    Natalia

4. Scenery, costumes, lighting, sound Carolina

5. Free indirect style   Agustina

6. Tragedy     Carolina

7. Interior monologue  Lucia

8. Stanza  Brenda

9. Comedy     Agustina

10. Foot, metre and rhyme   Natalia

11. Focalisation   Brenda

12. Dramatic irony and comic relief  Lucia

13. Unities   Macarena

14. Characterisation techniques    Agostina